ADMINISTRATION

INTRODUCTION

Administration means overall determination of policies, setting of major objectives,

the identification of general purposes and laying down of broad programmes and

projects”. It refers to the activities of higher level. It lays down basic principles of the

enterprise. It is the way of conceptual thinking for attaining predetermined goals

through group efforts According to Newman, “Administration means guidance,

leadership & control of the efforts of the groups towards some common goal.

MEANING

The word “administer” is derived from the Latin word “ad and ministraire” means

“ to care for” or “to look after people to manage affairs”.

DEFINITION

 Administration may be defined as ‘all the actions rationally performed by one

person or a number of persons in context to fulfil a common purpose set by them

or set by someone else for their accomplishment.

Finer Herman

 Administration is the organization and direction of human and material resources

to achieve desired end.

Pfiffner & Presthur

21
NATURE OF ADMINISTRATION.

1) It is universal

The principles of administration are applicable in all types of set up, in every

organization for their effective achievement of goals. All basic elements of

administration such as planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating,

reporting, budgeting can apply for its effective achievement of goals.

2) It is holistic

The whole process of administration embraces the organization and its

functions entirely, i.e. involve total activities of the organizations.

3) It is intangible

The administration is visualized in abstract. It cannot be transferable to

anywhere. So, every organization has to develop its own administrative style within

the context of functional elements of administration.

4) It is continuing and ongoing process

The cycle of administration is ongoing process and it is continuous.

5) It is based on objectives

Administration is basically for the achievement of organizational objectives by

utilizing the resources effectively, hence it is goal oriented.

6) It is social and human

It is social and human It is the environment which is important to bring the team

effort and pool potentials of all to meet the objectives of the organization. .

7) It is dynamic

21
 .Administration has the elements of flexibility and adaptability and adjustability

rising to the needs and demands of different situations.

8) It is creative and innovative

Administration provides a great scope to invite the creative idea to bring about the

changes in the organization to have an effective administration.

The nature of administration cooperated with two broad views, i.e. Integral &

Managerial.

Integral views would have to count the work of all persons, ranging from lowest to

the highest. For example, treating patient requires efforts of whole health/Medical

team including Nurses, Doctors, and Para medicals and Group "ID" officials.

Managerial views regard the work of only those persons engaged in performing,

managerial functions in an organization as constituting administration.

PRINCIPLES OF ADMINISTRATION

Principles can mean either of two things, i.e. ethical nature and

generalization of behaviour. According to Finer, following are the principles of

administration.

a. Principle of Oneness

Leadership may take the form of a single executive. One may be final leader

to take ultimate decisions. Oneness implies that all the personnel are members.

21
The principle of oneness offers guidance in a particular problem in

administration

b. Principle of Specialism and the Whole

In administration, each one should become an expert. The contribution that

expertness make to a whole organization is the sure mastery of part of clinical

or administrative practice.

c. Principle of Hierarchy and Regimentation

Administration has accepted the idea of hierarchy to denote authority

coming downwards from above. When the administrative scientists talk of

hierarchy, they mean not regimentation but the pervasion of whole organization

with the idea of its oneness, and the fitting together of all the members

vertically (downwards) in the line authority, and horizontally (across) of teams

and colleagues in specialist skill.

d. Principle of Morale

Morale is the spirit of active devotion to the persons working together for a

common purpose. When it is high, the subjective burdens of the works are lightly

carried, and there is an easy and cheerful demeanour on the part of those who take and

give order. When it is low, the work and purpose loses value and personality frustrates

them. To buy morale, all aspects of employees are taken into confidence at all levels.

e. Principles of Bureaucracy

Bureaucracy is administration without purpose, ethics, oneness, or morale.It is the

organizational form of personality equal to the individual person called the

21
"Hollow-Men" (TS Eliot).

f. Principle of Self-administration

The administrator begins with self-administration, the adaptation of his own

stubborn, passive, incompetent self to the purpose, even if no one else is at work with

him on the job. Every professional worker—singer, actor, boxer, author, scientist,

nurse is obliged to administer himself or herself for the successful and most

economical mastery of purpose. This is self-administration.

SCOPE OF ADMINISTRATION

The scope of administration is very wide. It is not only restricted to public

administration that deals with three functionaries, i.e. legislative, executive and

judiciary. As administration is universal in nature, its scope is wide. It covers all the

areas like school, hospital, business etc., all the managerial activities and functional

areas of management and administration like personnel, financial, material and

production are covered.

