Plant Disease ❂ 18

E
very gardener has put in plants with hopes for
wonderful flowers, fruits or vegetables, only to have
those hopes dashed as the plants get sick and die.
These plants are considered diseased. Many things can
❂ Topics in this chapter
cause plants to become diseased, including biotic (living) ❂❂ Pathogens
agents, abiotic (nonliving) factors or a combination of the ❂❂ Conditions necessary for
two. This chapter focuses only on living agents — fungi, biotic disease
bacteria, viruses, nematodes and parasitic plants. Other ❂❂ The disease cycle
chapters discuss abiotic factors such as nutrient deficien-
❂❂ Disease diagnosis
cies, lack of water, temperature stress and combinations of
these problems as they relate to specific types of plants. ❂❂ Plant disease control
Some plant diseases have had tremendous impacts on ❂❂ Fungicides for home
society. Perhaps foremost among these is Phytophthora late gardeners
blight, a fungal disease that caused the Irish potato famine
in 1845. Approximately 2 million people either starved or
left Ireland, many for the United States. Powdery mildew
and downy mildew are fungal diseases that devastated the
French wine industry until Bordeaux mixture was found to
control them.
In the United States, the fungal disease chestnut blight
was introduced accidentally into New York City in the late
1800s on imported Chinese chestnut trees. The Chinese
trees were resistant to the blight, but American chestnut
trees were not. In fewer than 40 years, 30 million acres of
chestnut trees had died. Chestnut blight remains a problem
in the eastern United States. Dutch elm disease also was in- By Jay W. Pscheidt, Extension Plant Pathologist,
troduced accidentally. It infects and kills elm trees through- Oregon State University. Edited by Lindsey du Toit,
out the nation. Plant Diagnostician, Washington State University,
These examples are prominent because they caused so Puyallup, and Warren Copes, Ornamental Plant
Pathologist, Washington State University.
much damage. Plant diseases vary in how much trouble
they cause, depending on a variety of conditions, including Adapted by Michele Hébert, Extension Faculty,
the susceptibility of the plant, and the organism’s disease Agriculture and Horticulture, Cooperative
cycle. Minimizing their impact requires correct diagnosis of Extension Service, University of Alaska Fairbanks.
332 • Plant Disease—Chapter 18

Disease terminology Inoculum—The parts of a pathogen that

infect plants.
General terms Powdery mildew—A group of fungal patho-
Disease—Abnormal and harmful physio- gens whose spore production causes
logical condition brought about by living white to gray powdery mycelia on the
(biotic) agents, such as fungi, bacteria, outside of their host.
nematodes and viruses, or by nonliving Quarantine—A regulation forbidding sale
(abiotic) factors, such as nutrient deficien- or shipment of plants or plant parts in an
cies and water stress. area, usually to prevent disease, insect,
Dodder—A parasitic seed plant lacking nematode, or weed invasion.
chlorophyll; its thread-like yellow body Resistance—Qualities in a host plant that
twines around its host, from which it make it retard the activities of a pathogen.
withdraws food and water. Sanitation—The process of removing sourc-
Downy mildew—A group of fungal patho- es of plant pathogens from a growing area
gens whose spore production looks like (for example, by cleaning up plant debris
downy growth on the undersides of and sterilizing tools and growing media).
leaves. Spore—(1) The reproductive body of fungi
Exclusion—A process by which certain and other lower plants, containing one or
plants are not allowed in an area to pro- more cells. (2) A bacterial cell modified to
tect against pests and diseases from other survive in an adverse environment.
areas. Stylet—A nematode’s lance-like or hypoder-
Haustoria—A modified hyphal branch that mic-needle-like mouthpart used to punc-
grows into a plant cell to absorb food and ture and feed from plant cells.
water. Tolerant—A crop plant that will produce a
Host—A plant afflicted with a disease. normal yield even if diseased.
Hypha—A single filament of a fungus.
Immunity—A relationship between a plant Pathogens
and pathogen in which the plant does not Bacterium—A single-celled, microscopic
become diseased. organism having a cell wall but no chlo-
Incubation—A period of development dur- rophyll; reproduces by cell division.
ing which a pathogen changes to a form Fungus—A plant organism with no chloro-
that can penetrate or infect a new host phyll that reproduces via spores and usu-
plant. Some fungi, for instance, grow a ally has filamentous growth. Examples
structure called a penetration peg that can are molds, yeasts and mushrooms.
grow through a plant’s cell walls. Nematode—A microscopic roundworm, usu-
Infection—The condition reached when a ally living in the soil; many feed on plant
pathogen has invaded plant tissue and es- roots and can be disease pathogens.
tablished a parasitic relationship between Parasitic seed plant—A higher plant that
itself and its host. lives parasitically on other seed plants.
Inoculation—The introduction of a pathogen An example is mistletoe.
to a host plant’s tissue.
 Chapter 18—Plant Disease • 333

