Grammar reference

A A Present simple, present continuous

1 .1 and present perfect simple
1 Choose th e correct options to com plete th e text about
GR1.1a))) Facebook.
1 Everyone needs friends. Real friends are important. There 1(are)/ are being over one billion Facebook users
2 I see my old school friends every few months. We generally worldwide. And this num ber2 increases / is increasing all the
have dinner together. time. It is clear that Facebook3 changes / has changed the
3 Fie doesn't like all his Facebook friends. way we 4 look / have looked at friendship. The word 'friend'

4 Do you talk to all your friends regularly?

5becomes / has become a verb, and 'friends' n o w 6 include /
have included people we o n ly 7 know / are knowing online and
who we 8 are never meeting / have never met. One positive side
• We use the present simple to talk about:
to Facebook is that friends who 9 lose / have lost contact, often
a things th a t are always or generally true,
many years a g o , 10are now able / have now been able to get in
b things th a t happen regularly or repeatedly.
touch again. 'More and more pe ople 11 connect / are connecting
with old friends via Facebook,' says a spokesperson for the
Remember the 's' for the third person singular (like -* likes).
website. 'And Facebook a ls o 12 means / has meant that friends
Sometimes the spelling changes (watch -* watches, tr y — tries).
ne ver 13 need / have needed to lose touch; people can stay
We use do/does to form the present simple negative and friends for life.'
questions.

2 Complete the conversations w ith the present simple, present

GR1.1b)| continuous or present perfect form of the verbs in brackets.
1 Please be quiet. I'm watching TV. 1 A W here do you work ?
2 We're learning about the history of music at school. B Well, norm ally I ________in Berlin, but_I ________ in
3 The Earth's tem perature is increasing. S tu ttgart at th e m om ent, (work)
2 A _______y o u _______ Jake?
• w e use the present continuous to talk about: B Yes, we each o th er for a few years, (know)
a things th at are happening at the tim e when we speak, 3 A _______y o u _______ in London?
b things th a t are happening around the tim e when we speak,
B Yes, I do. Actually, I ________there all my life, (live)
c things th at are changing.
4 A Jam eela’s busy at the m om ent. She a piano
We form the present continuous w ith be + -ing form. lesson.
Be careful w ith the spelling of -ing forms (begin -* beginning, B Oh yes, of course. S h e_______ one every W ednesday.
make - » making). (have)
5 A _______y o u _______ Andy yet?
BI h im right now, actually, (email)
GR1.1C)))
6 A How m an y Facebook frie n d s _______ y o u _______ ?
1 I've lived here all my life.
B Not many. I th in k I ________about fifty or sixty.
2 Fiave you ever been to Brazil? (have got)
3 A Is Marco here? B No, he's already left. 7 A I ________for my phone.
B you in the kitchen? I th in k I saw it
• We use the present perfect simple to talk about:
in th ere a few m in u tes ago. (look)
a things up to now, our experience (our lives until now),
8 A Y ou_______ K aren quite often, don't you?
b things th a t have already or ju st happened.
B Usually, yes. But I _______ her for a few w eeks
We form the present perfect w ith have + past participle. now. (see/n ot see)
The past participle for regular verbs is the same as the past 9 A I _______ a great book at the m om ent - Tribal Life by
simple form (live -* lived, work -* worked), but some verbs are Bruce Ja m e s._______ y o u ________it?
irregular (e.g. know - * knew - * know n, eat -* ate -+ eaten).
B No, but I an o th e r one of his books, (read)
See the irregular verbs list on page 174.
 GRAM M AR REFERENCE

1 .2 State verbs
1 Choose th e correct options.
GR1.2))) 1 A Shall we take a b reak from ba rgain hu n tin g and have
1 I think it's a great idea. a coffee?
2 Do you w an t some coffee? B That(sou/ 2ds)/ is sounding like a good idea.
3 Who does this bag belong to? 2 A Do you have / Are you having a few m inutes to help me?
4 The soup tastes delicious. B Yeah, sure.
3 A I d o n ’t understand / ’m not understanding. W hat do
Most verbs express actions, and we can use them in simple you m ean / are you m eaning by 'tren din g '?
tenses (e.g. / use the internet all the time) and continuous tenses B Oh, don't worry. I'll explain later.
(e.g. I'm using the internet at the moment). 4 A I try / 'm trying to dow nload som e photos. C an you
Some verbs usually express states, such as thoughts, feelings, help me?
possession and things we experience. We most often use these B Sure. Do you know why it isn't working / doesn't work?
verbs in simple tenses, even if we mean 'just now'.
A I think / 'm thinking the file's too big. It looks / is looking
Common state verbs include verbs for:
like that's w hat causes / 's causing the problem.
• how we think
think, know, believe, agree, prefer, understand, mean, imagine, 2 Complete 1-11 using the correct form of the verbs in brackets.
realize, remember, forget, recognize
1 This is Carlos. He cowics (come) from Spain.
Do you believe me? I don't agree.
2 Peter is on his way. H e _______ (come) by bus.
• what we feel
like, dislike, hate, love, want, feel (have an opinion), seem, 3 I _______ (see) your point, but I __________ (not/agree)
appear, look, sound, need w ith you.
How do you feel about the news? 4 You’re quiet? W h a t_______ (you/think) about?
• what we possess 5 W h a t________(yo u/th in k) of the new Jam es Bond film?
have (got), belong, own, include 6 I _______ (im agine) you're very tired after your journey.
Do you have any money on you?
7 Jam al isn ’t here. P ie_______(have) his lunch.
• what we experience 8 _______________ (anybody/have) any questions?
be, see, hear, look, smell, taste, seem
9 T he u m b rella’s not m ine. I th in k i t ________(belong) to
The flowers sm ell really nice.
A nnette.
Note that we can sometimes use some state verbs, particularly 10 Yuck! T his s o u p ________(taste) horrible. And it
verbs that express how we feel, in continuous tenses when we (look) disgusting, too.
want to emphasize that the feeling or attitude is temporary. 11 I (look) for my keys. (you/know ) w here
I'm feeling tired. they are?
They can also be used in informal speech as a modern idiom.
I'm loving this pizza. 3 C om plete th e article about online shopping w ith the
Some verbs are also used in the present simple and present co rrect form of the verbs in the box.
continuous with different meaning.
agree be (x 2) include increase know make prefer
I have a headache, (illness)
seem
I'm having lunch, (action)
I think it's a great idea, (opinion)
I'm thinking o f getting a new phone, (consider) Online shopping 1 seems to become more popular every
I w asn 't thinking about what I was doing. year. According to a recent report, over half of US consumers
with internet access n o w 2 shopping online, and just
1% say they have never shopped online. Experts 3 that
consumers spend on average around $100 per online
order. The most common types of goods bought online 4
electronics, books, clothing and household goods.
There are a number of reasons why online shopping 5
Cheaper prices and a large variety of products 6 the
main reasons, according to the survey. The ability to compare
products and read reviews 7 another reason. Most
online shoppers say that they often 8 a decision to buy a
product when five or more reviewers 9 that the product
is good value for money.

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 2 .1 Narrative forms
1 Put th e u n derlin ed events in the order they happene d
GR2.1))) or started .
1 I arrived at midnight. 1 (a) Jenny an d I started our w ebsite in order to m arket
2 He didn't realize how dangerous it was.
(b) the clothes we h ad d esigned w hile (c) we were
stu d y in g together at university.
3 Did they arrive in tim e to save him?
4 We w ere walking along the beach, when we saw someone 0
waving at us. 2 (a) I decided th at I w anted to becom e a pilot w hile (b)
5 We had been on the train for about an hour, when it I w as sitting in th e garden one day and (c) saw several
suddenly stopped. aero planes crossing th e sky.

A narrative is a description of a past event. We generally use three

main verb forms in a narrative.
3 (a) I first no ticed th e m a n w hile (bl I was travelling by
tra in from Paris to M ilan, (c) He was reading a book
• We use the past simple for the main events in a story.
by my favourite au th or, (d) I'd been w atching him for
about an ho u r w hen (e) he spoke to me.
Most past simple verbs are formed by adding -ed to the
infinitive (want -» wanted). However, many common verbs are
irregular (make -* made).
We w anted to leave early the next morning so we went to bed 2 Choose th e correct options to com plete n arrativ e
at 10 p.m. ex tracts 1-7.
Something made a loud noise. 1 We were w alking /(d w alked ) about tw o kilom etres
Negatives and questions are formed with did and the infinitive before we realized / were realizing th a t we left /
without to. 'd left th e m ap beh ind.
We d id n 't recognize the stranger who was standing outside 2 We w ent / 'd gone for a w alk w hen we were finishin g /
the house.
'd fin ish e d th e meal.
What did he w a n t with us?
3 The sun was shining / ha d shone. People sat / were
• We use the past continuous for background events. We also use sitting on the grass in th e park.
it for longer actions interrupted by a shorter event. 4 I w as / ’d been ex hau sted after a long day at work,
She was sittin g in the corner o f the room. so I w ent I was going to bed early.
They w ere having dinner when the phone rang. 5 Sam d id n ’t recognize / w asn't recognizing me, even
tho u gh we were m eeting / ’d m et a few w eeks before.
We form the past continuous with was/were and the -ing form.
I was feeling nervous.
6 I locked / was locking th e office door after I'd checked /
was checking th a t everyone w ent / ha d gone hom e.
• We use the past perfect for events th at happened before one of 7 My p aren ts first m et / ha d m et w hen they were / ha d
the main events or th a t happened before the tim e of the story. been at university together. They were both studying /
I'd stayed in the same hotel twice before. h a d both studied history.

We form the past perfect with had and the past participle. 3 Com plete th e text w ith th e co rrect form of the verbs in
I'd taken the train to London an hour before. brackets.

I'll always remember the tim e we were struck by lightning

when we 1 Were, flyivui (fly) back from Singapore. We 2_____
(be) in the air for about an hour, and the plane 3 (move)
up and down quite a lot. Outside you 4 (can) see flashes
of lightning across the sky and dark clouds. Suddenly there
5 (be) a loud bang. At first a few people 6 (start)
screaming. But then the whole p la n e 7 (become)
strangely quiet. The p ilo t8 (speak) to tell us we were
about to land, which was a great relief to everyone. But just
as w e 9 (land), the whole plane 10______ (start) shaking
violently again. In the end we 11 (land) safely. When we
12 (get off) the plane, we 13 (see) th at th e re 14___
(be) an enormous hole in the tail fin.