IMPORTANCE OF ADMINISTRATION

a) It is life blood of organization; Administration department is backbone of an

organization.

b) Its main function is to achieve the objectives. Without good administration,

organization is a house built on sand or castle in the air

c) There is no substitute of good administration. 

d) Administration brings out the organizational growth.

21
 e) Good administration brings team together to work. A good teamwork is the

collaborative effort of a team to achieve a common goal or to complete a task

in the most effective and efficient way.

f) Administration gives some new ideas through imagination, vision to an

organization.

g) It is considered as a brain of organization.

FUNCTIONS OF ADMINISTRATION

Professor Luther Gullick summed up certain principles or elements in the

word “POSDCORB”.

a) “P” stands for Planning

To plan is one of the basic and prime functions of nursing management. It

involves selecting the objectives. policies, strategies, programmes for the nursing

services. It involves deciding in advance what to do, when to do, where to do, how to

do, who is going to do, and how the results are to be evaluated. It is the responsibility

of nursing manager of all level in the organization; the intensity and nature of

planning differ.

b) “O” stands for Organizing

It means developing a system. It is the process of developing physical

resources, informational resources, and human resources as per plan. Various

activities are carried out as to identify work activities, preparing job descriptions and

job responsibilities; assigning and identifying job roles, and developing rationales to

organize those activities.

21
 c) “S” stands for Staffing

That is the whole personnel function of bringing in and training the staff

and maintaining favourable conditions of work. In other words, staffing is appointing

suitable persons to the various posts under the organisation and the whole of personnel

management. It involves manning the organizational structure through proper and

effective selection, appraisal, and development of nursing personnel.

d) “D” stands for Directing

That is the continuous task of making decision and embodying them, in

specific and general orders and instructions and serving as leader of the enterprise.

Making decisions and issuing orders and instructions embodying them for the

guidance of the staff. Directing and leading is very important managerial function to

implement the system effectively.

e) “CO” stands for Co-ordinating

That is all important duty of interrelating the various parts of the work and

eliminating of overlapping and conflict.

f) “R” stands for Reporting

That is keeping those to whom the executive is responsible informed as to

what is going on, which thus includes keeping himself and his subordinates informed

through records, research and inspection.

g) “B” stands for Budgeting

With all that goes with budgeting in the form of fiscal planning, accounting

and control. In American phraseology, budget stands for the whole of financial

administration.

21
 ADMINISTRATION Vs MANAGEMENT

There is a controversy on the use of these terms. Some authors say that

administration and management are the same thing and there is no difference between

two words while others feel that they are different functions. There are persons who

feel that administration is a part of management . Various viewpoints are the

following.

1. Administration Is different from management:

As per this views administration is a higher level activity while management is a

lower leve1activity. Administration is concerned with the determination of overall

objectives and policies of an enterprise while management is concerned with planning,

co-ordinating and controlling of business activities for attaining the enterprise

objectives. Some authors are of the view that administration involves decision

making and policy formulation while management deals with execution and

supervisory work. American authors take administration as a wider term than

management.

2. Administration is a part of management

Another view is that administration and organisation are part of management.. In the

words of Brech “Management is the generic term for the total process of executive

control involving responsibility for effective planning and guidance of the operations

of an enterprise.

MANAGEMENT

I. INTRODUCTION

21
 Management is the art of getting things done through and with people

informally organised groups. It is the art of creating an environment in which people

can perform as individuals and co-operate towards the attainment of group goals. It is

the art of removing blocks to such performance, and a way of optimizing efficiency in

reaching goals. Management involves a set of activities directed at the efficient and

effective utilization of resources- human, financial and physical through planning,

organizing, leading and controlling functions. It is based on economic resources,

goals, processes and authority. Management focuses on managing people and their

work.

DEFINITION OF MANAGEMENT

Management is simply the process of decision making and control over the actions of

human beings for the purpose of attaining predetermined goals.

Stanley Vane-

Management is the distinct process consisting of planning, organizing, actuating and

controlling performance to determine and accomplish objectives by the use of people and

resources.

George.R.Terry

CONCEPT OF MANAGEMENT

The term management is not so easy to define as different authors defined it

differently and used it in a variety of ways. Traditional authors defile, it as an art of

getting things done and modern authors viewed management as a process to achieve

21
certain objectives through utilization of human and other resources. Today.' the term

management can be viewed with different concepts.

