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    3 Fire and Heat

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    Mahbub Alam
    Fire growth follows a predictable pattern known as the fire triangle, where sufficient heat, fuel, and oxygen must be present for combustion to occur. The rate of heat release from burning fuels can be determined through oxygen consumption calorimetry and depends on factors like the fuel mass and calorific value. In compartment fires, the heat release rate often follows a t-squared fire growth curve where it increases until reaching a maximum, then remains steady. Fire load, compartment size, and fuel properties determine the fire growth rate and heat release profile.

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    3 Fire and Heat

    Uploaded by

    Mahbub Alam
    23 views10 pages
    Fire growth follows a predictable pattern known as the fire triangle, where sufficient heat, fuel, and oxygen must be present for combustion to occur. The rate of heat release from burning fuels can be determined through oxygen consumption calorimetry and depends on factors like the fuel mass and calorific value. In compartment fires, the heat release rate often follows a t-squared fire growth curve where it increases until reaching a maximum, then remains steady. Fire load, compartment size, and fuel properties determine the fire growth rate and heat release profile.

    Original Title

    CE 6105 Lecture 2.1

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    Fire growth follows a predictable pattern known as the fire triangle, where sufficient heat, fuel, and oxygen must be present for combustion to occur. The rate of heat release from burning fuels can be determined through oxygen consumption calorimetry and depends on factors like the fuel mass and calorific value. In compartment fires, the heat release rate often follows a t-squared fire growth curve where it increases until reaching a maximum, then remains steady. Fire load, compartment size, and fuel properties determine the fire growth rate and heat release profile.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as pdf or txt
    23 views10 pages

    3 Fire and Heat

    Uploaded by

    Mahbub Alam
    Fire growth follows a predictable pattern known as the fire triangle, where sufficient heat, fuel, and oxygen must be present for combustion to occur. The rate of heat release from burning fuels can be determined through oxygen consumption calorimetry and depends on factors like the fuel mass and calorific value. In compartment fires, the heat release rate often follows a t-squared fire growth curve where it increases until reaching a maximum, then remains steady. Fire load, compartment size, and fuel properties determine the fire growth rate and heat release profile.

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    of 10

    3 Fire and Heat

    • Introduction to fire behaviour, fire load


    and rate of heat release
    • Fire growth
    • Flashover
    • Post-flashover fires
    • Design “natural” fire behaviour

    The fire triangle


    Heat

    Fuel + Oxidant = Combustion products


    CH4 + O2 = CO2 + 2H20

    Reaction
    occurs when
    Oxygen/fuel
    mixture hot
    enough

    Fuel Oxygen

    1
    Fuels
    • All fuels are hydrocarbons consisting
    mainly carbon and hydrogen atoms with
    addition of oxygen, nitrogen and others in
    some cases
    e.g., combustion of propane
    C3H8 + 5O2 = 3CO2 + 4H2O

    Calorific Value ΔHc


    • The amount of heat release from a complete
    combustion of a unit mass of fuel
    • Unit = MJ/kg

    • Energy released due to combustion is


    E = m ΔHc

    Mass of fuel (kg) Calorific value (MJ/kg)

    2
    Fire Load
    • Fire load is often expressed as Fire Load
    Density per floor area, Af
    qf = E/Af
    • European code expresses it as Fire Load
    Density per total room surface area, At
    qf = E/At
    At is the bounding surfaces include floor,
    ceiling, walls including window openings.

    Fire Load Density Per Unit Floor Area (ECCS)

    TYPE OF FIRE COMPARTMENT FIRE LOAD


    DENSITY qf
    MJ/m2

    DWELLINGS: Bedroom 630


    Living room 510
    OFFICES: Technical 720
    Administrative 640
    SCHOOLS: Junior level 370
    Middle level 400
    Senior level 260
    HOSPITALS: Bedroom 80

    HOTELS: Bedroom 420

    1 kg wood = 17.3 MJ

    3
    
    Rate of Heat Release (RHR) Q
     = E/t
    Q (MW)

    E = total energy contained in the fuel (MJ)


    t = duration of the burning (second)

     = (m ΔHc)/t
    Q

    4
    Oxygen Consumption Calorimeter
    By sampling the oxygen concentration in the fuel gas

    1 kg O2 = 13100 kJ=
    13MJ

    
    Q

    ΔHc can be determined


    We know m and t
    Hence we can determine
    m 
    Q = (m ΔHc)/t

    Oxygen Calorimetry (1)

    Oxygen Consumption Calorimetry

    5
    Oxygen Calorimetry (2)

    Oxygen Consumption Calorimetry


    - Room Calorimetry

    Example: Mattress

    6
    Sources of RHR
    • Babrouskas, V. Greyson, S. (ed.): Heat
    Release in Fires, E & FN Spon, 1992
    • SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection
    Engineering, 2rd ed., National Fire
    Protection Association, Quincy, MA., 2000

    Single Burning Item


    Q = αt2, α = fire intensity coefficient (MW/s2)

    T-square fire

    7
    Two Burning Items

    Item 2

    Item 1

    T-Square Fire
    .
    Q = αt 2
    Fire density coefficient
    Growth Rate α (kW/s2)

    Ultra Fast (e.g. Shopping centres, entertainment centres) 0.19

    Fast (e.g. Schools, offices, Hotels, Nursing homes) 0.047

    Medium (e.g. Dwellings) 0.012

    Slow (e.g Gallery) 0.003

    8
    The time t1 to reach the maximum heat release rate Qmax is

    . Q max Qmax
    Q = αt 2 t1 =
    α

    Energy released is area under the curve, Qm


    which is one-third the rectangular area E2
    E1
    1t
    1 1
    E1 = ∫ αt 2 dt = αt 31 = Q max t 1
    3 3 t m t1 t2
    0 tb
    Total energy that has not been in time t1 will be released in the steady burning
    phase E2 given as E2 = E – E1
    And the duration of the steady burning phase is
    tb = t2 – t1 = E2/Qmax

    If the fuel has insufficient time to reach its maximum release rate, all the fuel
    will be consumed in time tm where tm = 3E/Q and Q = αtm2, we have
    tm = (3E/α)1/3

    Example
    Calculate the heat release rate for 160kg office furniture with an
    average calorific value of 20MJ/kg. It burns as a “fast” t2 fire with
    a peak heat release rate of 9.0MW
    Mass of Fuel M = 160 kg Calorific value ΔHc = 20 MJ/kg
    Energy contained in fuel = E = M ΔHc = 160x20 = 3200 MJ
    Fire intensity coefficient for a fast fire α = 0.047 (kW/s2)
    Maximum heat release rate Q max = 9.0MW
    Time to reach the maximum heat release t = (Q max/ α)0.5 =
    (9000/0.047)0.5=438s
    Energy released in time t1 E1 = t1Qmax/3 = 438 x 9/3 = 1314 MJ
    Since E1 < E so there is a steady burning

    Energy released in steady burning E2 = E – E1 = 3200 -1314 = 1886


    Duration of steady burning tb = E2/Qmax = 1886/9 = 210s

    9
    Qmax = 9MW

    E2 = 1886 MJ

    E1= 1314 MJ

    T1=438s T2 = 648 s

    Tb = 210 s

    Additional Homework
    • Repeat the example assuming low t-square
    fire (e.g., residential building)

    10

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