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 GRAM MAR REFERENCE

2 .2 Time linkers
1 Choose the correct options.
GR2.2))) 1 I found som e old new spapers(w/z//e)/ m eanw hile /
1 They realized the story was false as soon as they found during I w as tidying up th e attic recently. They all had
the boy. stories ab ou t fam ous hoaxes in them .
2 I saw Paul w h ile I was walking to work. 2 I alm ost fell asleep during / while / m eanw hile the
3 They were w orking for the same newspaper w h en they m eetin g th is afterno on. It was so boring.
met each other. 3 T he US belonged to th e UK by the tim e / until / while
4 We were waiting for Julia outside the cinema. Meanw hile, 1776, w hen it g ain ed ind ependence.
she was waiting fo r us at the bus station. 4 I was looking for my phone. By the tim e / M eanw hile /
5 By th e tim e I realized, it was too late. As soon as, my wife had found it and w as looking for me.
6 There were many scientific discoveries during the 5 We called th e police by the tim e / m eanw hile / as soon
18th century. as w e discovered th e ho use had been robbed.
7 We lived in Warsaw until I was twelve. 6 We spent ages looking for th e shop and as soon as /
while / by the tim e we found it, it w as closed.
We use tim e linkers to show how the tim ing of events in a story 7 T here were m an y im p o rtan t discoveries during / while /
relate to one another. Some of the more common tim e linkers by the tim e th e 1800s.
include: 8 Luke an d I m et during / m eanw hile / while we were
w orking toge ther in a cafe.
as soon as/while
• as soon as (one thing happens im mediately a fter another) 2 Com plete th e text w ith th e tim e linkers in th e box.
I called her as soon as I saw the story on TV.
as soon as by th e tim e d uring (x2) m e anw hile w h ile
• while (something happens while som ething else is in progress,
or tw o things are in progress at the same time)
I met Ursula while we were skiing. Although it's very popular nowadays, W H.ri.ru the 1950s pasta
Could you wait here w hile I find the manager? was an unusual meal in the UK. Not many British people had
been to Italy, and very few people knew how pasta was made.
We can often use when in a similar way to while. So, for April Fool's Day in 1957, the BBC news programme
They lost their passports when they were waiting in the airport. Panorama decided to make a story about spaghetti growing
We use when (not while) to introduce an action that 'interrupts' on tre e s .2 the programme, viewers were told that
an action already in progress. the harvest tha t year was particularly good because of the
I was cycling to the shops when I fell o ff my bike. weather. And 3 the presenter explained how spaghetti
was grown, there was a film of workers in the background
cutting the spaghetti from the trees. 4 the programme
meanwhile/by the time (that) had been broadcast, the BBC started receiving phone calls
from people who wanted to grow their own spaghetti. 5_____,
• m eanw hile (tw o things happen at the same time, but in tw o
the BBC continued the joke by instructing anyone who wanted
different sentences)
to grow a spaghetti tree to 'place a piece of spaghetti in a tin
Tom and I drove to the city centre. M eanw hile, Anna drove to
of tom ato sauce.' 6 the story was revealed to be an April
our house. As a result, we missed each other.
Fool's Day joke, hundreds of people had contacted the BBC.
• by the tim e (that) (something is completed before the main
event happens)
By the tim e we got there, Mark had left, 3 C om plete th e sentences w ith the correct tim e linker.
1 I woke up th ree tim es dwrivui the night.
during/until 2 Sorry I d id n ’t speak to you earlier, but I phon ed you
• during (something happens at a point within a certain period I could.
of time) 3 We were very late an d th e party had fin ish e d we
I fell asleep during the film.
got there.
• until (something happens up to a particular point in time) 4 We w alked all d a y it got dark, and then we w ent
I was awake u ntil about four in the morning.
hom e.
5 We just co u ldn ’t find the plane tickets. We looked
e v eryw h ere. , the taxi to the a irp o rt w as w aiting
for us outside.

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 3 .1 Ability
1 C hoose th e co rrect options.
GR3.1))) 1 My p aren ts say I can /(could)walk w hen I was about
1 The researchers discovered th at some children are able n in e m o n ths old.
to w a it for fifteen minutes to eat the marshmallow. 2 T he DVD player w asn't working, b ut in the end we
2 I could ride a bike by the age of six. could / m anaged to fix it.
3 She was able to speak French in the restaurant because 3 Do you th in k you'll m anage to / succeed in finish your
she'd studied it fo r years at school. assign m en t by th e weekend?
4 We w e re n 't able to get tickets for the concert. They'd 4 How m any languages do you m anage / can you speak?
sold out. 5 I couldn't / won't be able to m eet you tomorrow, I’m afraid.
5 Will you be able to finish the report on time? 6 Some people can / succeed in learn languages easily.
6 They didn 't succeed in winning the prize. 7 D id they m anage to / succeed in reaching the top of the
7 I'm sure you'll manage to resist the tem ptation. m o untain?
8 Anyone is able / can to le arn a m usical instrum en t if
Can, could and be able to they try.
We generally express ability using can, could and be able to.
2 Com plete the sen tences w ith the verbs in the box.

Present can can't could couldn't manage (x 2)

• We use can/can't + infinitive or am/are/is(n't) able to + infinitive
to express general ability. 1 A Are you able to resist tem ptation?
I can w a it for things I want. I can 't resist chocolate. B No. I never w k av u mc to stick to a diet!
Some people are able to resist most temptations. 2 W hen I was a child, I never resist eating all the
biscuits as soon as we got them .
Past
3 A We decide w here to go on holiday. C an you
• We use could/couldn't + infinitive or was(n't)/were(n't) able to + reco m m end anyw here?
infinitive to express general ability in the past.
B Yes, I _____ . I w ent to Rome last year, it was beautiful.
I could run 100 metres in twelve seconds when I was younger.
I was able to sw im when I was about four. 4 A I u s u a lly to resist tem ptation. A part from video
gam es, th a t is. Last n ig ht I ju s t stop playing a
• We use was(n't)/were(n't) able to to talk about ability on a
gam e. I stayed awake until well after m idnight trying
specific past occasion.
We w ere able to ski even though there wasn't much snow. to finish it!
Alex w asn't able to help me.
3 Com plete th e text w ith th e w ords a nd phrases in the box.
Future
is able was able can could managed to succeeded in
• We can use will/won't be able to + infinitive to express general
ability and ability on a particular future occasion.
Daniel Tammet has an amazing ability for m athem atical
I'll be able to help you in a few minutes.
calculations, memorizing facts and language learning. He
I w o n 't be able to give you a lift tomorrow, I'm afraid.
holds the European record for mem orizing pi (rr). In 2004,
he ^succ eed ed r e w ritin g the numbers in pi up to 22,514 in
Manage to and succeed in
jus t over five hours, w ith o u t error. He has entered the World
• We can use manage to + infinitive or succeed in + -ing when Memory Championships twice, but he has n e ve r2 win.
there is some difficu lty in achieving the task.
T am m e t3 also speak eleven languages. Because of his

Present incredible memory, he 4 _ to learn new languages very

quickly. To prove this for a television docum entary, he was
She usually manages to achieve her ambitions.
challenged to learn Icelandic in one week. Seven days later
She usually succeeds in g ettin g what she wants.
he appeared on television in Iceland and he 5 to have a
conversation in Icelandic. Tammet's abilities first became clear
Past
as a child. He 6 read and do complex m athematics a t a
I didn't manage to speak to the boss. very early age and he says he has always loved counting.
He succeeded in g e ttin g a place at university.

Future
I'm sure you'll manage to g e t a ticket.
I’m sure she'll succeed in persuading you.

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 GRAM MAR REFERENCE

3 .2 Obligation, permission and possibility

1 C om plete th e sentences w ith the w ords in brackets.
must; have to, need to
1 I can, usually choose my own hours at work, but I
GR3.2a))) Wave, to work at least forty hours a week, (have to, can)
1 Raul is unhappy because he has to w ork very long hours. 2 You use your m obile. I t _______ be sw itched
off. (must, can't)
2 Must you leave so soon?
3 You pay in pou nds. You_______ also pay in
3 I don't have to w o rk on Saturdays or Sundays.
euros or dollars if you prefer, (can, don't have to)
4 In my last job we had to ask permission if we wanted to
4 T he m ain req u irem en ts in my job are th at y o u _______
w ork at home.
be good at m ak in g decisions and y o u ________be a good
5 Before I became the team leader, I d idn't need to set other
leader, (m ust, have to)
people's goals.
5 Sorry I’m late hom e. I ________stay at w ork an d finish
a report. I _______ leave un til I'd sent it to my boss.
Present (couldn't, had to)
• We use must and have to to say tha t something is necessary or 6 Y ou_______ have a un iv ersity d egree to work here, but
an obligation. We often use must to talk about the feelings and y o u ________have a lot of relevant experience, (don’t
wishes of the speaker and have to to talk about obligations tha t need to, must)
come from someone or som ewhere else. 7 We study at least one foreign language
You must work hard to be successful in life.
at school, bu t w e ________study English. W e _______
In my job, I have to manage a team of twenty people.
choose from English, R ussian, G erm an and Chinese,
Do you have to w ea r a suit and tie at work?
(could, d id n 't have to, h ad to)
• We use mustn't to say it is necessary or an obligation NOT to do
something. 2 C hoose the co rrect options to com plete the job
You m ustn't be late for work.
description.
• We use don't have to and don't need to to say something isn't
necessary or an obligation. A PA (personal assistant) gives s u p p o rtto managers or
We don't have to w e ar a suit and tie at work. directors. To be a PA, you 1 mustn't /(don't haveto) have any
We don't need to be at work until nine o'clock. specific qualifications, but you 2 can / must have the right skills
and personal qualities. PAs 3 must / can have good knowledge
Past of the organization in which they work, and they 4 can / have to
know who the im portant people in the company are. Managers
• We use had to to say something was necessary or an obligation
often comm unicate w ith custom ers and collegues through
in the past.
th eir PA, so they 5 must / can be good comm unicators. In the
We had to w e ar a uniform when I was at school.
past, PAs6 must / had to have good typing skills, but today this
• We use didn't have to and didn't need to to say something
isn't as im portant.
wasn't necessary or an obligation in the past.
We didn't have to w ear a uniform when I was at school.
3 Rewrite th e sentences using the verbs in the box. Begin
can, could w ith th e w ords given.