A. Traditional concept

Management is viewed as an art of getting the thing done. Many Parker Follett

defines ‘management is the art of getting things done through people’ and according

to George ‘management consists of getting things done through others. A manager is

one who accomplishes organizational objectives by directing the efforts of others’.

B. Modern concept

Managing is not only limited to directing the efforts of others to accomplish the

goals of organization but also involves creating an environment or climate in the

organization whereby the individuals are motivated to work efficiently to achieve

specific objectives of organization.

C. Functional Concept

According to this concept 'management is what a manager does'. The

functional concept as given by some of the authors are given below.

Louis Allen, -“Management is what a manager does."

James L. Lundy- “Management is principally the task of planning, coordinating,

motivating and controlling the effort of others towards a specific objective.”

21
 George R. Terry, "Management is a distinct process consisting of planning,

organizing, activating and controlling performed to determine and accomplish the

objective by the use of human beings and other resources."

Management is for effective utilization of resources

Management is considered as a process of utilizing the resources effectively in

order to achieve the organizational objectives. Management involves planning,

organizing, staffing, coordinating, directing and controlling the activities of the

organization. Management as a discipline

Management is multidisciplinary discipline. It has been drawn from other related

discipline like sociology, psychology etc. It can also be treated as both art and science.

It is recognized as a science as it has developed principles and techniques that has

universal application.

Management as a group of people

In this particular concept, the management is referred to a group of all those persons,

who are involved in managerial functions in organization..

Management is a process

It is a process of decision making and control over the action of human being for the

existing purpose of attaining predetermined goal.

IMPORTANCE OF MANAGEMENT

21
 In the case of business enterprise, management is all the more important, because

"no business runs on itself, even on momentum, every business needs repeated

stimulus which can only be provided by management. The following points highlight

the importance of management:

a. Accomplishment of the organizational goal: Management determines and

accomplishes the goals of organization and other departments

b. Provides vision and mission: Management keeps itself in touch with changing

needs of the society at large.

c. Increase efficiency: The managers can become more effective by using

established guidelines to help, solve problems.

d. Effective utilization of resources: Management ensures the proper and effective

utilization of human and resources by using principles of management and using

management techniques in order to get the maximum performance.

e. Brings harmony in groups: It is the management which directs and coordinates

the activities of all the individuals working in any organization in the use of

materials, methods and machines.

f. Improve research: Managerial techniques can improve upon research or studies

to be conducted and how to conduct to bring about the evidences to apply in

managerial activities to accomplish the organizational goals and objectives.

PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT IN NURSING

21
 Management principles in nursing are statements of fundamental truth related to

nursing field. These principles serve as guidelines for decisions and actions of nurse

managers working at any level in different settings.

a. Division of Work:

This principle implies that every employee should be assigned only one type of

work so as to bring about specialization in every activity. The specialization will help

in creating specific personal and professional development among the nurses and

therefore increasing their efficiency. This principle of management is also called

principle of specialization.

b. Authority and Responsibility:

This principle suggests that there must be parity between authority and

responsibility.. They are coexistent and go together, and are two sides of the same

coin.

c. Discipline:

Discipline refers to getting obedience to the rules and regulation of the

organization, proper conduct in relation to others respect of authority or for superior,

etc. It is essential for the smooth functioning of all organizations.

d. Unity of Command:

Every subordinate must receive orders and instructions and be accountable to one

and only to one superior. This will improve the performance of employee.

e. Unity of Direction:

21
 All the activities of a work unit or group should be directed towards the same goal

and those working in the same line of activity must understand and pursue the same

objectives. There should be one plan of action for them.

f. Subordination of Individual Interest to General Interest:

The management must put aside personal considerations and put organizational

objectives first. The general interest can be shown by the subordinates through

collective bargaining.

g. Remuneration:

There are two types of remuneration namely non-monetary (a compliment, more

responsibilities, credits) and monetary (compensation, bonus or other financial

compensation). Ultimately, it is about rewarding the efforts that have been made. The

employee must be just and fair to everyone so that each employee gets motivated to

work.

h. Centralization

It means the extent to which authority is centralized or decentralized. The amount

of power rested with the central management depends on organization size.

i. Scalar Chain of command or hierarchy:

Scalar Chain is the chain of superiors ranging from top management to the

lowest rank. The principle suggests that there should be a clear line of authority from

top to bottom linking all managers at all levels. It recognizes the necessity of format

authority in the organization.

j. Order:

21
 Material order ensures safety and efficiency in the workplace. Facilities must

be tidy, materials orderly stored and systematically arranged as per the need of the

department and staff selected according to strict procedures and clear job descriptions.

k. Equity:

Equity means fair and impartial treatment. Employees must be treated kindly

and equally. Managers should supervise and monitor this process and they should treat

employees fairly and impartially.

l. Stability of Tenure:

Frequent change of position and sufficient development must be managed well.