Disease terminology, continued Gall—An abnormal, localized swelling on

Pathogen—A disease-producing organism. leaf, stem or root tissue.
Phytoplasma—A microscopic, bacteria-like Mosaic—Nonuniform foliage coloration
organism that lacks a cell wall. with a more or less distinct intermingling
Virus—An infectious agent too small to see of normal green and light green or yel-
with a compound microscope; it multiplies lowish patches.
only in living cells. Mottle—An irregular pattern of light and
dark areas.
Symptoms (external or internal physical dis- Necrosis—Death of plant tissue.
ease characteristics expressed by a host plant)
Phyllody—A change from normal flower
Blight—Rapid, extensive discoloration, wilt-
structures to leafy structures.
ing, and death of plant tissue.
Rot—Decomposition and destruction of
Blotch—A blot or spot (usually superficial
tissue.
and irregular in shape and size) on leaves,
Rugose—Wrinkled.
shoots or fruit.
Russet—Yellowish-brown or reddish-brown
Canker—A dead place on the bark and cortex
scar tissue on a fruit’s surface.
of twigs, stems or trunks; often discolored
Scab—A crust-like disease lesion.
and either raised or sunken.
Water-soaked—Lesions that appear wet
Chlorosis—An abnormal yellowish-white or
and dark and usually are sunken and/or
gray color of plant parts resulting from
translucent.
incomplete destruction of chlorophyll.
Wilt—(1) Lack of freshness and turgor and
Damping-off—Decay of seeds in the soil or
drooping of leaves from lack of water. (2)
young seedlings shortly after they emerge;
A vascular disease that interrupts a plant’s
usually caused by Rhizoctonia, Pythium,
normal uptake and distribution of water.
or Fusarium fungi.
Witches’ broom—Abnormal brush-like
Dieback—Progressive death of shoots, branch-
development of many weak shoots.
es or roots, generally starting at the tips.
Dwarfing—The underdevelopment of any Signs (physical evidence of a disease-causing
plant organ. agent)
Enation—Epidermal outgrowths on leaves or Bacterial slime—A gooey or dried mass
stems. of bacterial cells that oozes out of plant
Epinasty—An abnormal downward-curving tissues.
growth or movement of a leaf, leaf part or Conk—A fungal fruiting structure (e.g.,
stem. shelf or bracket fungi) formed on rotting
Etiolation—Development of yellow, long, woody plants.
spindly growth as a result of insufficient Cyst—The swollen, egg-containing female
light. body of certain nematodes; can be seen
Fasciation—A distortion of a plant that on the outside of infected roots.
results in thin, flattened and sometimes Fruiting body—A fungal structure that con-
curved shoots. tains or bears spores.
Flagging—Loss of turgor and drooping of Mycelia—Masses of fungal threads (hy-
plant parts, usually following a water phae), which compose the vegetative
shortage. body of a fungus.
334 • Plant Disease—Chapter 18

the problem and an understanding of tech- Bacteria

niques for growing healthy plants.
Bacteria are single-celled organisms that
are much smaller and less complex than
Pathogens plant cells. Many are about the size of a
Disease causing organisms are pathogens. plant chloroplast. Bacteria can build up to
They are microscopic or very difficult to see high numbers and ooze out of plant tissues.
or recognize without magnification. Fungi, Some bacteria produce slime that may attract
bacteria, viruses, nematodes and even plants insects that spread the bacteria to healthy
can be pathogenic on garden plants. Patho- plants. Bacteria can survive unfavorable con-
gens generally get nutrients, water and ev- ditions in plant debris or even in seeds.
erything they need to reproduce from their Bacteria cause plant diseases by forming
host. Such a relationship is called parasitic. toxins or by producing enzymes that break
Some pathogens can infect several kinds of down plant cell walls. Crown gall bacteria
plants; others require a specific host. actually genetically engineer their host plant
to make galls and amino acids, thus giving
Fungi the bacteria a better place to live and the
chemicals they need to grow and reproduce.
The largest group of plant pathogens,
fungi come in a wide variety of forms. In
Viruses
general, they are multicellular organisms
with a thread-like body. These threads, Virus particles are composed of a few
which are called hyphae, have cell walls. strands of DNA and are even smaller than
When many threads mass together, they bacteria. Electron microscopes reveal
form a mycelium. Further growth of a my- them to have many shapes, including long
celium may produce fruiting bodies, where strands, short rods and multisided balls.
sexual or asexual spores are formed. The Viruses utilize a host plant’s cell organ-
characteristics of the spores, fruiting bodies elles to produce more viruses. The result
and mycelium are used to identify can be strange plant colors, forms or struc-
and diagnose fungal problems. tures. Some viral infections, however, don’t
Some fungi can survive and result in any visible plant problems.
grow without a living host. Others Touching virus-infected plant material
die if they are not in close asso- and then touching healthy plants can trans-
ciation with a host. mit some viruses. For example, a smoker
Fungi cause plant dis- can transmit tobacco mosaic virus from a
eases by making toxins cigarette to a plant. In Alaska, some viruses
that kill plant cells, by are transmitted by insects such as aphids,
growing within and scales, leaf hoppers and whiteflies. Fungi,
plugging up a plant’s mites, nematodes and even parasitic plants
vascular system, by also can transmit viruses. Some viruses also
rotting roots or by may infect a host plant’s seeds and thus be
sending root-like struc- transmitted to the next generation. Potato
tures into plant cells. virus X can be transferred from one garden
potato to another by a contaminated garden
tool or pant leg (anything that moves sap).
 Chapter 18—Plant Disease • 335