GR3.2b)| could couldn't have to don't have to had to must

1 In my present job I can set my own goals. m ustn't
2 Employees can't make personal calls w hile at work.
1 It’s th e law to w ear a seatb elt in a car in the UK.
3 At school we could choose which foreign languages we
Wave, to Wear a sea tbelt in, a car in, the, UIC.
studied. I chose German and Spanish.
2 It's not necessary to book a ticket for the concert.
4 Women couldn't study to become doctors in the UK
Y ou____________________________________________
until 1876.
3 In all jobs, being reliable is extrem ely im portant.
In all jobs, y o u __________________________________
Present
4 I m issed th e bus, so m y only option w as to get a taxi.
• We use can to say som ething is allowed or is OK and can't to say
something isn't allowed or isn't OK.
I m issed the bus, s o _____________________________
5 It’s not OK to take photos in the m useum .
Past You____________________________________________
• We use could to say som ething was allowed or was OK in the 6 Sorry I'm late. I w asn't allow ed to leave work early.
past and couldn't to say som ething wasn't allowed or w asn't OK.
Sorry I'm late. I

141
 will/be going to for predictions and
4 .1 decisions
1 C om plete the conversation w ith will or be going to and the
Predictions
verbs in brackets.
GR4.1a| 1 A Do you know any good travel websites?
1 Climate change will cause huge problems. B Just a m inute. I’ll show (show) you some.
2 Soon there w o n 't be space in cities for all the people who 2 A You're going to th e US this sum m er, aren't you?
w ant to live in them. B Yes. We (hire) a car and drive round
3 Look at the traffic! It's going to take a long time to get there. California.
A Lucky you! Y ou_______ (have) a great tim e.
We can use both will + infinitive w ith o u t to and be going to to talk 3 A Look at those clouds! I th in k i t ________ (rain).
about predictions for the future. B Yes. I th in k you’re right. I ________(get) m y um brella.
• We generally use will/won't when we w ant to say what we 4 A Are you free on W ednesday?
believe or think about the future. This is often when the
B Sorry. I 'm _______ (see) my gran dpa re nts in London.
prediction is based on personal feeling or opinion.
How about th e week after?
You'll have a great time on holiday.
You w o n't pass the test. You haven't studied enough. A OK, 1________(call) you early next week.
5 A H ere’s the book I was talking about. I th ink you
We often say I don't th in k ... will for a negative prediction ________(enjoy) it.
NOT I think... won't. B T hank s. I ________(give) it back to you next week, if
I do n't thin k people w ill live in floating cities in the future. th at's OK.
6 A I th in k you've m issed th e last bus.
• We generally use be going to w hen there is some evidence in
B I _______ (get) a taxi, then. How m uch do you th ink
the present to support the prediction or an action is starting or
clearly on the way. i t _______ (cost)?
There isn't a cloud in sight. It's going to be a lovely day. A I'm really not sure, but I guess i t (not be)
I'm n o t going to finish this report today. I haven't got m ore th a n ten euros.
enough time. 7 A W here are you going?
B To the shops. I _______ (get) som ething to eat.
Decisions
A W hile you're there, we need som e milk.
GR4.1b))) B OK, I _______ (get) som e m ilk as well.
1 What a lovely day! I'll have a swim later. 8 A Oh no! The p la n e ’s delayed by four hours. It
2 We're going to have a few days in Paris next month.
(be) a long day!
B Oh well. In th a t case, I _______ (do) some work w hile
We can use both will and be going to to talk about decisions. w e're w aiting.
• We generally use will when we make a decision at the m oment
C om plete th e text w ith will or be going to and the verbs in
of speaking.
the box. In som e cases, both form s are possible.
I'm exhausted. I think I'll go to bed.
I'm full. I w o n 't have dessert.
be do (x2) go have not have help reftf

We often use will in cafes and restaurants when we are

Hi Jules,
ordering drinks and meals.
I'll have a pizza and a green salad, please. You asked about our sum mer holiday plans. Well,
we 1re. aoivu} to rtvuba boat in Turkey and spend tw o
• We generally use be going to when we have already made a weeks sailing along the coast. I've never sailed before, so
decision. This is often when we are talking about plans and I think 12_________ a couple of lessons before we go. They
intentions. have courses near here at the sailing club in Portsmouth,
My brother's going to visit us in the summer. so I 3_________there. But the other people we are going with
I'm not going to take my driving test until next year. are all experienced sailors, so I'm pretty sure we 4________
any problems. I guess th e y 5_________ m ost of the sailing and
I 6_________ a little when needed. Anyway, I'm really looking
forw ard to it - I think i t 7 fun. What about your
holidays? 8 y o u ________ anything this summer?
See you soon,
Denise

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 GRAMMAR REFERENCE

4 . 2 will/may/might to talk about probability

1 Put th e words in th e right order to m ake sentences.
GR4.2))) 1 likely / is / global w arm ing / for several h u n d re d years /
1 People w ill continue to move from the countryside to the con tinue / t o .
city, so in the next fifty years there may be many cities with Global warming is Likely to covvtiviacfor several______
populations of more than ten million. h u nd red years.
2 Owning the ir own home might become impossible for 2 m ight / w ith an im als / in the future / com m unica te /
most people. be able to / h u m a n s .
3 Temperatures are likely to rise over the next century, and In th e future, ___________________________________ .
this may possibly have an im pact on weather.
3 will / th e p lan et M ars / one day / h u m a n s / colonize /
p o ssib ly .
M odal verbs One day,___________________________________________ .
• We can use the modal verbs will, might and may to talk about
4 spend / com puter screens / will / we / probably / in
how sure we are about something, w ill generally expresses front of / m ore and m ore tim e .
more certainty. Might and may have very similar meanings. W e________________________________________________ .
The population w ill continue to rise, and it m ay reach ten 5 to / are / w ith aliens / unlikely / we / ever m ake c o n ta c t.
billion by the end of the century. W e________________________________________________.
Walking in the countryside might have a number o f health 6 w ill / in th e fu tu re / inside buildings / h u m an s / m ost
benefits.
of th e ir tim e / spend .
Adverbs and adjectives In th e fu tu re ,______________________________________ .
• We can use the adverbs probably, possibly and definitely with 7 to be / ever live / w on't / h u m a n s / two hu n d re d years
will/might/may to give more inform ation about how sure we are. old /p ro b a b ly .
However, this is m ost comm on w ith will. The adverb generally H u m a n s___________________________________________.
goes afte r will and before won't/w ill not.
They probably w o n 't arrive before midnight. Rewrite th e sen tences using the w ords in brackets.
We'll possibly go for a walk later this afternoon. 1 I don't th in k they will arrive in tim e, (unlikely)
I'll definitely see you sometime next week.
They are u n like ly to arrive, in, tim e.________________
Deforestation may possibly continue for another 100 years.
2 Cities of th e fu tu re are likely to have m ore green spaces,
• We can also use the adjectives likely and unlikely. We use the
(probably)
infinitive with to after (un)likely.
Urban living is likely to continue increasing.
They're unlikely to arrive before midnight.
3 It’s probable th a t un em ploym ent will continu e rising,
(likely)
Here is a summary of degree of certainty:
4 T he ice caps are unlikely to m elt com pletely, (probably)
Certain Possible Unlikely Impossible

will (definitely) will probably is unlikely to (definitely) 5 It will possibly rain later, (may)
will possibly probably won't won't
may
is likely to 6 I don't th in k I'll finish my repo rt before Friday, (unlikely)
might
7 If U nited Nations forecasts are correct, by 2050 the
global population m ight be betw een nine a nd ten
billion, (likely)

143
 5 .1 -ing form and infinitive with to
1 M ake senten ces using the prom pts.
GR5.1))) 1 I / w an t / see / the new James Bond fi lm .
1 They finished film ing in January. I Want to see- the. n&w/Jfemtcs hoviA filw i.___________
2 I don't feel like going out tonight. 2 my friend / in sisted on / pay / for the cinem a tickets /
3 I ran five kilom etres w ith ou t stopping. last n ig h t.
4 We agreed to m eet at 6.30.
5 Carole chose not to go to the party as she had a job
3 Adam / hopes / get / to London / at about tw o -th irty .
interview the next day.
4 I / d id n ’t expect / enjoy / th e film / so m uch .
When a verb which isn't a modal verb is followed by another verb,
the second verb is either in the -ing form (e.g. I like w atching TV)
5 let's / w atch / a film at hom e tonight / instead of / go /
or the infinitive w ith to (e.g. I want to watch TV).
to th e c in e m a .
-ing form
6 we / have / great m em ories of / live / in A ustria .
• We use the -ing form afte r the following verbs: admit, avoid,
consider, deny, finish, help, imagine, miss, practise, recommend,
suggest. 7 did you / m an age / finish / w rite / your report ?
David recom m ended seeing the latest Bond film.
• We also use the -ing form after verbs expressing likes and
dislikes, such as: can't stand, enjoy, feel like, hate, like, love, 2 Com plete the conversations w ith th e verbs in the box. Use
(don't) mind, prefer. the -ing form or infinitive w ith to.
I really enjoy going to the cinema.
• We also use the -ing form after prepositions such as: about, act become come do (x2) go (x3) take
after, at, before, by, in, of, on, to, without.
1 A We're th in k in g of aoivui to see a film. W ould you like
Justyna insisted on paying for the meal.
w ith us?
We're thinking o f going to the cinema tonight.
B Great, thanks. I'd do anything to avoid this work!
Infinitive with to 2 A I’m thin k in g o f__________ acting lessons.
• We use the infinitive w ith to after the following verbs: afford, B You're going to s ta r t ! I never knew you
agree, aim, appear, arrange, attempt, choose, decide, demand, were interested i n ___________ an actor.
expect, fail, forget, hope, intend, manage, need, offer, plan, 3 A Are you in terested i n to th a t film exhibition?
start, seem, tend, want, would like. I’m going w ith F rancesca tom orrow.
Amir offered to give us a lift to the conference.
B I'd really like to, but I've prom ised out for the
I prom ise not to tell anyone.
day w ith my m um . I th in k she's p la n n in g all
sorts of things. I can ’t let her down.
Note that to form the negative, we put not between the two
verbs.
3 Rewrite the senten ces to m ake one sentence w ith sim ilar
I decided n o t to say anything.
m eaning . Use th e w ords in brackets.
1 He was late. He did n 't apologize, (for)
-ing form or infinitive with to He, didvit apologize, fo r bcivm late*.___________________
• The following verbs can be followed by both the -ing form 2 F rancesco left. He d idn't say goodbye, (without)
and the infinitive w ith to, w ith little or no change in meaning:
attempt, begin, can't stand, continue, hate, like, love,
prefer, start, stop. 3 C arm en plays th e guitar. She’s very good, (at)
We continued working. We continued to work.
• We don't usually use tw o -ing form s next to each other. 4 Ingrid w an ts a new a car. She can't afford it. (buy)
I'm startin g to feel better, n o t Tm-starting feeling be tter.