The job of employees should not be too short and they should not be rotated from

positions frequently. An employee cannot render worthwhile service if she is removed

before she got used to the work assigned to her.

m. Initiative:

Subordinates should be given an opportunity to take some initiative in developing

and initiating the plans as it can become a source of strength for the organization

because it provides new and better ideas by the employees.

n. Union is strength:

Team spirit helps to develop an atmosphere of mutual trust and understanding. There

are two enemies of team spirit such as divide and rule and abuse of written

communication by the superior that make the organization weak by creating the

group.

ROLE OF A MANAGER

21
 In the practice of management, the manager must take number of actions

like planning, organizing, directing, coordinating, controlling, simultaneously and as a

part of continuous process.

1. Figure head Role of Manager

Managers perform the duties of a ceremonial and symbolic in nature such as

welcoming official visitors, signing legal documents etc as head of the organization

or strategic business unit or department.

.2. Leadership Role of Manager

.The manager, as in charge of the organization/department, coordinates the work of

others and leads his subordinates. This role includes hiring, training, motivating and

disciplining employees.

3. Liaison Role of Manager

As the leader of the organization or unit, the manager has to perform the

functions of motivation, communication, encouraging team spirit and the like. Further,

he has to coordinate the activities of all his subordinates, which involves the activity

of liaison.

4. Monitor Role of Manager

The manager seeks and receives information concerning internal and external events

so as to gain understanding of the organization and its environment. Typically this is

done through reading magazines and talking with others to learn the changes in the

public’s tastes, what competitors may be planning, and the like.

Manager disseminates the information, he collects from different sources and

through various means. He passes some of the privileged information directly to his

subordinates, peers and superiors who otherwise have no access to it.

6. Spokesman Role of Manager

Managers also perform a spokesperson role when they represent the

organization to outsiders. Manager is required to speak on behalf of the organization

and transmit information on organization’s plan, policies and actions.

7. Entrepreneurial Role of Manager

As an entrepreneur,he initiates and oversees new products that will improve

their organization’s performance. He seeks to improve his department, adapt to the

changing environmental factors.

8. Disturbance Handler Role of Manager

As a disturbance handler, managers take corrective action to response to

previously unforeseen problems.

9. Resource Allocator Role of Manager

The most important resource that a manager allocates to his subordinates is his

time. As a resource allocator, managers are responsible for allocating human, physical

and monetary resources. In addition, the manager should empower his subordinates by

delegating his authority and power.

21
10. Negotiator Role of Manager

The manager represents the organization in bargaining and negotiations with

outsiders and insiders, in order to gain advantages for his own unit. These negotiations

are integral part of the manager’s job .

THEORIES AND MODELS

THEORIES
INTRODUCTION
Theory refers to a set of logically interrelated concepts, statements, propositions

and definitions which have been derived from philosophical beliefs of scientific data

and from which questions or hypotheses can be deducted, tested and verified. It

characterizes some phenomenon. Theory has been described as a systematic

explanation of an event.

DEFINITION

Theory has been described as a systematic explanation of an event in which

the constructs and concepts are identified and relationships are proposed and

predictions made.

21
 -Speziale and Carpenter 2003

EVOLUTION OF MANAGEMENT THEORIES/ TYPES OF THEORIES

During the last 100 years, management has become a more scientific discipline

with certain standardized principles and practices. The evolution of management made

during this period can be studied in three parts under:

1) The classical theory of management comprising three streams

i) Scientific management ii) Bureaucracy iii) Process management theory/

Administrative management theory.

2) The Neo-classical theory: - Covered two streams dealing with human factor

i) Human relations ii) Behavioural sciences approach iii) Mc Gregor — Theory X

and Theory Y.

3) Modern management theories again comprised three stream of thought.

i)Technical and quantitative sciences. ii) Systems approach to organization and

management iii) Contingency approach to organization and management.

IMPORTANT THEORIES FOCUSED FOR NURSE MANAGERS.

Scientific management theory ,Classic organizational theory ,Human relations

1. SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT THEORY:

21
The scientific management focuses on Observation and The measurement of

outcome. The pioneers of scientific management are: Frederick W.