Nematodes
Nematodes are multicellular roundworms
that may be no larger than the letter “I” in
the word DIME on a U.S. coin. Because they Environment
are clear and live in the soil, they are im-
possible to see without magnification.
All plant pathogenic nematodes have a
mouthpart called a stylet. The stylet is like a
Disease
lance or hypodermic needle that the nema-
tode uses to puncture plant cells and feed Host Pathogen
from them.
Some nematodes move from root to root,
while others set up one feeding site in a
single root. Feeding may cause root lesions
or galls that restrict water and nutrient flow
to the host plant. Other nematodes weaken Figure 1.—Disease is a result of simultaneous
interactions between the environment, host and
the plant through mass feeding. A few foliar
pathogen.
nematodes attack above-ground plant parts.
Movement of soil or infected plant parts can
transmit nematode diseases. Conditions necessary for
Parasitic plants biotic diseases
Many Alaskans notice moss and lichen In order for a biotic (pathogenic) plant
growing in trees; this vegetation is not disease to occur, three conditions must be
parasitic, it just uses the tree as a platform. met:
Some plants are truly parasitic to other • The host plant must be susceptible.
plants. Dodder, for example, produces flow- • An active, living pathogen must be pres-
ers and seeds, but has no chlorophyll. Thus, ent.
it cannot manufacture its own food. It has a • The environment must be suitable or
thread-like yellow body that twines around favorable for disease development.
its host. Root-like haustoria penetrate the All three of these factors must occur
host plant and withdraw food and water. simultaneously. If one or more is absent or
Some parasitic plants, such as mistletoe, unfavorable, disease does not occur. The
manufacture chlorophyll but have no real relationship among a plant, a pathogen and
roots and depend on their host (on hemlock the environment is shown in Figure 1. The
in Southeast Alaksa) for water and nutri- more the circles overlap, the more severe
ents. Seeds of parasitic plants are spread by the disease. This is referred to as disease
birds or contaminated soil, or they may be triangle.
shot out of plant structures like little bombs. A host plant’s genetic makeup determines
its susceptibility to disease. This suscepti-
bility depends on various physical and bio-
chemical factors within the plant. Stature,
growth habit, cuticle thickness and stomatal
336 • Plant Disease—Chapter 18

shape are a few physical factors that influ-

ence disease development. A plant’s de- The disease cycle
velopmental stage also can have an effect. The sequence of events from a patho-
Stressful growing conditions can increase a gen’s survival to plant disease development
plant’s susceptibility to diseases. and back to pathogen survival is called the
Pathogens such as fungi and bacteria disease cycle, or the pathogen’s life history.
differ in their ability to survive, spread and An understanding of the disease cycle is
reproduce. Different strains of pathogens important when considering control options.
may differ in how aggressive they are in Control measure are most effective when
causing diseases. applied at the weakest link in the chain of
Environmental factors such as tempera- events in the disease cycle.
ture, light and moisture can accentuate dis- Most pathogens must survive a period
eases. For example, cool, moist conditions of adverse conditions, usually winter,
are ideal for many fungal pathogens. when they do not actively cause disease.