5 I take my driving test tom orrow. I'm nervous, (about)

Spelling rules
Note that we sometimes make changes to the spelling of a
6 I d id n 't book th e tickets. I d idn ’t rem em ber, (forgot)
word when we add -ing. For example, we may drop the final -e,
change -ie to -y and sometimes we double the final letter,

144
 GRAM M AR REFERENCE

0 Time expressions with present perfect

5.Z and past simple
1 C hoose th e correct options to com plete the conversations.
GR5.2 $ 1 A W hen(tftrfyo u m ove)/ have you m oved to Frankfurt?
1 Marco's eaten three bars of chocolate so far today. B Six m onths ago / Since six m onths.
He'll be sick. 2 A I've been very busy yesterday / recently.
2 A When did you arrive? B Me too. I started a new project at work since last week /
B we've been here since Tuesday. last week.
3 A Have you ever been to Egypt? 3 A I haven’t h ad lu nch yet / already. I’m starving.
B Yes, I w e n t about four years ago. It was fantastic. B Oh, I went / ’ve been to that new cafe for lunch. It was /
has been really good. You should go there.
We can think of tim e periods as being unfinished (e.g. this week,
A Yes, I w ent th ere a fe w days ago / already. I agree -
recently) or finished (e.g. yesterday, in 2014).
it's good.
unfinish ed tim e periods 4 A I d idn 't see / ha ven’t seen Junko’s new ap artm e n t yet.
D id / Have you?
We generally use the present perfect for unfinished tim e periods.
I've sent lots o f emails today. B Yes, I saw / 've seen it a few days ago.
Have you seen Okito recently? 5 A We lived / 've lived in Venice for seven years. From
We've been here since nine o'clock. 2005 to 2012.
B I never w ent / 've never been to Venice. I h e a r it's
Expressions of unfinished tim e th at we often use w ith the
beautiful.
present perfect include:
recently, already, just, never, ever, yet, so far, for (ten minutes, 6 A Have you finished your exam s on Friday / y e t?
three weeks, etc.), since (2013, ten o'clock, etc.), over the past B No, I've done two of the m last w eek / so far.
(two days, six months, etc.), since
2 Com plete th e text w ith th e correct form of th e verbs in
brackets. Use th e past sim ple or p resent perfect.
Finished tim e periods
We generally use the past simple for finished tim e periods. Video gam es 1 have, e xisted (exist) for over sixty years. The
I g o t my first games system when I was ten. first video gam es 2 _(appear) in the 1940s,
I finally w e n t to bed a t midnight. when academics 3_______________(begin) designing simple
Did you see Jamal last week? games, simulations, and artificial intelligence programs as part
of their computer science research. However, video gaming
Expressions of finished time th a t we often use w ith the past 4______________ (not/reach) mainstream popularity until
simple include: the 1970s and 1980s, when arcade games, gaming consoles
yesterday, last (night, weekend, year, etc.), in (January, 2012, the and home video games 5 (become) available
summer, etc.), on (Wednesday, my birthday, etc.), (a few days, to the general public. Before the development of realistic
three years, etc.) ago, when (I was at university, etc.), recently computer graphics th a t 6 (occur) recently,
the games th a t 7_______________(drive) the industry in
the 1970s 8_____________ (be) basic games like Ping
Unfinished o r finished tim e periods Pong and, a little later, Space Invaders. Since then, video
Note th a t some tim e expressions can refer to both unfinished or gam ing 9_______________(become) a popular form of
finished time, depending on the context. entertainment and a part of modern culture in most parts of
Have you seen Luciana this morning?
the world, and today almost everyone under the age of fifty
(it is still this morning)
10_______________(play) a video game at least once.
Did you see Luciana this morning?
(the morning is finished)
I've bought a few new video games recently.
(focus on tim e until now)
I bought a new phone recently.
(focus on the tim e of buying the phone)

145
 6 .1 Defining and non-defining relative clauses
1 Com plete the text w ith approp riate relative pronouns.
There are tw o types of relative clause: defining and non-defining.
In both types, the relative clause gives inform ation about a person An automobile, or m otor car, is defined as a vehicle with
or thing. The relative clause comes after this person or thing has w h e e ls 1 t k a t has its own engine or m otor and 2 is
been mentioned and starts w ith a relative pronoun (who, which, used mainly for transporting passengers. The invention of the
that or whose). automobile goes back to 1886, when the German inventor Karl
Benz, 3 is generally regarded as the inventor o f the first
Defining relative clauses
modern automobile, introduced the Motorwagen to the public.
Motorized vehicles soon started to replace animal-powered
GR6.1a))) carriages,4 had for centuries been the main form of
1 I w ant to meet the person w ho found my handbag. long-distance transport. The first affordable autom obile
I'd like to thank them. 5 sold in large numbers was the Model T ,6 was
2 What's it called? it's the gadget th a t is used for opening cans. introduced in the USA in 1908 and 7 was produced by
Henry F o rd ,8 Ford M otor Company had been founded
3 Look, isn't th at the woman whose handbag you found?
in 1903. Many other automobile manufacturers soon began
4 The man I m et yesterday told me how to get to the concert producing vehicles in the same way as Ford, and by the 1930s
hall. there were hundreds of different automobile companies
around the world.
• We use defining relative clauses to identify who or w h at we are
talking about. We can use:
a w ho - fo r people 2 W hich of th e relative clauses in th e text in exercise 1 are
b w hich or that - fo r things defining an d w hich are non-defining?
c w h o se - for possessions and family relationships
D efining: QH [ i 1
• We can leave out the relative pronoun if it is the object of the verb.
The first car (that) I had was a ten-year-old Volkswagen. N on-defining: M l M l

Rewrite th e tw o sen tences as one senten ce using a relative

N on-d efinin g relative clauses
clause.

GR6 .ib))) 1 I've just read a book. I th in k you’ll like it.

1'vc ju s t reW o! book. wWick/tWcut I ik ivik you.'II like.
1 Nicolaus Otto, wh o died in 1891, was the inventor of the
petrol engine. 2 T h ey’re bu ild in g a new factory. It will have no h um an s
2 The Bugatti Veyron, which is one of the most expensive cars
an d only use robots.
ever, was first produced in 2005.
3 It was invented by Richard Beeston, whose father and 3 W hat's th e n am e of th e scientist? The one w ho
grandfather were also inventors. discovered th e X-ray?

• We use non-defining relative clauses to give extra information. 4 You can book an $80,000 balloon flight. It goes into space.
Non-defining relative clauses do not identify who or what we
are talking about. It is usually already clear w ho or what we are
talking about. We can use:
5 I've got a new m obile phone. It's got a 128GB m emory.
a w ho - for people
b w hich - for things 6 I m et som eone yesterday. He know s you.
c w h o se - for possessions and fam ily relationships
• We do not usually use that in a non-defining relative clause. 7 Is th a t th e girl? We w ent to her p arty last w eekend.
The Bugatti Veyron, that is one o f the most expensive cars ever,
was-firstpredueed-in-2QQ5-
8 T he program isn't w orking properly. You loaded it
yesterday.
Note th a t we use commas around a non-defining relative
clause. Or before the relative clause if the clause is at the end
of the sentence.
4 In w hich sentences in exercise 3 do we not need to use a
relative pronoun?
We can also use the relative adverbs when and where in
relative clauses.
Is this the hotel wh ere we stayed last year?
Rush hour is the time o f day when people drive to or from work.

146
 GRAM M AR REFERENCE

6 . 2 Present perfect simple and continuous

1 Choose th e correct options to com plete th e sentences.
GR6.21 1 It's rained /(^sbeen raining)since I got up.
1 The bus hasn't come. I've been w aiting here for ages. 2 Have th e y fin ish e d / been finish ing the experim ent yet?
2 Stefan hasn't been w orking for this company for very long. 3 Have you ever seen / been seeing a tropical storm?
3 How long has Caroline been teaching at that school? 4 We've tried / 've been trying to find a solution to the
4 Have you had breakfast yet? problem for weeks.
5 Good news! Sam ’s fo u n d / been fin d in g a solution to the
• We use the present perfect continuous (have/has + been + -ing) problem !
for unfinished actions which started in the past and continue up 6 Sorry I'm late. How long have you waited / been w aiting?
to now. It often answers the question How lo n g ...? 7 Scientists have tried / been trying to find a solution to
It's been raining all afternoon.
clim ate change for decades.
Scientists have been investigating climate change.
8 It h a sn ’t snowed / been snow ing for ages.
How long have you been w orking here?
• We use the present perfect simple (have/has + past participle) 2 Com plete th e senten ces w ith th e verbs in the box. In each
for completed actions which happened at some point before
pair, use th e p resent perfect sim ple in one sen tence and
now and still have an influence on the present. We do n't know
the presen t p erfect con tinu ous in the other.
or aren't focusing on exactly when the action happened.
It's stopped raining.
fix increase investigate snow speak
Have you seen the weather forecast?
• There is som etimes little difference between the present 1 T he average global te m perature k m been, jyivccmivui
perfect simple and continuous. The choice is often about how for at least 10 0 years.
we see the action. T he average global tem p erature every year for at
The weather's been improving. (We see this as som ething least th e last h u n d re d years.
in process.)
2 I t _____ a couple of tim es so far th is year.
The weather's improved. (We see this as a finished state.)
I t _____ since this m orning.
We generally don't use the present perfect continuous with 3 R e se arch e rs_____th e pheno m eno n for a num be r of
state verbs such as be, have, and know. years.
We've been-knowtng-about-global-warming for-over -i 0 0 years- R esearc h ers_____the p h eno m enon on several
different occasions.
4 H e _____ th e w ash in g m a chine all m orning.
he the w ash ing m a chine yet?
5 I _____ French for ages — not since I left school.
We French for th e p ast hou r or so.

3 Com plete th e text abo ut Arctic sea ice w ith th e verbs in

brackets in th e m ost probable tense: present perfect sim ple
or continuous.