Taylor ,Gantt Henry I. Gantt and Emerson .

Frederick W. Taylor (1856-1915):

Taylor is recognized as father of scientific management. He conducted

Time-And- Motion studies to time the workers, Analyse their movements and

set their standards. He used stop watches. He applied the principles of

observation, measurement and scientific comparison to determine the most

effective way to accomplish a task.

Achievements of Taylor

He trained his workers to follow the time to complete the task given and the
most productive workers were hired. Labour costs per unit were reduced and
developed systematic approach to determine the most efficient means of
production. He considered management function is to plan. Working conditions
and methods to be standardized to maximize the production. It was the
management’s responsibility to select and train the workers rather than allow
them to choose their own jobs and train by themselves. He introduced an
incentive plan to pay the workers according to the rate of production to
minimize workers dissent and reduce resistance to improved methods.

The effect of time- motion study of Taylor

Reduced wasted effort, set standards of performance, Encouraged specialization

21
Gantt Henry I. Gantt (1861-1910)

Gantt was concerned with problems related to efficiency. He contributed to

scientific management by refining the previous work of Taylor than introducing

new concepts. He studied the amount of work planned or completed on one

axis to the time needed or taken to complete a task on the other axis. Gantt also

developed a task and bonus remuneration plan whereby workers received a

guaranteed day’s wages plus a bonus for production above the standard to

stimulate higher performance. He argued for a more Humanitarian approach by

management, placing emphasis on service rather than profit objectives. He

recognized useful non –monetary incentives such as job security and

encouraging staff development.

Emerson (1853-1936)
21
His emphasis was on conservation and organizational goals and objectives.
He defined principles of efficiency related to interpersonal relations and to
system in management. Goals and ideas should be clear and well-defined as the
primary objective is to produce the best product as quickly as possible at
minimal expense. Changes should be evaluated-management should not ignore
“common sense” by assuming that big is necessarily better.
His theory explains about
I . Management can strengthen discipline or adherence to the rules by Justice, or
equal enforcement on all records, including adequate, reliable and immediate
information about the expenses of equipment and personnel should be available
as a basis for decisions.
2, Dispatching or production scheduling is recommended.
3.Standardized schedules, conditions and written instructions should be there to
facilitate performance.
4. “Efficiency rewards” should be given for successful completion of tasks.
5. Emerson moved further beyond scientific Management to classic
organizational theory

Charles Babbage (1792-1871)

Charles Babbage, a scientist mainly interested in mathematics, contributed to

the management theory by developing the principles of cost accounting and the

nature of relationship between various disciplines. He concentrated on

production problems and stressed the importance through division and

assignment of work on the basis of skill.

2. CLASSIC ORGANIZATIONAL THEORY

21
The classic organization thinking began to receive attention in 1930.

Organization is viewed as whole rather than focusing solely in

production. The concepts of scalar levels, span of control, authority,

responsibility, accountability, line staff relationships, decentralization,

and departmentalization become prevalent. The experts of this are the

following

Henry Fayol (1841-1925)

Fayol was a French industrialist known as father of the management

process school concerned with management of production shops. He studied the

functions of managers and concluded that management is universal. All the

managers regardless of the type of organization or their level in organization

have essentially the same tasks such as planning, organizing, issuing orders,

coordinating and controlling. These six aspects of administration follow each

other in logical sequences. The plan needs organization which in turn needs

coordination of the effort of the person involved.

Fayol divided all the work carried out in a business enterprise into the

following categories. Technical activities (production, manufacture, etc.),

Commercial activities (buying, selling, personnel, and industrial relations),

21
Financial activities( to have optimum use of capitals),Security

activities(production of property and persons) and Managerial

activities(planning organizing, commanding, directing, coordination control,

communication, motivation .leadership)

He derived the following general principles of management: Division of work,

Stability of tenure. Initiative and Sense of union.

Fayal stressed that managers should possess physical, mental, moral,

educational and technical qualities to conduct the multifaceted operations of

business enterprise. Fayol desired that management training should be provided

to imbibe the principle and qualities essential for management. Technical ability

is most important and managerial ability becomes more significant and quality

to be cultivated for top-level executives. Fayol advocated some valuable

concepts in management which can be incorporated usefully in present day

analysis of management science. His emphasis on unity of command and

direction, non-financial incentive, decentralization, coordination has greater

relevance even today. Fayol recognized that effective management result from

basing each action on the appropriate principle.

