Operant CB Skinner

Operant conditioning, also known as instrumental conditioning, is a method of learning normally

attributed to B.F. Skinner, where the consequences of a response determine the probability of it being
repeated. Through operant conditioning behavior which is reinforced (rewarded) will likely be
repeated, and behavior which is punished will occur less frequently.
BF Skinner - Operant Conditioning
By the 1920s, John B. Watson had left academic psychology, and other behaviorists were becoming
influential, proposing new forms of learning other than classical conditioning. Perhaps the most
important of these was Burrhus Frederic Skinner. Although, for obvious reasons, he is more
commonly known as B.F. Skinner.
Skinner's views were slightly less extreme than those of Watson (1913). Skinner believed that we do
have such a thing as a mind, but that it is simply more productive to study observable behavior rather
than internal mental events.
The work of Skinner was rooted in a view that classical conditioning was far too simplistic to be a
complete explanation of complex human behavior. He believed that the best way to understand
behavior is to look at the causes of an action and its consequences. He called this approach operant
conditioning.
BF Skinner: Operant Conditioning
Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning, but his work was based on Thorndike’s
(1898) law of effect. According to this principle, behavior that is followed by pleasant consequences
is likely to be repeated, and behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is less likely to be
repeated.
Skinner introduced a new term into the Law of Effect - Reinforcement. behavior which is reinforced
tends to be repeated (i.e., strengthened); behavior which is not reinforced tends to die out-or be
extinguished (i.e., weakened).
Skinner (1948) studied operant conditioning by conducting experiments using animals which he
placed in a 'Skinner Box' which was similar to Thorndike’s puzzle box.

A Skinner box, also known as an operant conditioning chamber, is a device used to objectively record
an animal's behavior in a compressed time frame. An animal can be rewarded or punished for
engaging in certain behaviors, such as lever pressing (for rats) or key pecking (for pigeons).
Skinner identified three types of responses, or operant, that can follow behavior.
• Neutral operants: responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the probability
of a behavior being repeated.
• Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior being
repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative.
• Punishers: Responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior being
repeated. Punishment weakens behavior.
We can all think of examples of how our own behavior has been affected by reinforcers and punishers.
As a child you probably tried out a number of behaviors and learned from their consequences.
For example, if when you were younger you tried smoking at school, and the chief consequence was
that you got in with the crowd you always wanted to hang out with, you would have been positively
reinforced (i.e., rewarded) and would be likely to repeat the behavior.
If, however, the main consequence was that you were caught, caned, suspended from school and your
parents became involved you would most certainly have been punished, and you would consequently
be much less likely to smoke now.
Positive Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement is a term described by B. F. Skinner in his theory of operant conditioning. In
positive reinforcement, a response or behavior is strengthened by rewards, leading to the repetition of
desired behavior. The reward is a reinforcing stimulus.
Skinner showed how positive reinforcement worked by placing a hungry rat in his Skinner box. The
box contained a lever on the side, and as the rat moved about the box, it would accidentally knock the