Scientists 1 Wave been s tu d yin g (study) changes in Arctic

sea ice for around 100 years. As measuring devices and
satellite analysis 2___________ (become) more accurate, it
3___________ (become) clear that the amount of Arctic sea
ice 4 (decrease) steadily for several decades. In
fact, the Arctic 5 (lose) 75% of its summer sea
ice volume over the past three decades. This is mainly due to
global warming. However, the amount of ice lost each year
6 (depend) not only on global warming, but on
a number of other things such as local weather patterns. In
some years these things 7___________ (cause) more or less
sea ice to melt. However, even though in one year there may
8__________ (be) more sea ice than in the previous year, the
trend is that Arctic summer sea ice 9___________ (disappear)
at a rate of around 2.5% per year.

147
 _ . Used to and would for past habits and
7.1 states
1 If possible, rew rite these sentences w ith w ould. If th is is
We can use both used to and would to talk about situations that
not possible, put a cross.
existed in the past but do not exist now.
1 I used to h ate job interview s, but now I like them . X
GR7.1)))
2 My g ran d fath e r used to w ear a suit a nd tie every day.
M y qrevidftttWe'c would W&er q suit o[v\A tie every dory.
1 I used to like listening to my grandm other reading me
stories w hen I was a child. 3 T he boss used to arran ge a p a rty every year.
2 Did people ever use to thin k the Earth was flat?
3 Leo didn't use to like cooking, but now he's really into it. 4 I u sed to like visiting my m um 's office.
4 In the past children would learn everything by heart, but
nowadays people rarely do that. 5 A nna used to sit at h er desk an d w rite all day.
5 My grandfather would tell me the names of all the trees
and flowers when we w ent for walks in the countryside. 6 In th e past, a lot of people used to do the sam e job all
th e ir life.

Used to
7 People used to be m ore form al at work.
We use used to + infinitive for both past habits and past states:
things tha t were true but are not now.
We used to live in Madrid, (but now we don't) 8 I used to see th e park from my window, but now I'm in a
There used to be an office block here, (but now there isn't) different office.
I used to drive to work, (but now I don't)
I d idn't use to like my job. (but now I do)
Note tha t there is no final 'd‘ in negatives and questions. 2 Com plete th e text using w ould or used to and the verbs in
I didn't use to drink tea. Did you use to work for the UN? brackets. Use w ould w here possible; only used to if w ould
NOT / didn't used to drink tea. Did you used to work for the UN? is not possible.

Remember tha t used to is only fo r past habits. For present O ffic e life - it's so m uch b e t te r n o w
habits we use the present simple. It's a good time be an office worker.
Oliver cycles to work. Technology has made the biggest change. Communication
is easier and w ork is more interesting. In the past, people

would 1 would spevid (spend) ages at work doing boring jobs; these
days com puters can do these same jobs quickly and easily.
We can also use would + infinitive to talk about past habits and
A ttitudes to men and women at work have changed a lot over
typical past behaviour.
the last fifty years, too. 'In the 1960s, my boss was a woman
/ would usually drive to work. who was the same age as me,' says David Harper. 'When we
I would usually g e t to work at about 7.30 and I generally w o uldn't
w ent to meetings together, p e o p le 2 (be) surprised that
leave until after six o'clock.
she was the boss, not me. 13 (tell) people how good she
However, we do not use would to talk about past states, only was.'
actions and typical behaviour.
Offices have become more pleasant places to work in.
We would live in London.
Companies 4 (have) strict rules about clothes and
There would-be on office bloek-here:
behaviour in the office, but these days things are more easy-
going. Relationships are more equal now. People5 (speak)
to their manager very formally, but now conversations can be
more relaxed; and offices themselves are nicer places to work
in. 'The office where I worked was small and i t 6 (smell)
really bad,' one of my friends told me. 'Every morning 17_____
(open) the w indow as wide as I could, but it never helped!'
Perhaps not everything is better, though. These days, people
often stay at w ork late and take their work home w ith them.
It wasn't always like that. 'When I worked in an office, we
8 (start) work at 9.00 and w e 9 (go) home at 5.30,'
said my uncle. 'The m anager10 (tell) us all to go home at
5.30 and we didn't think about work until the next day!'

148
 GRAM MAR REFERENCE

7 .2 Questions
1 Read th e text an d then w rite the questions. There are both
GR7.2))) object an d subject questions.
1 What does she think of your new car? William James Sidis was a child genius, born in the US in 1898.
2 Where did he use to work? A fter his death, his sister claimed he was the most intelligent
3 Who opened the box of chocolates? person w ho ever lived, w ith an IQ between 250 and 300. He
could read at eighteen months. He had w ritten four books
4 Can you tell me w h ere the railway station is?
and was fluent in eight languages before he was ten. Harvard
5 Would you mind telling me if th e hotel dining room is University accepted him as a student when he was just twelve.
open after 10 p.m.? A fter he graduated at sixteen, he joined Rice University as a
maths professor. However, the students at Rice d id n't take
him seriously because of his age and he left after only eight
O bject and sub ject questions months. He w ent back to Harvard to study law. While he was
There are tw o basic types of question: object questions and studying law he became concerned w ith social issues, and in
subject questions. 1919 he was arrested while he was taking part in a political
• In object questions, the question word is the object. We normally parade th a t turned violent. He spent eighteen months in jail.
put an auxiliary verb before the subject. For the present and past A fter his release from prison, he hid away and started w riting
simple tenses, we use the auxiliary do/does/did. books on subjects such as the universe, American history and
psychology. William James Sidis died in 1944.
Who do you most admire? - I most admire my parents.
What did she buy? - She bought some books.
1 When, wusf u m e s Sidis bam? In 1898.
• in subject questions, the question word is the subject. We don't
2 _________________________ ? His sister.
use do/does/did.
3 _________________________ ? B etween 250 and 300.
Who inspired you to become an athlete? - My sports teacher
inspired me to become an athlete.
4 _________________________ ? H arvard University.
Who invented the computer? - Several people helped invent it. 5 _________________________ ? He w as arrested.
NOT Who-did-invent-the-computer? 6 _________________________ ? Eighteen m onths.
7 _________________________ ? In 1944.
indire ct questions
We use indirect questions to make questions softer or more polite. 2 U rban free-clim ber C laudette D ubois has clim bed up
• Indirect questions begin w ith a question phrase (e.g. Could you th e outside of some of the tallest s tru ctu res in the world,
tell m e ...; I'd like to kn o w ...; Would you mind telling m e ...). in clu ding th e Eiffel Tower, Sydney Opera H ouse and the
• A fte r the question phrase, the word order is like a statem ent P etronas Twin Towers. Rewrite the d irect questions in this
rather than a question: we do not invert the auxiliary verb and interview w ith C laudette as ind irect questions. Begin w ith
the subject and we do not use do/does/did. th e w ords given.
Could you tell me who you m ost admire? 1 How do you feel before you do a big climb?
n o t Could you tell me who do you most admire?
Could you fell m e kow you. fe e l before you do a b ij climb?
I'd like to know w hy you decided to leave university.
2 W hen w ere you last tru ly scared?
• We use if (in place of a question word) for indirect questions
where the answer is yes or no.
Would y o u _________________________________________
I'd like to know ify o u have any further ambitions. 3 W hat did you w an t to be w hen you w ere grow ing up?
I'd lik e _____________________________________________
4 Is th ere anyone fam ous you'd like to m eet?
C o u ld _____________________________________________
5 How w ould you like to be rem em bered?
I'd lik e _____________________________________________

3 M atch th e qu estions in exercise 2 to answ ers a-e.

a Just before m y last climb. I always get scared.
b I feel very nervous, but quite calm at the sam e time,
c As a fun ny a n d disciplined person who liked to
challenge herself,
d Yes, Philippe Petit. I've always adm ired him .
e A H ollyw ood stu n tw o m an.

149
 8.1 Sentences with i f - real conditionals
1 C om plete the conversations w ith the best form of the
GR8.1 $ w ords in brackets.
1 If people enjoy their job, they are happier in general. 1 A W hat do you th in k is the secret to happiness?
2 If you eat a balanced diet, you'll feel healthier. B Well, lots of things. But I believe th a t if people Wave
(have) a positive attitu de tow ards everything, they
3 If we have a positive attitude, we w o n 't feel down when
things don't work the way we want them to. g en e ra lly _____ (feel) m uch happier.
4 If people don't have any friends, they can become very
A And w hat's th e secret to a longlife?
lonely. B As well as a positive attitude, if y o u (exercise)
5 They'll arrive at 7 p.m. unless the plane is delayed. regularly a n d (be) careful about w hat you eat,
you (probably/live) longer.
6 My brother is quite shy; he won't speak in public unless
he has to. 2 A I th in k I ne ed to im prove my diet.
B Well, for a start, if y o u (eat) at least five
In sentences with if, we usually talk about situations and events portion s of fruit an d vegetables each day, y o u _____
which are uncertain, /f-sentences usually have two clauses: the (start) to feel m uch healthier. A nd if y o u _____
//-clause and the result clause. They are also called conditional (drink) lots of w ater all the tim e and less coffee and
sentences. tea, y o u _____ (have) m ore energy.
• When things can possibly happen, so can be real, we use the 3 A If y o u (n o t/hu rry), w e (not/get) to the
same tenses with if as with other conjunctions. So, we can use cinem a in time.
the present tense to refer to the present.
B OK, I'm g etting ready as fast as I can. W hat
I f + present simple, -* present simple (hap pen) if w e (get) there after the film starts?
If people enjoy their job, they are happier in general. Can we still get in?
If people w o rk a thirty-seven hour week, they have quite a lot of
A Well, yes. But w h a t (be) the poin t of going in
leisure time.
if w e (miss) the beginn ing of the film?
• When we talk about specific situations in the future and their
possible results, we normally use a present tense in the if-
M atch 1-4 to a -d to m ake sentences about happiness.
clause to talk about the future.
1 H appiness is like a cloud. If you stare at it long enough,
I f + present simple, -» w ill
b
If you eat a balanced diet, you'll feel healthier.
You'll be happier as a country if you pay higher taxes. 2 If you spen d your life w aiting for the p erfect m om ent,

The conditional clause and the result clause can usually go in 3 You will never be h a p p y ___
either order. When the conditional clause is first, it is followed 4 U nless you love w hat you are doing,
by a comma. When the result clause comes first, there is no
comma. a you probably w on't be successful.
If I see Jim, I'll give him your message. b it goes away.
I'll give Jim your message if I see him. c it m ay never arrive.
d if you spend all your tim e th in k in g about w hat
• We can use modal verbs, particularly can, may and might in
h ap p in ess m eans.
either clause.
If a country has quite high taxes, it can provide free healthcare 3 C om plete th e second sentences so they m ean the sam e as
to everyone. the first sentences.
If you can cycle for thirty minutes a day, it m ay add one to two
1 You w on’t succeed if you don't m ake an effort.
years to your life.
ifAydin can't g e t a job, he m ight do some voluntary work. Von vJovit succeed u n less you, m a ke <m effort.
• Unless usually means if... not or except it 2 We’ll get th e bus unless we see a taxi first.
We'll go for a walk later unless it rains. = We'll go for a walk ___________________ if ____________________ .
later if it doesn't rain. 3 If you spend it wisely, m oney can buy happiness.
Money doesn't make you happy unless everyone has enough. = U n le ss___________________________________.
Money doesn't make you happy except i f everyone has enough.
4 We should arrive at abo ut 3.30 unless we get delayed.
If_______________________________________ .
5 You're not allowed in the club except if you're dressed
sm artly.
__________________ u n le s s________________ .