Max Webber theory (1864-1920)

21
 He is a German psychologist and earned the title of father of

organizational theory. His emphasis was on rules instead of individuals and on

competencies over favouritism. The three basis for authority according to him

are Traditional authority, Charisma, having a strong influential personality and

Rational legal authority.

James Mooney Theory (1884-1957)

Moony believed that organization is managements responsibility.

Four universal principles of Mooney are- coordination and synchronization of

activities for the accomplishment of goal, functional affects the performance of

one’s job description, scalar process organizes level of commands and arrange

authority in to a higher Archie. Consequently people get their right to command

from their position in the organization.

3. HUMAN RELATION THEORY

The human relations movement began in 1940s. It focused on the effect of

individuals on the success or failure of an organization. Instead of concentrating

on the organizations structure, managers encourage workers to develop their

potentials and help them meet their needs for recognition, accomplishment and

sense of belonging.

Follett (1868-1933)

21
Follett stressed the importance of coordinating the psychological and

sociological aspects of management in 1920s.She perceived the organization as

a social system and management as a social process.

Lewin (1890-1947)

Lewin focused on the Group dynamics. He maintained that groups have

personalities of their own: composites of the member’s personalities. He

showed that group forces can overcome individual interests.

4. BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE THEORY

This theory emphasises on the use of scientific procedures to study the

psychological, Sociological and Anthropological aspects of human behaviour in

organization. The theory gives importance to maintaining a positive attitude

toward people, training managers, fitting supervisory actions to the situation,

promoting employees sense of achievement, and obtaining commitment through

participation in planning and decision making.

Douglas McGregor(1932)

McGregor developed the managerial implications of Maslow’s theory. He

noted that one’s style of management is dependent on one’s philosophy of

humans and categorized those assumptions as theory X and theory Y. Theory X

says that the manager’s emphasis is on the goal of organization. The theory
21
assumes that people dislike work and avoid it. As a result workers must be

directed, controlled, coerced and threatened to meet the goal.

Theory Y focuses on goal. People do not dislike the work and that work can be

a source of satisfaction. Workers have the self-direction and self-control

necessary for meeting their objectives. They will respond to the rewards for the

accomplishment of goals. Managers who believe in this Y theory will allow

participation, give general supervision than close supervision and use positive

incentives such as praise and recognition. They believe that under favourable

conditions people seek responsibility and display imagination, unity and

creativity. According to theory Y human potentials are only partially used.

Rensis Likert’s theory

Dr. Rensis Likert has studied human behaviour within many

organisations and concluded that there are four systems of management.

According to Likert, the efficiency of an organisation is influenced by their

system of management. Likert believes that the managers may act in ways

harmful to the organization because they evaluate end results to the exclusion of

intervening variables. He developed a Likert scale questionnaire that includes

measures of casual and intervention variables. The scale measures several

factors related to leadership behaviour process such as Motivation, Managerial,

Communication, Decision making process, Goal setting and Staff development.

21
Four types of management system according to Likert effects on the

management systems are

a). Exploitive-authoritative - the least effective in performance. And managers

show less confidence in staff associates and ignore their ideas.

b). Benevolent- authoritative:-Staff associates ideas are sometimes sought, but

they do not feel free to discuss their jobs with the manager and decisions are

made at the top with some delegation.

c). consultative system:-The manager has substantial confidence in staff

associates and their ideas are usually sought. They fell free to discuss their job

with the manager and there is decisions making throughout organization.

d) Participative group:-It is the most effective performance. Managers have

complete confidence in their staff associates. Their ideas are always sought, and

they feel completely free to discuss their jobs with the manager. There is a great

deal communication- upward, downward, and later that is accurate and received

with open mind.

5. MODERN MANAGEMENT THEORIES

The modem era is characterized by trends in the management through viz:-

l. Microanalysis of human behaviour, motivation, group dynamics leadership

leading to many theories of organization.

21
2. The macro search for fusion of the many systems in business organization-

economic social technical political and quantitative methods in decision-

making.

Modern management theories era can. Be further classified as the three streams

viz:

1. Quantitativeapproach

2. System approach

3. Contingency approach

1. Quantitative approach: Management science refers to the application of

Quantitative methods to management. Management science has an

interdisciplinary basis in other words management science is a combination

and interaction of different scientists.