lever. Immediately it did so a food pellet would drop into a container next to the lever.
The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few times of being put in the box. The
consequence of receiving food if they pressed the lever ensured that they would repeat the action
again and again.
Positive reinforcement strengthens a behavior by providing a consequence an individual finds
rewarding. For example, if your teacher gives you £5 each time you complete your homework (i.e., a
reward) you will be more likely to repeat this behavior in the future, thus strengthening the behavior
of completing your homework.
Negative Reinforcement
Negative reinforcement is the termination of an unpleasant state following a response. This is known
as negative reinforcement because it is the removal of an adverse stimulus which is ‘rewarding’ to the
animal or person. Negative reinforcement strengthens behavior because it stops or removes an
unpleasant experience.
For example, if you do not complete your homework, you give your teacher £5. You will complete
your homework to avoid paying £5, thus strengthening the behavior of completing your homework.
Skinner showed how negative reinforcement worked by placing a rat in his Skinner box and then
subjecting it to an unpleasant electric current which caused it some discomfort. As the rat moved
about the box it would accidentally knock the lever. Immediately it did so the electric current would
be switched off. The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few times of being put in
the box. The consequence of escaping the electric current ensured that they would repeat the action
again and again.
In fact Skinner even taught the rats to avoid the electric current by turning on a light just before the
electric current came on. The rats soon learned to press the lever when the light came on because they
knew that this would stop the electric current being switched on.
These two learned responses are known as Escape Learning and Avoidance Learning.
Punishment (weakens behavior)
Punishment is defined as the opposite of reinforcement since it is designed to weaken or eliminate a
response rather than increase it. It is an aversive event that decreases the behavior that it follows.
Like reinforcement, punishment can work either by directly applying an unpleasant stimulus like a
shock after a response or by removing a potentially rewarding stimulus, for instance, deducting
someone’s pocket money to punish undesirable behavior.
Note: It is not always easy to distinguish between punishment and negative reinforcement.
There are many problems with using punishment, such as:
• Punished behavior is not forgotten, it's suppressed - behavior returns when punishment is no longer
present.
• Causes increased aggression - shows that aggression is a way to cope with problems.
• Creates fear that can generalize to undesirable behaviors, e.g., fear of school.
• Does not necessarily guide toward desired behavior - reinforcement tells you what to do, punishment
only tells you what not to do.
Schedules of Reinforcement
Imagine a rat in a “Skinner box.” In operant conditioning, if no food pellet is delivered immediately
after the lever is pressed then after several attempts the rat stops pressing the lever (how long would
someone continue to go to work if their employer stopped paying them?). The behavior has been
extinguished.
Behaviorists discovered that different patterns (or schedules) of reinforcement had different effects on
the speed of learning and extinction. Ferster and Skinner (1957) devised different ways of delivering
reinforcement and found that this had effects on
1. The Response Rate - The rate at which the rat pressed the lever (i.e., how hard the rat worked).
2. The Extinction Rate - The rate at which lever pressing dies out (i.e., how soon the rat gave up).