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 GRAMMAR REFERENCE

8 . 2 Sentences with i f - unreal conditionals

1 C om plete th e d ilem m a questions w ith th e correct form of
GR8.2))) the w ords in brackets.
1 If I had more time. I'd take up marathon running. 1 If you fo u n d (find) a w allet in th e street, w hat would you.
2 They w o u ld n 't drive to work if there was a good bus or
do (you/do)?
train service. 2 If y o u ____ (see) som eone being attacked in th e street,
3 If we lived in London, we could go to the theatre more often. __________ (you/try) to help them ?
4 If he w ere Prime Minister, he would change the law.
3 If you (do) som ething h e ro ic ,___________
(you/w ant) to be in th e new spaper or on th e TV news?
If sentences usually have tw o clauses: the conditional clause (often 4 If y o u _____(see) som eone stealing from a shop,
using if) and the result clause. __________ (you/tell) a shop assistant?
Unreal conditionals express something tha t is imaginary or 5 W hat (you/do) if y o u ___________ (know) a new
hypothetical. work colleague h ad lied on his or her CV?
• To talk about an unreal situation and its result in the present or 6 If y o u (find) a w in n in g lottery tic k e t,__________
future, we use lf+ past tense + would ( o r 'd) + infinitive w itho u t (you/claim ) th e m oney?
to. The //clause talks about an unreal situation and the would 7 W h e re (you/live) if y o u ___________ (can/live)
clause talks about the hypothetical or imaginary result. This is anyw here in th e world?
sometim es called a second conditional.
8 If y o u _____(can/have) any job, w h a t___________(it/be)?
If + past tense, would Cd) + infinitive w ith o u t to
If someone n eeded my help, I'd do my best to help them. 2 Jam es w ants som e things in his life to be different.
If we w ere all less selfish, the world would be a better place. Write condition al sentences using the prom pts.
I'd be much happier if the weather w asn't so bad.
1 be richer -*• buy a bigger house
The conditional clause and the result clause can usually go in I f I Were, richer. I 'd buy u Wouse.____________
either order. When the conditional clause is first, it is followed 2
by a comma. When the result clause comes first, there is no
comma.
3 have m ore tim e -* read a lot m ore
if I were you, I'd be more careful.
I'd be more careful if I were you.
4 not rain so m uch -» be m uch happier
• When we are not sure about the result, we can use the modal
verbs might and could instead of would. 5 my job be not so b oring -* enjoy life m ore
If I were braver, I m ight do a bungee jump for charity.
Ifyou didn't know what you were doing, you could hu rt
yourself. 6 not eat so m uch ju nk food -» be m uch healthier
• We also use could to mean would be able to.
If it wasn't raining, we could go for a walk.
3 Rew rite senten ces 1-6 in th e conditional.
• In the conditional clause, w ith l/he/she/it, we often use were
instead of was. This is considered a more form al style. 1 I can't buy a new m obile because I haven’t got enough
Formal: If I w ere younger, I'd take up snowboarding. money.
Informal: ifKatia was here, she'd be able to help us. I f I h a d more, money. I could buy u view mobile.
We also use were in certain fixed phrases: 2 I can 't go out tonig ht b ecause I have to w rite a report.
If I were you, I'd do more exercise.

3 Julia isn't here so we can ’t ask her to help.

4 We ca n ’t go skiing because there isn't enough snow.

5 I c an ’t help you becau se I'm so busy.

6 I work such long ho urs and I'm always tired.

151
 9 .1 Comparatives and superlatives
1 C om plete the sen tences w ith th e correct com parative form
GR9.1))) of th e adjectives in brackets.
1 George is a banker. He's richer than most of his friends. 1 Helen is m u ch shorter (short) th a n her younger brother,
2 Living in London is more expensive than living in Birmingham.
David.
2 People who live i n __________ (w arm and dry) clim ates
3 Some people think tha t watching golf is less exciting than
watching football. are o f t e n ___________ (healthy) th a n people who live in
___________ (cold an d dam p) clim ates.
4 It's th e best meal I've ever had.
3 It i s (easy) and slightly (quick)
5 The Pyramids in Egypt are some of th e oldest buildings in
to cycle to work th a n to go by bus.
the world.
4 T he doctor told Steve he w a s (likely) to get
ill beca use he d id n 't do m uch exercise.
Co m p aratives 5 T he cities here a r e __________ (m uch/big) th a n in my
We use the comparative form of adjectives to compare people and country, w here the p o pu lation i s ___________ (small).
things with each other. 6 You should w e a r __________ (good) sunglasses
I'm taller than my sisters. Paris is more beautiful than London. th a n those. Your eyes should b e ___________ (well/
• For one-syllable adjectives, we add -er (or -r for adjectives that protected) from the sun.
end in -e). For multi-syllable adjectives, we use more.
short - » shorter ancient -*• more ancient 2 C om plete th e text w ith the com p arative or superlative
• For some two-syllable adjectives, we can either add -er or use form of the adjectives in brackets and any o th er necessary
more. However, for two-syllable adjectives ending in -y, we words.
generally change the -y to / and add -er
gentle -» gentler/more gentle happy - » happier Physical changes in human appearance have occurred ever
since we first appeared. However, 1 more recent (recent)
• To make a negative comparison, we use less + adjective
Beards are less popular than they used to be. changes have not been 2 _ (dramatic) they were
in th e 3 (distant) past. This is because we
• We use than when we make a direct comparison between
have become 4 (much/good) at adapting the
two things.
environment to suit us rather than evolving to fit in with the
Pedro's hair is darker than Lucca's.
environment.
• To say something is the same, we use a s ... as. To say
something is not the same, we use not as/so . . . as . Some changes have been 5___________ (global) whereas
I'm as tall as my dad. Paola's hair is n ot as long as before. others have been 6___________ (regional) and localized.
The 7___________ (important) change affecting us is that
We use modifiers when we want to give more detail about the the human body has become 8___________ (slightly/small).
degree of difference between two things. Humans are n o t 9 (tall or heavy) they used to be.
I'm a b it taller than my brother.
The 10___________ (tall) humans lived around 40,000
Anna is much older than Andre.
years ago, with an average height of 183 cm. This is
• To make the difference between the things being 11__________ (much/tall) today's average height of 175 cm.
compared stronger:
Perhaps surprisingly, the human brain is also n o t 12________
a lot far much so much very much
(big) as it used to be. in fact, the human brain is now the
• To make the difference between the things being 13_________(small) it has been at any time in the past
compared smaller: 100,000 years, and is a b o u t 14________ (10%/small) when
a bit a little slightly humans first appeared.
• To say there is no difference between the things being
compared:
not any no

Superlatives
We use superlatives to compare people and things w ith everything
in the ir group.
Alex is the tallest person I know.
She's the m ost intelligent person I've ever met.
For one-syllable and m ost two-syllable adjectives we use the and
add -est. For m ulti-syllable adjectives, we use the most,
short -> the shortest beautiful -* the most beautiful

152
 GRAM M AR REFERENCE

9 . 2 Modals of deduction and speculation

1 C om plete th e second sentence using m ust, can't or m ig ht/
GR9.2 )| could so th e m ean in g is th e sam e as the first sentence.
1 The lights are on. Someone must be at home. 1 P erhaps my keys are in the kitchen.
2 He can't be English. Listen to his accent - 1think he's South My keys miaWt be in- tWc kitc h en ..
African. 2 I guess Erika likes black. She always w ears black.
3 It's very cold. It might snow soon. Erika . She always w ears it.
4 Don't you think she looks a bit like Andrea? She could be 3 P erhaps th a t a p artm en t over th ere is F ran k’s.
his sister. T hat a p a rtm e n t_____________________ .
4 It’s possible th a t th is p a in ting is by R em brandt. It's
When we are making a deduction or speculating (= making a guess, his style.
usually based on evidence), we use the modal verbs must, can't,
T his p a in tin g
might and could to express how sure we are about something.
5 It’s im possible th a t th is is U te’s house. She said hers has
Must and can't a bright red door.
• We use must when we are very sure something is true. T h is . Hers has a bright red door.
You've been driving all day. You m ust be tired. 6 Ten euros for a coffee! Surely there's a m istake.
My keys m ust be here somewhere! Ten euros for a coffee! T h e re _____________________ .
• We use can't when we are very sure something is not true. 7 Ten euros for a coffee! I’m sure tha t's not right.
This photo can't have been taken in the UK. They're driving on Ten euros for a coffee! T h a t_____________________ .
the right.
This can't be Satiana's coat. It's too big. 2 As p a rt of a com petition, two people are trying to m atch
• We do not use mustn't in this way. some photos w ith th e countries: the UK, A ustralia, the
This musn't be Satiana's coot, it's too big. USA an d South Africa. Com plete th e conversations using
must, can't or m ight/could.
Might and could
A W hat ab ou t this photo? W here do you th in k this is?
• We use might or could w hen we are not sure, but we think
B Well, i t 1 be th e UK - th e w eather's too nice, and
something is possible. Might and could have the same meaning.
This photo m ight/could be in the UK. They're driving on the left. there are no beaches like th a t in th e UK. But it looks a
This might/could be Alex's phone. He's got one like this. bit like th e UK. I t 2 be A ustralia, m aybe. Ah, look -
I th in k th at's th e A u stralian flag in th e background.
• We can use might not, but we do not use could not.
This m ig ht n ot be Jenny's house. I think hers has a green door. It3 be A ustralia.
This could not be Jenny's house. I think hers has a green door. A OK, an d w hat ab ou t th is one?
B Well, I’d say th is one 4_____ be the UK, but I’m not sure.
We use look + adjective - when something appears to be ... A Yes, I agree. Look at th a t cloudy sky. I thin k you’re right.
It lo oks cold. And th e n u m b e r plate looks British. Yes, this one 5_____
be of the UK.
B OK, so th is next one 6 _____ be the UK or A ustralia -
we've already got those. So, i t 7 be either th e US or
South Africa. W hich do you th ink?
A Well, it's difficult to say. I t 8 be either, I suppose.
T here's n o th in g obvious. Oh, h ang on. I’m not sure, but
I th in k th is one 9 be South Africa.
B W hat m akes you th in k that?
A Look at th e roads in the dista n ce - th e cars are driving
on th e left. I th in k they drive on the left in South Africa,
don't they?
B Yes, I th in k they do. So i t 10_____be th e US - they drive
on th e right there.
A OK, so th is one 11 be S outh Africa. And th a t m e an s
th e last one 12 be the US.