(b) Released
Ascospore Apple tree
ascospores
in bloom (c) Penetration
by germinating
ascospore
Ascospores
(g) Penetration by
germinating conidium Infection

(f) Conidium
Mature
perithecium (d2) Scab lesions (d1) Scab lesions
containing on fruit on leaf
asci and
ascospores (e) Conidium

Perithecium
initial

Intercellular
mycelium
Antheridium in leaf
Ascogonium
Stroma (a) Infected
leaves
on ground
Fertilization
Figure 2.—Disease cycle of apple scab: Overwintering fungi (a) produce sexual spores (b) that penetrate and
infect trees in the spring (c). Soon scab lesions appear (d1), within which asexual spores (e) are produced.
These spores are released (f) and drift onto healthy tissue (g), where they cause more scab lesions (d1 and d2)
and produce more spores (e). The cycle then begins again.
 Chapter 18—Plant Disease • 337

In spring, the overwintered inoculum then

infects or continues to infect a host plant. Disease diagnosis
Some diseases, such as many canker dis- There is no single set of questions or
eases, have only one cycle during the year. technique for diagnosing plant diseases.
Others, such as powdery mildew, continu- Experience and practice are the best teach-
ally produce new inoculum, thus repeating ers. It is easiest to diagnose plant problems
the cycle many times during a single grow- through personal, onsite inspection. You
ing season. may notice subtle influences of the site,
Apple scab is an example of a fungal environment or management practices that
disease with multiple cycles each year (Fig- make identification easier.
ure 2). The fungus survives the winter on Diagnosis is more difficult when you see
fallen infected leaves (Figure 2a), where it only part of a plant, which may or may not
produces small fruiting bodies that contain indicate the real problem. The worst situation
sexual spores. In the spring, starting about is diagnosis by phone, which easily can lead
the time apple trees begin to grow, these to misunderstanding and inaccurate diagnosis.
spores are squirted out of the dead leaves Many beginners use the picture book
(Figure 2b). Frequent or long rainstorms method of diagnosis: attempting to match a
and warm weather favor spore release. plant’s problem with a picture. The Ortho
The spores drift onto healthy leaves or Problem Solver, for example, has many use-
young fruit, where they germinate and enter ful, high-quality color pictures. Although
plant tissue much as a seed germinates and this method is useful for simple and com-
sends roots into the soil (Figure 2c). Once mon problems, it usually is inefficient and
inside, the fungus gets all of its food from inaccurate for local plant diseases, complex
the plant’s tissues. situations and difficult problems.
In a few days or weeks, a scab lesion Another simple technique is to ask a
forms (Figure 2d1). Within this lesion, series of questions to build a case history
another type of spore is produced — an of the problem. Questions should include
asexual spore (Figure 2e). When these the kind of plant, its age and its size. Also
spores are released (Figure 2f), they drift to consider the location of the property and
healthy tissue (Figure 2g), where they cause the plant’s location and relationship to other
more scab lesions (Figures 2d1 and d2) and plants. Information on recent weather, soil
produce more spores (Figure 2e). This cycle conditions, mulch and care also is needed.
can be repeated many times during wet Describing the plant’s overall condition is
springs. very important.
Summer generally brings unfavorable Symptoms and signs also are used to
hot, dry conditions. The fungus survives on diagnose a plant’s condition. Symptoms are
leaves until they fall in the autumn. Then physical disease characteristics expressed
it invades the leaves and once again makes by a plant. Examples are wilt, galls, can-
spore-bearing fruiting bodies. kers, rots, necrosis, chlorosis and general
decline. Signs are physical evidence of a
pathogen. Examples include fungal fruiting
bodies (such as mushrooms or vase-shaped
bodies called pycnidia), mycelia, bacterial
slime or nematodes.
 338 • Plant Disease—Chapter 18

Chapter 19, Diagnosing Plant Problems, the potential for the introduction of new
will help you organize your approach to di- species through imported plants.
See Chapter 19,
agnosing plant disease problems. This sys- Remember that root injury often causes
Diagnosing Plant tematic approach involves defining the real yellowing, stunting or wilting of above-
Problems. problem and distinguishing between living ground parts. Many fungi, such as Verticil-
and nonliving causes of plant damage. Steps lium and Fusarium, cause internal vascular
include looking for damage patterns, track- discoloration in stems, as do some bacterial
ing the development of damage over time wilts.
and building a case history of the problem.
With these steps, it usually is easy to nar- Symptoms on storage organs
row the possibilities and turn to specialists Many fungi and some bacteria cause
or appropriate reference materials, such as discolored or dead areas that penetrate deep
textbooks or herbarium samples, for precise into storage organs such as tubers, bulbs,
identification. corms, etc. Dry rots often are caused by
Once you determine that a real problem fungi, which also may produce mycelia or
exists and is caused by a living disease or- spores. Soft rots usually are associated with
ganism, decide what type of organism may bacteria such as Erwinia spp. and can be
be causing the damage (fungi, viruses, bac- accompanied by strong, repulsive odors.
teria or nematodes). Some insect problems Often, bacterial soft rots follow rots caused
mimic diseases; however, the symptom de- by fungi, making diagnosis difficult. Other
scriptions below deal only with pathogens. internal problems can be caused by bacteria,
Knowing what diseases a plant is suscep- e.g. (ring rot of potato) or by several viruses.
tible or resistant to also can help in diagno- Scurfy, dead surface tissue may be caused
sis. You can eliminate possibilities if you by a variety of fungus-like organisms (e.g.,
know which diseases are likely to occur. powdery scab of potato). Fungi or nema-
todes can cause galling of storage organs.
Root symptoms
External root symptoms include galls, Seedling symptoms
discoloration and death of roots or parts of Seedlings sometimes fail to emerge or
roots. fall over and die. This condition usually is
Crown gall, caused by the bacterium referred to as damping-off. Fungi such as
Agrobacterium tumefaciens, is a common Rhizoctonia, Pythium and Fusarium are
cause of galls on many plants. Some fungal common causes; they affect seedlings just at
diseases, such as club root of cabbage, also or below the soil line.
cause galls. Root-knot nematodes (Meloido- Dead areas on cotyledons (seed leaves),
gyne spp.) can cause large or small irregular the first true leaves, or stems usually are
galls. Small, discolored, dead areas may be caused by fungi, but occasionally by bacte-
caused by a wide variety of fungi or root-le- ria. Spots caused by fungi may contain hy-
sion nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.). Death phae or fruiting bodies, while those caused
of feeder roots or the entire root system is by bacteria may look water soaked around
indicative of many fungi. Though Alaska their margins.
does not currently have many problems Rusty-red, brown or black spots or stripes
with pathogenic nematodes, there is always indicate rust or smut fungi. White, moldy
 Chapter 18—Plant Disease • 339