Skinner found that the type of reinforcement which produces the slowest rate of extinction (i.e.,
people will go on repeating the behavior for the longest time without reinforcement) is variable-ratio
reinforcement. The type of reinforcement which has the quickest rate of extinction is continuous
reinforcement.
(A) Continuous Reinforcement
An animal/human is positively reinforced every time a specific behavior occurs, e.g., every time a
lever is pressed a pellet is delivered, and then food delivery is shut off.
• Response rate is SLOW
• Extinction rate is FAST

(B) Fixed Ratio Reinforcement

Behavior is reinforced only after the behavior occurs a specified number of times. e.g., one
reinforcement is given after every so many correct responses, e.g., after every 5th response. For
example, a child receives a star for every five words spelled correctly.
• Response rate is FAST
• Extinction rate is MEDIUM
(C) Fixed Interval Reinforcement
One reinforcement is given after a fixed time interval providing at least one correct response has been
made. An example is being paid by the hour. Another example would be every 15 minutes (half hour,
hour, etc.) a pellet is delivered (providing at least one lever press has been made) then food delivery is
shut off.
• Response rate is MEDIUM
• Extinction rate is MEDIUM
(D) Variable Ratio Reinforcement
behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable number of times. For examples gambling or fishing.
• Response rate is FAST
• Extinction rate is SLOW (very hard to extinguish because of unpredictability)
(E) Variable Interval Reinforcement
Providing one correct response has been made, reinforcement is given after an unpredictable amount
of time has passed, e.g., on average every 5 minutes. An example is a self-employed person being
paid at unpredictable times.
• Response rate is FAST
• Extinction rate is SLOW
Behavior Modification
Behavior modification is a set of therapies / techniques based on operant conditioning (Skinner, 1938,
1953). The main principle comprises changing environmental events that are related to a person's
behavior. For example, the reinforcement of desired behaviors and ignoring or punishing undesired
ones.
This is not as simple as it sounds — always reinforcing desired behavior, for example, is basically
bribery.
There are different types of positive reinforcements. Primary reinforcement is when a reward
strengths a behavior by itself. Secondary reinforcement is when something strengthens a behavior
because it leads to a primary reinforcer.
Examples of behavior modification therapy include token economy and behavior shaping.
Token Economy
Token economy is a system in which targeted behaviors are reinforced with tokens (secondary
reinforcers) and later exchanged for rewards (primary reinforcers).
Tokens can be in the form of fake money, buttons, poker chips, stickers, etc. While the rewards can
range anywhere from snacks to privileges or activities. For example, teachers use token economy at
primary school by giving young children stickers to reward good behavior.
Token economy has been found to be very effective in managing psychiatric patients. However, the
patients can become over reliant on the tokens, making it difficult for them to adjust to society once
they leave prison, hospital, etc.
Staff implementing a token economy programme have a lot of power. It is important that staff do not
favor or ignore certain individuals if the programme is to work. Therefore, staff need to be trained to
give tokens fairly and consistently even when there are shift changes such as in prisons or in a
psychiatric hospital.
Behavior Shaping
A further important contribution made by Skinner (1951) is the notion of behavior shaping through
successive approximation. Skinner argues that the principles of operant conditioning can be used to
produce extremely complex behavior if rewards and punishments are delivered in such a way as to
encourage move an organism closer and closer to the desired behavior each time.
To do this, the conditions (or contingencies) required to receive the reward should shift each time the
organism moves a step closer to the desired behavior.
According to Skinner, most animal and human behavior (including language) can be explained as a
product of this type of successive approximation.
Educational Applications
In the conventional learning situation, operant conditioning applies largely to issues of class and
student management, rather than to learning content. It is very relevant to shaping skill performance.
A simple way to shape behavior is to provide feedback on learner performance, e.g., compliments,
approval, encouragement, and affirmation. A variable-ratio produces the highest response rate for
students learning a new task, whereby initially reinforcement (e.g., praise) occurs at frequent
intervals, and as the performance improves reinforcement occurs less frequently, until eventually only
exceptional outcomes are reinforced.
For example, if a teacher wanted to encourage students to answer questions in class they should praise
them for every attempt (regardless of whether their answer is correct). Gradually the teacher will only
praise the students when their answer is correct, and over time only exceptional answers will be
praised.
Unwanted behaviors, such as tardiness and dominating class discussion can be extinguished through
being ignored by the teacher (rather than being reinforced by having attention drawn to them). This is
not an easy task, as the teacher may appear insincere if he/she thinks too much about the way to
behave.
Knowledge of success is also important as it motivates future learning. However, it is important to
vary the type of reinforcement given so that the behavior is maintained. This is not an easy task, as the
teacher may appear insincere if he/she thinks too much about the way to behave.