153
 1 0 .1 Active and passive forms
1 Com plete the sen tences w ith the passive form of th e verbs
GR10.1))) in th e box.
1 Jaguars are found in South America, not Africa. develop eat make order send sta rt use
2 Henry Vlll, the fam ous English king, was married six times.
1 T he first onlin e retail site Was sta r te d in 1994.
3 The programme w ill be broadcast at eight o'clock
tom orrow evening. 2 T he in te rn e t___________in the 1960s by the US
m ilitary.
4 Modern furniture can be made of wood, plastic or other
man-made materials. 3 Today, th e in te rn e t regularly by over a
billion people.
• We form the passive w ith the verb be + past participle. 4 Billions of in te rn et se a rc h e s __________ every day.
Thousands o f new websites are set up every day. 5 T he first m obile ph o ne text m e ssa ge __________ in the
The business was sta rted by James Davis in 1997. late 1990s.
Over a million units have been sold.
6 About th re e billion p iz z a s in A m erica every
When was the business started?
M ost things can be bought online these days.
year, an d m ost of th e s e ___________ online.
Smoking is n ot allow ed in the restaurant.
2 Com plete th e text about online shopping using the correct
passive or active form of the verbs in brackets.
Note that we form the negative of simple tenses by putting not
between the auxiliary be and the past participle (e.g. I was not
The firs t version of online sho pp in g1 was invented (invent)
asked). For other tenses, not goes between the two auxiliary
in 1979 by UK businessman Michael Aldrich. His system,
verbs (e.g. The office has no t been cleaned).
which 2 (call) Videotex, 3______ (connect) a modified
TV to a com puter using a phone line. In 1980, he 4_____ (set
• We use active verbs to describe w hat someone or something
does. up) a system w h ic h 5______ (allow) customers and suppliers
Perry Chen, Yancey Strickler and Charles Adler started to be connected so th at business c o u ld 6_____ (complete)
Kickstarter. electronically. During the 1980s, h e 7 (create) a number
• We use passive verbs to describe what happens to someone or of online shopping systems, using Videotex technology. These
something. 8 (use) mainly by large corporations.

Often the person or thing th at does the action is not known, or Online shopping 9 (not/becom e) popular until the
is obvious or unimportant. introduction of the World Wide Web in the early 1990s. In 1994,
Pizza Hut was the first business to offer online ordering.
Over two million dollars was invested in the business.
The product is m anufactured in over twenty countries. Many other comm ercial w ebsites soon 10 (follow).
Amazon and e B a y11 (launch) in 1995. Today millions of
• We use by if we want to say who or w hat does the action.
item s 12 (sell) online every day.
Kickstarter was started by Perry Chen, Yancey Strickler and
Charles Adler.
• We often use the passive to continue talking about the same 3 Rew rite th e sen ten ces u sing th e passive.
thing or person. 1 They started th e bu siness in 2012.
Kickstarter is a crowd-funding platform. It was started in 2009.
Tke business was sta rte d in 2012.
2 People invested over ten m illion dollars in the business.

3 They d on't use th e euro in Switzerland.

4 W hen did som eone send the first text m essage?

5 T he C hinese invented paper about 4,000 years ago.

6 People buy an d sell m illions of item s o nline every day.

154
 GRAM MAR REFERENCE

1 0 . 2 a/an, the and no article

1 Choose th e correct options to com plete the conversations.
GR10.21 1 A Did you play any sports w hen you w ere at the / Q
1 What would you like, an apple or a banana? school?
2 The Shard is one of th e newest buildings in London. B Yes, I was in - / the school football team . I w as a / the
cap tain, actually.
3 I can see a car in the distance. I think th e car's red.
2 A I th in k the / - com petition is good for a / - child's
4 Football is probably th e most popular sport in the world.
developm ent.
5 I became interested in astronomy when I was at school.
B I agree. But it can also have a / the negative effect if
som eone is always on the / - losing side.
w e use a/an:
3 A I th in k it's totally w rong tha t t h e / - celebrities get
• when something is one of many
p aid so m uch money.
Have you ever been to a football match?
Did you have a good seat in the stadium? B Well, they do give the / - en te rta in m e n t to m illions
• when we mention something for the first time of the / - people. And also, they can have a / the short
My town has got an indoor and an outdoor swimming pool. The career, so th ey need to earn a / the lot of m oney in
outdoor pool is open only in the summer. a / the sho rt p eriod of time.
We use the: 4 A Is a / the gam e on the / - TV th is evening?
• when it's the only one of something, or the only one in a place B Yes, it is. I th in k the / - start is at 7.45. Are you going
I love the Olympics. to w atch it at the / - hom e or shall we go to a / - bar to
Can you close the door, please? w atch it?
• when we have talked about the thing(s) before 5 A Have you got a / the favourite sport?
Did you have a good seat in the stadium? B Not really, I'm not a / the big sports fan. But I generally
My town has got an indoor and an outdoor swimming pool. The like w inter sports like - / the skiing and - / the ice
outdoor pool is only open in the summer. skating. I always love the / - W inter Olympics.
We use - (no article):
• when we talk about plural and uncountable nouns in general 2 C om plete th e text abo u t the origin of th e Olym pic G am es
Some schools have banned (-) competitive sports. w ith a/an, the or - (no article)
I love watching (-) swimming on TV.
• in some common expressions after a preposition (e.g. at school,
1 T ke Olympic Games originated long ago in ancient Greece.
at university, in hospital, in bed, to bed, on TV) One story ab out 2 origin o f 3 Games concerns
I was in the athletics team a t (-) university. 4 god Zeus. It is said that Zeus once fought his father,
I'm tired. I'm going to (-) bed. Kronos, fo r 5 control o f 6 world. They fought at
7 top o f 8 mountain that overlooked 9 valley
With school, university, college, hospital, church, prison and bed in south-western Greece. After Zeus defeated his father,
you sometimes use the and you sometimes use - (no article). 10 temple and 11 enormous statue of Zeus were
• You use the when you are talking about the 'physical' place. built in 12 valley b elow 13 mountain . 14 valley
The station is very old. was called Olympia, and soon 15 religious festivals
The football stadium is near the university. were held there as 16 people came to worship Zeus
• You use - (no article) when you are talking about the and celebrate his physical strength. It is believed that these
'activity' associated with a place. religious festivals eventually led to 17 Olympic Games.
I go to church every Sunday. (= I go to a religious ceremony
Although we do not know exactly when 18 Games first
every Sunday.)
What did you study at university? (= What did you do as a took place, 19 earliest recorded Olympic competition
student?) occurred in 776 BC. It had only one event, 20 running
race, which was won by 21 cook named Coroebus. Over
time, 22 new sports involving running, jumping, throwing
and fighting were added t o 23 Games. 24 winner
of each event received 25 wreath o f 26 olive leaves
and was considered 27 hero. O nly 28 men were
allowed to compete, and 29____ women were not even
allowed to watch 30 Games.

155
 . Sentences with i f - unreal past
1 1 .1 conditional
1 Complete the u n real past conditional sentences in the
conversations w ith th e correct form of the verbs in brackets.
GR11.1))) 1 A Sorry w e’re late. We got stuck in traffic.
1 If the bank robber had escaped, he w ouldn't have gone B Well, if vouW se t o f f (set off) earlier, you would've
to prison. m issed (miss) th e heavy traffic. I did w arn you.
2 The burglar might have escaped if the alarm hadn't 2 A Was th e thief w ho burgled you arrested?
gone off. B No. There w asn’t enough evidence. T h e y _____
(arrest) him if th e y (find) the things he’d stolen.
We use the unreal past conditional to talk about unreal situations
3 A Did you get the job?
in the past. We use it to talk about situations or events that are
contrary to, or the opposite of, what actually happened. B No, I d id n 't b o th er applying.
• l f + past perfect would have + past participle A Oh, I'm sure y o u (get) th e job if y o u _____
I f you had locked the car, no one would have stolen it. (apply) for it.
(You didn't lock the car, so it was stolen.) 4 A I see you d id n 't m anage to clean the kitchen.
I f he'd been caught, he w ou ldn't have been able to commit B Well, if y o u (ask) m e earlier, I (can/
anymore crimes. (He wasn't caught, so he was able to commit clean) it. But I was too busy, sorry.
more crimes.)
5 A I th o ug ht you and Johan n h ad m et a few years ago.
I f the police had arrived five minutes earlier, they would have
caught the burglar. B No, I d o n’t th in k so. I'm sure I (rem em ber) if I
(met) him before. I didn 't recognize him at all.
The if-clause and the result clause can usually go in either
order. When the //-clause is first, it is followed by a comma.
Rewrite th e su m m ary w ith conditional sentences to show
When the result clause comes first, there is no comma. how th in g s m ight have b een different.
If I'd seen you, I would have said hello. Johnny d id n ’t work h ard at school. -» He failed all his
I would have said hello if I'd seen you. -*
w ent back to school. -» He w ent to university. -* He got a
• We can also use the modal verbs could and might instead of good job.
would.
If the police had arrived five minutes earlier, they m ight have
1 If Jo h nn y Woid worked Ward u t school, he w ouldnt huve
caught the burglar. fa ile d all h is exams.
If we'd left earlier, we could have stopped o ff on the way. 2 If he h a d n 't failed h is e x a m s,________________________
3 I f __________________________________________________
In informal spoken English and in informal writing (e.g. social 4 If
media), we usually contract had and would t o 'd, especially
5 If
after pronouns. We sometimes also contract have to Ve.
If I'd seen anything, I would've told you. 6 If

3 W rite an u n real past co nditional sentence for each story

about how th in gs m ight have be en different.
1 A nineteen-year-old m an stole $200 from a shop. A few
days later he saw a security cam era photo in a local
n ew spaper and show ed it to his m other. She contacted
th e police an d he was arrested.
I f We- hadvCt shown, the, picture to his m other, she
wouldvCt have contacted th e police.
2 A m a n w as robbing a shop in M adrid in Spain and he
p ulled a bag out of his pocket to put th e m oney in. He
pulled out his ID card at th e sam e tim e by m istake. It
fell on th e floor. An hour later he w as arrested.