growth can be caused by powdery a wide variety of fungi or sev-

mildew or downy mildew fungi. eral bacteria. Cutting into
Yellowing (either mottled or the wood with a knife may
patterned) can be caused by reveal a sharp border be-
several viruses. Ring spots, tween healthy and infected
blotches and streaks of yel- tissue. Some bacterial can-
low or green also may occur kers excrete a sticky ooze
with viral infections. in the spring.
Nematodes such as Dity- Wood rots and decays are
lenchus can cause swelling caused mainly by fungi. They
or galling of stems or leaves. may be accompanied by large conks
This nematode does not occur naturally or bracket-like fruiting structures.
in Alaska but can potentially come in on Galls can be produced by the crown gall
plants such as bulbs. bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens. A
few galls or swellings, such as white pine
Leaf symptoms blister rust, are caused by fungi.
Mottling is the abnormal yellow and Witches’ broom (excessive branching) can
greenish patterning of leaves infected with be caused by several fungi or by mistletoes,
viruses. Viruses can also cause leaf rolling a group of parasitic plants.
and distortions. General or uniform yellow-
ing, especially on leaf margins may indicate Flower symptoms
a root rot. Abnormal color changes and/or distor-
Dead (necrotic) areas on leaves can be tions can be caused by several viruses.
caused by fungi or bacteria. Dead areas Partial or complete death of flower parts
caused by fungi may contain hyphae or can be caused by fungi or bacteria. Fungi
fruiting bodies, while those caused by usually produce characteristic spores, while
bacteria often have water-soaked margins. bacterial infections often look water soaked.
Small, rusty-red, brown or black spots or Smut diseases convert individual flowers
stripes may be caused by rust or smut fungi. into masses of black spores; an example is
Moldy, white leaves indicate powdery or corn smut.
downy mildew.
Wilting indicates lack of water, which Fruit symptoms
may be due to vascular wilt fungus, root rot, Fungi cause a wide variety of decays, rots
nematodes or bacteria. Remember, examine and superficial spotting or russetting. Im-
the entire plant to find possible reasons for portant symptoms include the specific color
the symptoms. of rotted tissue, firmness of tissue and signs
such as spores or fruiting structures. Viruses
Stem, branch and trunk symptoms can cause discoloration and malformation.
The leaf disease symptoms above also Bacteria may cause discrete spots on fruit in
apply to most stem disorders of annuals and the field or soft rots in storage.
herbaceous perennials.
Cankers (complete or partial death of
woody stems or branches) can be caused by
340 • Plant Disease—Chapter 18