2. System approach: According to system approach the organization is the

unified, purposeful systems composed of interrelated parts and also

interrelated with its environment. Each unit must mesh/ interact with the

organization as a whole, each manager must interact/ communicate and deal

with executives of other unites and the organization itself must also interact

with other organizations and society as whole.

3. Contingency approach: The contingency approach can be described as the

behavioural approach. Contingency theory does not prescribe the application

of certain management principles to any situation. Contingency theory is

21
 recognition of the extreme importance of individual manager performance in

any given situation. It rests on the extent of manager power and Uncertainty

in any given situation. The role of management in the contingency approach

is to develop an appropriate management solution for any given

organizational environment. It is principally directed at the management

practitioner seeking to control a distinct Organizational environment.

Ludwing Von Bertanffy

Bertanffy is credited with coining the general system theory. His contention

was that it was possible to develop a theoretical framework for describing

relationship in the real world and different disciplines with similarities could be

developed into a general systems model. The similarities were study of

organization, state of equilibrium ,openness of all systems and their influence o

the environment and environment influence on the system.

Luther Gulick

He was influenced by Taylor and Fayol. He used Fayal’s five elements of

administration viz. Planning, Organizing, Command, Coordination and Control

as a frame work for his neutral principles. He condensed the duties of

administration into a famous acronym” POSDCORB”.

 Planning (P): working out the things that need to be done and the

methods for doing them to accomplish the purpose set for the enterprise.

21
  organizing (0): establishment of the formal structure of authority through

which work subdivisions are arranged, designed and coordinated for the

defined objective.

 Staffing (S): the whole personnel function of bringing in and training the

staff, and maintaining favourable conditions of work.

 Directing (D ): continuous task of making decisions and embodying them

in specific and general orders and instructions, and serving as the leader

of the enterprise.

 Coordinating (CO): all important duties of interrelating the various parts

of the work.

 Reporting (R): keeping the executive informed as to what is going on,

which includes keeping himself and his subordinates informed through

records, research and inspection.

 Budgeting (B): all that goes with budgeting in the form of fiscal planning,

accounting and control.

Luther Gulick was very much influenced by Fayal’s 14 basic

elements of administration in expressing his principles of administration as

follows: Division of work or specialization, Bases of departmental organization,

Coordination though hierarchy, Deliberate coordination, Decentralization, Unity

of command, Staff and line, Delegation and Span of control.

LYNDALURWICK

21
Lyndalurwick was one of the among classical theorist, attached more important

to the structure of organization than the role of the people in the organization.

He concentrated his efforts on the discovery of principles and identified eight

principles of administration applicable to all organization as given below:

1.The “principle of objective”- -that all organizations should be an expression of

a purpose.

2. The “principle of correspondence”—that authority and responsibility must

be_ coequal.

3 The “principle of responsibility”—that the responsibility of higher authorities

to the work of subordinates is absolute.

4. The “scalar principle”—that a paramedical type of structure is build up in an.

5. The “principle of span control”-

6.The “principle of specialization”

7.The “principle of coordination”-

8,The “principle of definition”- -clear prescribed of every duty,

ABRAHAM MASLOW

Abraham Maslow, an American psychologist, has given best known

classification of human needs as “Need Hierarchy” Abraham Maslow arranges

21
individual needs in a Hierarchical manner -Physiological needs, Security needs

Social needs Self Esteem needs and Self –actualization needs.

Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs motivational model

Abraham Maslow developed the Hierarchy of Needs model in 1940-50s

USA, and the Hierarchy of Needs theory remains valid today for understanding

human motivation, management training, and personal development. Indeed,

Maslow's ideas surrounding the Hierarchy of Needs concerning the

responsibility of employers to provide a workplace environment that encourages

and enables employees to fulfil their own unique potential (self-actualization)

are today more relevant than ever. Specifically Maslow refers to the needs

Cognitive, Aesthetic and Transcendence (subsequently shown as distinct needs

levels in some interpretations of his theory) as additional aspects of motivation,

but not as distinct levels in the Hierarchy of Needs.

HERZBERG’S TWO FACTOR THEORY

This theory was developed in 1959.It is based on realisation that work

motivation and job-satisfaction are two dimensions that influence the

productivity of an employee. Herzberg’s finding that good working conditions,

adequate salary, good physical facilities, good human relation, quality of

supervision might contribute to job satisfaction, of employees, which are”

21
hygiene” factors. Whereas factors like recognition of work done, status,

opportunities for growth, challenging task, play an important role in creating

work motivation for employees, which are the motivation factors.