Dalam pembelajaran konvensional, penggunaan operant conditioning sebagian besar hanya berlaku
untuk masalah manajemen kelas dan siswa, daripada konten pembelajaran. Hal ini sangat relevan
untuk membentuk kinerja keterampilan.
Cara sederhana untuk membentuk perilaku adalah dengan memberikan umpan balik pada hasil kerja
dari siswa, misalnya saja: pujian, persetujuan, dorongan, dan affirmasi (penegasan/ peneguhan kata
positif). Rasio variabel menghasilkan tingkat respons tertinggi bagi siswa yang mempelajari tugas
baru, di mana awalnya penguatan (misalnya, pujian) terjadi pada interval yang sering, dan ketika
kinerja meningkat, penguatan terjadi lebih jarang, sampai akhirnya hanya hasil luar biasa yang
diperkuat.
Misalnya, jika seorang guru ingin mendorong siswa untuk menjawab pertanyaan di kelas, mereka
harus memuji mereka untuk setiap upaya (terlepas dari apakah jawaban mereka benar). Secara
bertahap guru hanya akan memuji siswa ketika jawaban mereka benar, dan seiring waktu hanya
jawaban yang luar biasa yang akan dipuji.
Sedangkan untuk perilaku yang tidak diinginkan, seperti keterlambatan dan mendominasi pada
diskusi kelas dapat dipadamkan dengan cara diabaikan oleh guru (daripada diperkuat dengan
memberikan perhatian kepada mereka). Ini tentunya bukan tugas yang mudah, karena guru mungkin
terlihat tidak tulus (bermuka dua) jika dia terlalu memikirkan cara berperilaku.
Pengetahuan tentang kesuksesan juga penting karena memotivasi pembelajaran di masa depan.
Namun, penting untuk memvariasikan jenis penguatan yang diberikan agar perilaku tetap terjaga. Ini
bukan tugas yang mudah, karena guru mungkin tampak tidak tulus jika dia terlalu memikirkan cara
berperilaku.
Kekurangan teori Operation Conditioning Skinner
Setelah mengetahui penjelasan teori operation conditioning Skinner, beberapa kekurangan dari
teori tersebut sebagai berikut; dalam prosesberlangsungnya pembelajarandapat diamati secara
langsung,padahal pelajar adalah proses kegiatan mental yang tidak dapat dilihat dari luar, kecuali
sebagai gejalanya.Pembelajaran bersifat otomatis, sedangkan setiap individu memiliki self-
direction(kemampuan mengarahkan diri) dan self-control (pengendalian diri) yang bersifat
kognitif, sehingga ia bisa menolak jika tidak menghendaki.Selain itu, proses belajar manusia
disamakandengan perilaku hewan itu sulit diterima, mengingat menolaknya perbedaan karakter
fisikmaupun psikis antara manusia dan hewan.11

11Nini Subini, Psikologi Pembelajaran hlm. 127

Kelebihan teori Operation Conditioning Skinner
Setelah mengetahui penjelasan teori operation conditioning Skinner, penulis mengemukakan beberapa
kelebihan dari teori tersebut adalah sebagai berikut; Kelebihan teori operation conditioning
adalah guru diarahkan untuk menghargai setiap anak didiknya (menghilangkan sistem
hukuman). Hal ini didukung dengan adanya pembentukan lingkungan yang baik untuk
meminimalkan terjadinya kesalahan. Penguatansendirimemotivasi untuk berperilaku benar sesuai
keinginan.12

12 Nini Subini,Psikologi Pembelajaran hlm. 128.

Summary
Looking at Skinner's classic studies on pigeons’ / rat's behavior we can identify some of the major
assumptions of the behaviorist approach.
• Psychology should be seen as a science, to be studied in a scientific manner. Skinner's study of
behavior in rats was conducted under carefully controlled laboratory conditions.
• Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable behavior, as opposed to internal events like
thinking and emotion. Note that Skinner did not say that the rats learned to press a lever because they
wanted food. He instead concentrated on describing the easily observed behavior that the rats
acquired.
• The major influence on human behavior is learning from our environment. In the Skinner study,
because food followed a particular behavior the rats learned to repeat that behavior, e.g., operant
conditioning.
• There is little difference between the learning that takes place in humans and that in other animals.
Therefore research (e.g., operant conditioning) can be carried out on animals (Rats / Pigeons) as well
as on humans. Skinner proposed that the way humans learn behavior is much the same as the way the
rats learned to press a lever.
So, if your layperson's idea of psychology has always been of people in laboratories wearing white
coats and watching hapless rats try to negotiate mazes in order to get to their dinner, then you are
probably thinking of behavioral psychology.
Behaviorism and its offshoots tend to be among the most scientific of the psychological perspectives.
The emphasis of behavioral psychology is on how we learn to behave in certain ways.
We are all constantly learning new behaviors and how to modify our existing behavior. behavioral
psychology is the psychological approach that focuses on how this learning takes place.
Critical Evaluation
Operant conditioning can be used to explain a wide variety of behaviors, from the process of learning,
to addiction and language acquisition. It also has practical application (such as token economy) which
can be applied in classrooms, prisons and psychiatric hospitals.
However, operant conditioning fails to take into account the role of inherited and cognitive factors in
learning, and thus is an incomplete explanation of the learning process in humans and animals.
For example, Kohler (1924) found that primates often seem to solve problems in a flash of insight
rather than be trial and error learning. Also, social learning theory (Bandura, 1977) suggests that
humans can learn automatically through observation rather than through personal experience.
The use of animal research in operant conditioning studies also raises the issue of extrapolation. Some
psychologists argue we cannot generalize from studies on animals to humans as their anatomy and
physiology is different from humans, and they cannot think about their experiences and invoke
reason, patience, memory or self-comfort.
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How to reference this article:
McLeod, S. A. (2018, January, 21). Skinner - operant conditioning. Simply Psychology.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html