Plant disease control Avoidance

The five basic principles of plant disease If a disease does occur in
control are exclusion, avoidance, eradica- your area, there may be ways See Chapter 5,
Pruning.
tion, protection and resistance. Although to avoid its development on
therapy is another basic principle, it gener- your plants. Choosing the right site and
ally is not practiced by home gardeners. time for planting, storing produce prop-
erly and avoiding wounds to plants are a
Exclusion few of these techniques. Planting certified,
virus-free stock is a good way to avoid viral
This method includes quarantines, inspec-
diseases.
tions and certification. These techniques
Root rots can be avoided by not planting
prevent movement of diseased plant material
in heavy, poorly drained soils. Delay plant-
into a particular country, state or geographic
ing until soils dry out.
area where the disease doesn’t exist. The
Wounds can be entry points for pathogens
most visible use of this method is in Cali-
or can weaken a plant so it cannot defend
fornia. At the state border, everyone must
itself. For example, the crown gall bacte-
stop at an agricultural inspection station to
rium needs an injury to begin the infection
be screened for fresh fruit, vegetables and
process. Thus, avoid wounding plants when
plants coming from areas where certain dis-
pruning or using equipment such as mowers
eases or insects are known to exist.
or weed trimmers.
Quarantines are regulations forbidding
Finally, use good horticultural practices,
sale or shipment of plants or plant parts.
such as proper fertility, pruning, watering
There are many quarantines of plant mate-
and training, to keep plants healthy and bet-
rials coming into the United States. As a
ter able to ward off infection.
result, you can’t obtain certain varieties
or types of plants from nurseries outside
Eradication
a region without a first obtaining a per-
mit. For example, the Alaska Division of When a plant is infected or an area is
Agriculture has established a quarantine infested with a pathogen, eradication can
in order to prevent commodities infected eliminate or reduce the disease threat.
with potato late blight disease (Phytoph- Rotation, sanitation, elimination of alter-
thora infestans) from entering Alaska. Late nate hosts, chemical applications and heat
blight strikes tomatoes and potatoes all over treatment are ways to reduce or eliminate
North America at any stage of growth. It diseases.
has shown up in Alaska but currently has Crop rotation is common in both com-
not overwintered and become established. mercial agriculture and home gardens.
Quarantines are in effect to prevent intro- Rotation involves planting different crops in
duction of new types or forms of diseases. a given location each year. This practice can
A misunderstanding of these rules is the reduce soil populations of fungi and nema-
reason that many Lower 48 nurseries todes.
will not send plant material to Alas- To practice rotation, you need to know
ka. Material with a proper phytos- the pathogen and what plants are its hosts.
anitary certificate certainly can be Rotation works only if you plant nonhosts.
sent to Alaska. For example, turnips and cabbage are hosts
 Chapter 18—Plant Disease • 341

of many of the same diseases, so they are Chemical protection is one of the most
not an effective rotation. Potatoes, however, widely used means of control. There are
are a host of different diseases, so it is a many fungicides on the market, but few are
good crop to rotate with turnips and cab- readily available to home gardeners. (See
bages. See Table 1 for groups of related “Fungicides for home gardeners” later in
plants. Try to plant crops in locations where this chapter.)
plants from the same family did not grow
the previous year. Resistance
Removing plant debris (sanitation) is Resistance, immunity, tolerance and sus-
important where pathogens may overwin- ceptibility are terms that describe a plant’s
ter. Rake leaves, remove rotted fruit, pick genetic makeup and its reaction to plant
up old vines and prune out dead wood or pathogens. Resistance and its opposite, sus-
canes. Dispose of the debris by burning, ceptibility, are levels or degrees of a plant’s
burying or hot composting. reaction to a pathogen. Different cultivars
Rusts are a group of fungi that complete of a plant can react differently to the same
their life cycle on two or more hosts. The pathogen.
other host is known as an alternate host. If a plant never becomes diseased, the
Eliminating alternate hosts may reduce term immune can be used. Tolerant de-
pressure from these diseases, since the fun- scribes a plant that may become diseased
gus can’t complete its life cycle without an yet grow much like a healthy plant.
alternate host. Planting resistant cultivars is the easi-
Certain chemicals can eliminate infec- est means of disease control. You can
tions or infestations. Soil can be fumigated find lists of resistant plants in many texts
or steam sterilized to reduce populations of and seed catalogues. Sometimes the re-
certain fungi and nematodes. Some fun- sistance is identified in the seed catalog
gicides have “kickback” activity, which as a series of letters next to the variety
means they can stop some fungal infections name (V=Verticillium, F=Fusarium,
if applied within a few days N=nematodes, etc.).
after the infection has started.
Heat treatment usually is See Chapter 4,
used to eliminate viruses from Plant Propagation. Fungicides for home
propagation material. gardeners
Many fungicides are registered for use
Protection See Chapter 22,
on plants, but only a few are readily avail- Understanding
Protection means treating a healthy plant able to gardeners. Although many others Pesticides.
before it becomes diseased. There are both are neither highly toxic nor restricted in
biological and chemical means of protec- use, they may be difficult to obtain in small
tion. One of the most successful examples quantities.
of biological protection is use of a bacte- Some fungicides, such as sulfur and cop-
rium to protect against crown gall bacterial per products, are allowed under organic
disease. This process involves dipping a growing guidelines. Others, such as captan,
plant’s roots in a preparation of the bacte- triforine, and chlorothalonil, are not consid-
rium before planting. ered organic.
342 • Plant Disease—Chapter 18

Table 1.—Plant families for rotations.