Implications of Management Theories in Nursing

1. Taylor’s theory can be implemented in nursing to study complexity of

care and determine staffing needs and observe efficiency and nursing

care.

2. Nurses can utilize Emerson’s theory of early notion of the importance of

objectives setting in an organization.

3. Nurses should be aware of the managerial tasks as defined by Fayol:

Planning, Organizing, Directing, Coordinating and Controlling.

4. The theory of human relations of Follett and Lewin emphasise the

importance for nurse managers to develop staff to their full potential and

meeting their needs for recognition, accomplishment and sense of

belonging.

5. Mc Gregon and Likert support the benefits of positive attitudes towards

people, development of workers, satisfaction of their needs and

commitment through participation.

21
 MODELS

DEFINITION

Models are graphic or symbolic representations of phenomena that objectify and

present certain perspectives or points of view about nature or function or both.

1 1.LEADER PARTICIPATION MODEL

This model is based on decision tree to guide leaders about when and when not to

include subordinate participation in decision making. It considers 12 contingency

variables

I. Importance of the decision.

A systematic approach to decision making allows to bring consistency and order to a

process. It can also help to determine the most effective means of reaching a decision.

II. Importance of obtaining follower commitment to the decision.

When associates are involved in the decision making, they feel that people in

ownership and management positions value them as a significant contributor to the

team's success. Hence they will usually raise their level of effort and commitment .

III. Whether the leader has sufficient information to make a good decision.

A leader’s ability to make a high percentage of good decisions is fundamental to the

effectiveness of the individual and the success of his or her organization. 

IV. How well structured the problem is.

Solving well-structured problems  requires procedural knowledge that follows a

completely defined and step-by-step procedure.

V. Whether an autocratic decision would receive follower commitment.

21
 Autocratic leadership is a management style wherein one person controls all

the decisions and takes very little inputs from other group members.

VI. Whether followers “buy into” the organization goal.

 It needs leaders to set clear and ethical goals for themselves and others.

VII. Whether there is likely to be conflict among followers over solution

alternative.

Conflict can promote team building skills, critical thinking, new ideas,

and alternative resolutions.

VIII. Whether followers have the necessary information to make a good decision.

Followers will be less committed to the team if the leader doubts their decisions.

IX. Time constraints

Time constraints on the leader that may limit follower involvement.

X. Whether costs to bring geographically dispersed members together is

justified.

 The method used to bring the team members together in working and travel costs to

bring together individuals who are geographically dispersed.

XI. Importance to minimizing the time to make the decision.

Leaders who don’t make bad decisions from time-to-time is critically important when

attempting to make prudent decisions.

XII. Importance of using participation as a tool for developing follower decision

skills.

21
 Involvement of the members is necessary for specialized set of skills, motivations,

and the power to enhance to make decisions.

2. DECISION MAKING MODEL

I- Herbert A. Simon’ Decision making model

Herbert Simon is an eminent American political and social

scientist. According to Simon, decision making is a core of administrative actions that

fills the gap between principles and practice and organization as a structure of

decision makers. He determined decision making premises and create a structure

which will permit and stimulate the transmission of necessary information.

There are three phases of decision making;

a) Intelligence activity -The first stage involves finding out the condition

requiring action.

b) Design activity-During second stage, all possible alternative courses of actions

are identified, developed and analysed.

c) Choice activity-In this phase, the executive select one of the best alternative

course of action.

II- Vroom and Jago decision making model

This model originally was created by Vroom and Yetton in 1973 and later modified by

Vroom and Jago. Basically there are five situations for making decisions, from a

single individual making the decision, to an individual making the decision with

21
varying amounts of input from the rest of the group, to the whole group making the

decision.

a) Autocratic I- Leader makes own decision using information that is readily

available to him or her at the time. This type is completely autocratic.

b) Autocratic II- Leader obtains additional information from group members, and

then makes decision alone. Here, followers' involvement is just providing

information.

c) Consultative I- Leader shares problem to relevant followers individually and

seeks their ideas and suggestions and makes decision alone. Here followers'

involvement is at the level of providing alternatives individually.

d) Consultative II- Leader shares problem to relevant followers as a group and

seeks their ideas and suggestions and makes decision alone. Here followers

involvement is at the level of helping as a group in decision-making.

e) Group II- Leader meets with group to discuss situation and the focuses and

directs discussions. Leader accepts any decision and does not try to force his or

her idea. Decision accepted by the group is the final one.

**********

THANK YOU

21