Edward Thorndike: The Law of Effect

By Dr. Saul McLeod updated 2018
The law of effect principle developed by Edward Thorndike suggested that:
"responses that produce a satisfying effect in a particular situation become more likely to occur again
in that situation, and responses that produce a discomforting effect become less likely to occur again
in that situation (Gray, 2011, p. 108–109)."
Edward Thorndike (1898) is famous in psychology for his work on learning theory that lead to the
development of
operant conditioning within Behaviorism.Whereas classical conditioning depends on developing
associations between events, operant conditioning involves learning from the consequences of our
behavior.
Skinner wasn’t the first psychologist to study learning by consequences. Indeed, Skinner's theory of
operant conditioning is built on the ideas of Edward Thorndike.
Thorndike studied learning in animals (usually cats). He devised a classic experiment in which he
used a puzzle box (see fig. 1) to empirically test the laws of learning.

He placed a cat in the puzzle box, which was encourage to escape to reach a scrap of fish placed
outside. Thorndike would put a cat into the box and time how long it took to escape. The cats
experimented with different ways to escape the puzzle box and reach the fish.
Eventually they would stumble upon the lever which opened the cage. When it had escaped it was put
in again, and once more the time it took to escape was noted. In successive trials the cats would learn
that pressing the lever would have favorable consequences and they would adopt this behavior,
becoming increasingly quick at pressing the lever.
Edward Thorndike put forward a “Law of effect” which stated that any behavior that is followed by
pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and any behavior followed by unpleasant
consequences is likely to be stopped.
Critical Evaluation
Thorndike (1905) introduced the concept of reinforcement and was the first to apply psychological
principles to the area of learning.
His research led to many theories and laws of learning, such as operant conditioning. Skinner (1938),
like Thorndike, put animals in boxes and observed them to see what they were able to learn.
The learning theories of Thorndike and Pavlov were later synthesized by Hull (1935). Thorndike's
research drove comparative psychology for fifty years, and influenced countless psychologists over
that period of time, and even still today.
Download this article as a PDF
How to reference this article:
McLeod, S. A. (2018, January 14). Edward Thorndike. Simply Psychology.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/edward-thorndike.html
APA Style References
Gray, P. (2011). Psychology (6th ed.) New York: Worth Publishers.
Hull, C. L. (1935). The conflicting psychologies of learning—a way out. Psychological Review, 42(6),
491.
Skinner, B. F. (1938). The behavior of organisms: An experimental analysis. New York: Appleton-
Century.
Thorndike, E. L. (1898). Animal intelligence: An experimental study of the associative processes in
animals. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 2(4), i-109.
Thorndike, E. L. (1905). The elements of psychology. New York: A. G. Seiler.

Further Information
Classical ConditioningLittle Albert ExperimentOperant ConditioningPavlov's DogsEdward
ThorndikeSocial Learning TheoryBobo Doll Studybehavioral TherapyMIT Lecture Operant
Conditioning Learning and behavior
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How to reference this article:
McLeod, S. A. (2018, January 14). Edward Thorndike. Simply Psychology.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/edward-thorndike.html