Plant family Some common genera Common name of popular flowers and vegetables
Amaranthacea Celosia Cockscomb
Apiaceae Apium spp., Coriandrum, Carrot, celery, cilantro, fennel, parsley and parsnip
Daucus spp., Foeniculum.
and Pastinaca
Apocynaceae Catharanthus Madagascar periwinkle
Asteraceae Ageratum, Brachycome, African daisy, calliopsis, China aster,
Calendula, Callistephus, chrysanthemum, cineraria, cornflower, (bachelor’s
Centaurea, Coreopsis, button), cosmos, dandelion, floss flower, globe
Cosmos, Dimorphotheca, amaranth, Jerusalem artichoke, lettuce, marigold, pot
Gaillardia, Gomphrena, marigold, sunflower, strawflower, Swan River daisy
Helianthus, Helichrysum, and zinnia
Lactuca, Senecio,
Tagetes, Taraxacum
and Zinnia
Balsaminaceae Impatiens Impatiens
Boraginaceae Myosotis . Forget-me-not
Brassicaceae Brassica, Lobularia and Broccoli, brussels sprout, cabbage, candytuft, cauli-
Matthiola flower, daikon, flowering kale, horseradish, kale,
kohlrabi, mustard green, radish, rutabaga, stock, sweet
alyssum, turnip and watercress
Campanulaceae Campanula and Lobelia Bellflower, cardinal flower and lobelia
Caryophyllaceae Dianthus and Gypsophila. Dianthus and baby’s breath
Chenopodiaceae Beta and Spinacia Beet, spinach and Swiss chard
Convolvulaceae Convolvulus and Ipomoea Morning glory and sweet potato
Cucurbitaceae Citrullus, Cucumis and Cucumber, gourd, honeydew melon, muskmelon,
Cucurbita pumpkin, squash, watermelon and zucchini
Dioscoreaceae Dioscorea Yam
Dipsacaceae Scabiosa Pincushion flower
Fabaceae Glycine, Lathyrus, Lima bean, mung bean, pea, snap bean, soybean
Phaseolus, Pisum and and sweet pea
Vigna
Lamiaceae Salvia Sage
Liliaceae Allium and Asparagus Asparagus, chive, garlic, leek, onion and shallot
Malvaceae Abelmoschus and Lavatera Mallow and okra
Papaveraceae Eschscholzia and Papaver California poppy and poppy
Plumbaginaceae Limonium Sea lavender and statice
Poaceae Zea Corn
 Chapter 18—Plant Disease • 343

Table 1.—Plant families for rotations, continued.

Plant family Some common genera Common name of popular flowers and vegetables
Polygonaceae Rheum Rhubarb
Primulaceae Primula Primrose
Ranunculaceae Consolida Annual delphinium and larkspur
Rosaceae Fragaria Strawberry
Scrophulariaceae Antirrhinum, Diascia, Monkey flower, snapdragon, toadflax and twinspur
Linaria, Mimulus and
Nemesia
Solanaceae Browallia, Capsicum, Amethyst flower, butterfly flower, eggplant, nicotiana,
Lycopersicon, Nicotiana, painted tongue, pepper, petunia, potato and tomato
Salpiglossis, Schizanthus
and Solanum
Tropaeolaceae Tropaeolum Nasturtium
Verbenaceae Verbena Verbena
Violaceae Viola Pansy and violet

The label is the law. No matter what infection for maximum benefit. None of
anyone tells you, always follow the label these fungicides can revive heavily diseased
directions. To do otherwise is illegal. plants.
There are, however, a few exceptions. Some fungicides work better when a
For example, if a label says to use a certain spreader-sticker is mixed with the solution.
amount of product, you cannot use more; This material helps the fungicide stay on the
however, if experts recommend using less, plant longer or spread over the leaf surface
that is acceptable. Never use a product on better. Most wettable powder formulations
a plant that is not listed on the label. How- benefit from the addition of a spreader-
ever, if an expert recommends using the sticker. Liquid formulations usually already
product for a disease that is not on the label, contain such compounds.
it is acceptable to do so as long as the plant
is on the label.
You need to understand a pathogen’s
disease cycle and host susceptibility to get
good control using fungicides. Proper tim-
ing, coverage and selection of fungicides
also are important.
Many fungicides work by protect-
ing healthy plant tissues. Captan, copper,
chlorothalonil and sulfurs must be present
before fungi arrive. Although triforine is
locally systemic (it moves inside the plant),
it must be applied soon after (or before)
 344 • Plant Disease—Chapter 18