3 A m an robbed a shop an d jum ped onto a bus to escape.

He d idn 't have th e correct m oney to pay for a ticket, so
he got back off th e bus a nd was arrested by a policem an
who was passing by.

156
 GRAM MAR REFERENCE

1 1 . 2 should/shouldn't have
1 Read th e situ atio ns an d w rite w hat was the correct or
GR11.2))) b ette r th in g to have done in each situation, using
shouldn't have. Begin w ith th e w ords given.
1 You really should have contacted me sooner about the
problem. 1 In 2000, m illions of people received an em ail w ith
2 They shouldn't have spent so much money on a holiday. the subject line ‘I love you’. O pening the em ail was
a m istake as it activated one of the w orst com puter
3 Who should w e have told about the change of
arrangements for the meeting? viruses, th e 'Love Bug' virus, w hich infected over fifty
m illion com puters aro u nd the world.
4 They shouldn't have taken the money.
People sWouXdvCt have, optvttd t k t em ail._____________
We use should have or shouldn't have + past participle to criticize 2 A few years ago, an em ployee of a n in suran ce com pany
things we or other people did or didn't do in the past and to say started a ru m o u r via em ail th a t an o the r com pany had
what was the correct or better thing to have done. serious financial problem s. The o the r com pany saw
I should have w aited before I sent the email. the em ail an d took the com pany th at had started the
She should never have posted the letter. ru m o u r to court. They received £450,000.
You shouldn't have said anything to him. He's really upset now.
T he em p loy ee______________________________________
I didn't know what to do. In your opinion, what should I have
done? 3 A CEO of an in tern atio n al com pany criticized 400 of his
em ployees by em ail. The em ail becam e public and the
in spoken English, we usually contract have to Ve. value of the com pany fell by alm ost 30%.
we should've waited a little longer. T he CEO
You shouldn't’ve said anything.
4 In 2010, a fourteen-year-old girl posted on Facebook
th a t she w as having a party. 2 1,0 0 0 people clicked th a t
they were going to atten d. H er p are nts cancelled the
party.
T he g irl____________________________________________
5 In 2009, th e U niversity of C alifornia em ailed 46,000
applican ts and told them they w ere accepted as
stu d en ts of th e university. The university had
accidentally sent th e em ail to all the ap plicants rather
th an ju st to th e successful applicants.
T he u n iv e rsity _____________________________________

Look at the th ing s D m itry did and didn 't do w hen he w ent
for a job interview. Write w hat w as th e correct or b etter
th in g to have done, using should have or shouldn't have.
He d id n ’t have a shave. He wore jeans an d a T-shirt. He
d id n ’t arrive on tim e. He kept looking at his phone. He
d id n 't ask any questions. He didn 't say goodbye.
1 He, should ko[Vt Wo[d oi shave.._______________________
2 ___________________________________________________
3 ___________________________________________________
4 ____________________________________________________
5 ___________________________________________________
6 ______________________________________

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 12.1 Reported sp eech
C om plete the sen tences w ith said or told.
We use reported speech to talk about w hat someone said.
We often use the reporting verbs say and tell m ost comm only 1 David said he w as an actor.
(the past forms said and told). 2 He h e ’d been in several TV ads th a t year.
3 A n n a ____ m e she w anted to be a m odel.
G R 12.1a))) 4 K ate_____ she h ad designed the brochure.
5 A n d y ____ us he w as from Canada.
Direct speech Reported speech

1 'It's a great idea.' He said th at it w as a great idea. 2 Rewrite th e statem en ts as repo rted speech.

2 'I really like the new She said tha t she really liked the 1 'I'll w atch th e film w ith you.’
ad.' new ad. Tom said (tkat) We!d watck the, f i l m w ith us.________
2 ‘We don't u n d e rsta n d w hat the advert is selling.’
3 'It w as a long journey.' He told us tha t it had been a long
journey. They s a id _________________________________________
3 'M arek w atched TV all day.'
4 'I've never been there.' She told us she'd never been there.
Ioanna told us
5 'We're hoping sales He said they w ere hoping sales 4 ‘I th in k w e're going to the cinem a at the w eekend.'
will increase.' would increase.
Sharon s a id ________________________________________
6 'It'll get easier w ith He told them it would get easier 5 'We don 't like action movies.'
practice.' w ith practice. A ndrea an d Pawel said
6 'I've seen th is d o cu m entary before.'
• Tell m ust have a personal object (e.g. He told me, I told them). Andy told m e _______________________________________
Say does not have a personal object (NOT He said me).
• We can generally use reported speech w ith or w ith o u t that Alexia is talk ing ab o ut her acting experience an d her
(e.g. He sa id ... or He said th a t...). hopes for th e future. R eport w h at she says.

Tense changes '1 1really want to be an actor. 21think I have a natural talent
When we use reported speech, tenses usually move one for acting . 3I've been in a few plays. 4 1was once in a TV
tense back (do -* did, is -* was, did or have done — had done, advert. 51 played a woman queuing in a bank. 6It was a great
will -* would, etc.). This helps to show th at the words were experience and I really enjoyed it. 7 1hope I'll get another
spoken in the past. The pronoun can also change (e.g. from I to he). chance to be on TV again. 8I'm determined to become a
professional actor.'
However, we som etim es do not change the tense. This is
1 Ske said/told me, (tkat) skc really Wanted to be an, actor.
usually when something is still true or im portant.
She said they'll be ten minutes late. 2 ___________________________________________________
3 ___________________________________________________
'Here and n o w ' w ord s 4 ___________________________________________________
Words which talk about tim e and place may also som etimes 5 ___________________________________________________
change when the reporter's 'here and now ' is not the same as the 6 ______________________________________
original speaker's. 7 ___________________________________________________
8 ________________________________________________
GR12.1b)))
4 The tim e an d place references in these statem ents have
Direct speech Reported speech
now chan ged . R eport th e statem ents, chan ging the ‘here
1 'The film was released He said (that) the film had been and now ' words.
last summer.' released th e previous summer.
1 'I saw th is film last w eek.’
2 'The film ing is She said (that) the filming was th e He said (tka t) ke!d scevi tk e fil m . tke. Week, be fo re/tk c
tomorrow.' next day. pre,viciu Week-.
3 'I saw him here He said (that) he'd seen him there 2 'W e're having a m eeting tom orrow.'
yesterday.' th e day before. She told me
4 'It's on TV this She told me (that) it was on TV
3 'I'm going to London this M onday.’
Monday.' th at Monday. He s a id ____________________________________________
4 'T he aw ard cerem ony will be held here in the hotel.'
They an n o u n ce d

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 GRAM MAR REFERENCE

1 2 . 2 Reported questions
1 Rewrite th e questio ns as repo rted questions.
GR12.2a)| 1 'W here do you work?'
He aslced where I Worked.__________________________
Direct question Reported question
2 'Do you live near Istanbul?'
1 'When are th ey She asked when they w ere going. S h e ________________________________________________
going?'
3 'Have you lived th e re long?’
2 'Where does she live?' He asked me where she lived. He
3 'What have you She wanted to know what I'd 4 'W here did you go to university?'
done?' done. S h e ________________________________________________
5 'Can you give me som e advice?'
We use reported questions to say what someone asked. We usually H e ________________________________________________
use the reporting verb asked, we can use asked with an object (e.g. 6 'W ill you help me later?'
He asked me w h a t...) or without an object (e.g. He asked w h a t...). H e ________________________________________________
We can use wanted to know instead of asked.
7 'Have you ever read any Shakespeare?'
When we report questions, as with reported speech, we usually
She
move one tense back (do -* did, is was, will -* would, etc.).
This helps to show that the words were spoken in the past.
8 ‘W hat are you doing th is evening?’
S h e ________________________________________________
Because a reported question is no longer a direct question, we do
not invert the subject and the auxiliary verb, and we do not use the
2 Read th is interview w ith b u sinessm an Peter H orspath and
auxiliary verb do.
th en rep o rt th e questions.
1 I W hat m akes a good leader?
GR12.2b$
P A good leader n eed s people to follow them .
Direct question Reported question 2 I W hat is the h igh est com plim ent you have been paid?
1 'Did you understand?' She asked us if we'd understood. P It's th a t I am always h onest and fair.
3 I W hat is th e worst th in g anyone has said abo ut you?
2 'Have you seen He wanted to know if I'd seen
Hitoshi?' Hitoshi. P Som eone once said th at my success w as a result
of luck.
3 'Do you read a lot?' She asked w h eth e r I read a lot.
4 I W hat do you look for in the people you do business
with?
To report yes/no questions we use if or whether. P I look for honesty an d h ard work.
5 I W hat is your w orst fault?
w ith questions with be, we sometimes put the verb at the end
P I som etim es d on ’t give people a second chance.
of the reported question. This is more usual when the question
is short.
6 I W hat is the b est piece of care er advice you can give?
'What's your favourite film?' P It's im p o rtan t to step outside your com fort zone on
He asked what my favourite film was. occasions.
NOT usually He asked what was-my favourite film. 7 I Do you have a favourite book?
P My favourite book is How to Win Friends a nd
Influence People by Dale C arnegie.
8 I W hat do you do to relax?
P I go to th e gym.

1 T he interview er asked w hat m ade a jjood Leader.

2 She a s k e d _________________________________________
3 ___________________________________________________
4 ___________________________________________________
5 ___________________________________________________
6 ______________________________________
7 ___________________________________________________
8

159