How to discourage plant diseases in your garden

• Select a suitable location for planting. Some plants like sunny locations; oth-
ers prefer more shade. Avoid extremely wet and/or cold soils because they favor
many root disorders. If you must plant in such areas, select plants that tolerate
these conditions.
• Practice annual rotation. If possible, change the planting location of specific
plants to help prevent the buildup of disease-causing organisms.
• Select disease-resistant varieties if they are available and adapted to your
growing conditions.
• Use only disease-free seed and transplants. Many disease-causing organisms
are carried to gardens on seeds and transplants. Buy from a reputable source.
Throw away any rotted or poorly growing plants or plant parts.
• Maintain correct soil fertility and pH through careful use of fertilizers, lime,
soil amendments, compost, etc. Plants that are too weak or too vigorous as a
See Chapter 3, result of improper fertilization are more subject to diseases.
Soils and Fertilizers.
• Do not overcrowd your plants. High humidity beneath the plant canopy may
favor certain fungal diseases. Thin your plants to permit free air movement.
• Water properly. Try to maintain an even water supply and avoid dry-wet fluc-
tuations. Drip systems and soaker hoses are preferred to overhead sprinklers.
To encourage quick drying of foliage, water in the morning instead of in the
evening, especially if you use an overhead system.
See Chapter 17,
Basic Entomology, • Control insect pests. Some insects spread certain viral and bacterial diseases.
and Chapter 23,
Integrated Pest • Destroy and remove diseased plants as soon as you observe them. They may
Management. be a source of pathogens that can spread to other plants.
• Spade under or compost crop refuse as soon as possible after harvesting
your garden. This practice not only recycles organic matter to the soil, but also
reduces the possibility of disease-causing organisms overwintering in your
See Chapter 6, garden. Add diseased plant parts to your compost pile only if you are “hot”
Composting.
composting.
• Be alert to leaf diseases that occur annually on certain plants. Take care of
them early before damage becomes so severe that the plant is lost.
 Chapter 18—Plant Disease • 345

Perennial Canker and Bull’s Eye Rot of

For more information Apples, EB1517.
UAF Coopertive Extension Plant Diseases: An Introduction, EB0900.
publications Plant Sanitation, EB1237.
Late Blight Disease of Potato and Tomato Potato Scab, EB1243.
in Alaska, PMC-00338. Powdery Mildews, EB1054.
Identifying and Controlling Pests in Alaska, Raspberry and Strawberry Root Rots in
PMC-10074. Home Gardens, EB1082.
Slime Molds on Lawns and Other Areas,
WSU Cooperative Extension EB1083.
publications Sycamore Anthracnose Leaf and Twig
Blight, EB1263.
Anthracnose on Lettuce, EB1864. Tubercularia (nectria) Dieback of Broadleaf
Apple Anthracnose, EB0940. Trees, EB1254.
Apple Scab, EB1044. Turfgrass Diseases, EB0713.
Azalea Leaf Gall, EB1052. Turfgrass Diseases Supplement, EB0713S.
Bacterial Canker of Prunus, EB1013. Verticillium Wilt of Maples, EB0983.
Botrytis Neck Rot of Onion, EB1359. Willow Scab, EB1278.
Brown Rot of Stone Fruits, EB1047. Wood Rot of Tree Fruits, EB1452.
Cherry Leaf Mottle, EB0981.
Club Root of Cabbage and Other Crucifers, OSU Cooperative Extension
EB1049. publications
Collar Rot of Pome and Stone Fruits,
EB1497. Blossom-end Rot of Tomatoes, FS 139.
Corticium Red Thread of Turfgrass, EB1016. Controlling Diseases and Insects in Home
Coryneum Blight of Stone Fruits, EB1266. Orchards, EC 819.
Cultural Control of Plant Diseases, Discourage Plant Diseases in Your Home
EB1131. Garden, FS 242.
Curly Top of Tomato, EB1255. Pacific Northwest Plant Disease Manage-
Disease Control in Home Lawns, EB0938. ment Handbook, PLANT.
Diseases of Bulbous Iris, EB0710.
Diseases of Narcissus, EB0709.
USDA Forest Service publications
Diseases of Tulips, EB0711. Insects and Diseases of Alaskan Forests.
Dogwood Anthracnose, EB0972. Spruce Needle Rust, R10-TP-99.
Fire Blight, EB1352. Spruce Needle Cast, RT-TP-12.
Fusarium Patch of Turf, EB1108. Spruce Broom Rust, R10-TP-100.
Gray Mold, Botrytis Blight, EB1045.
Hawthorn Leaf Spot, EB1279.
Late Blight of Potato and Tomato, EB0958.
Lilac Blight, EB1081.
Managing Necrotic Ring Spot on Turfgrass
in the PNW, EB1734.
Pea Wilt and Pea Root Rots in the Home
Garden, EB1262.
346 • Plant Disease—Chapter 18