CHAPTER 2.

1
MAJOR PLANT
DISEASES
MANAGEMENT
 CHAPTER OUTLINE
1. Introduction to crop diseases

2. Management of diseases in oil palm plantation

3. Management of diseases in rubber plantation

4. Management of diseases in rice plantation

5. Other methods for disease management

 SUB-TOPIC
OUTLINE
2.1 Introduction to crop diseases

2.1.1 Definition of crop diseases.

2.1.2 Types of Crop Diseases

2.1.3 Symptoms & Sign of Crop Diseases

2.1.4 Factors Influence Disease Development

TOPIC LEARNING
OUTCOMES:
At the end of the topic, students
should be able to:
• Define crop diseases and explain
factors for crop diseases
development.
• Differentiate between symptoms
and
signs for crop diseases.
• Describe various common
symptoms of crop diseases.
 2.1.1 DEFINITION OF CROP
DISEASES
• “Phytopathology” derived the Greek words where “phyton
means plant, “Pathos” = suffering/disease and “Logos” =
reason/study
• Plant pathology @ phytopathology = the study about the
plant diseases
• The microorganisms (pathogen) and of the environmental
factors (abiotic agents) that cause disease in plants - causal
agents.
• Phytopathogen is the organisms that cause infectious disease
include fungi, oomycetes, bacteria,viruses, viroids, virus-like
organism, phytoplasmas, protozoa, nematodes and parasitic
plants
• The mechanisms by which these factors induce disease in plants
is called infection mechanisms.
• While the methods of preventing or controlling disease and
reducing the damage it causes - disease controlling/preventing.
 2.1.1 DEFINITION OF CROP
DISEASES
“ A malfunctioning process that is caused by continuous irritation and produce
symptoms”
(Horsfall & Cowling)

“A deviation from normal growth or structure of plants that is sufficiently pronounced and
permanent to produce visible symptoms or to impair quality and economic value”
(Stakman & Harrar)

"The malfunctioning of host cells and tissues that results from their continuous irritation by
a pathogenic agent or environmental factor and leads to the development of symptoms.
Disease in a condition involving abnormal changes in the form, physiology, integrity, or
behavior of the plant. Such changes may result in partial impairment or death of the plant
or its parts”
(George N. Agrios)
2.1.1 DEFINITION
OF CROP DISEASES
1. Healthy crop
The ability to carry out normal physiological
functions at a acceptable level consistent to
genetic potential

2. Diseased crop
A multifunctioning process that is caused by
continuous irritation and produce symptoms
 2.1.1 DEFINITION OF CROP
DISEASES
• The plant is “healthy” (normal) when it can
carry out its physiological functions to the
best of its genetic potential.
• It include:
 normal cell division,
differentiation and development;

 absorption of water and minerals

from soil and translocation of these
substances throughout the plant;

 photosynthesis and translocation of

the photosynthetic products to areas
of utilization or storage;

 metabolism or synthesized
compounds reproduction; and
storage of food supplies for over
wintering or reproduction.
2.1.1 DEFINITION OF CROP
DISEASES
• Normal physiological functions
include:
 Normal cell division,
differentiation & development
 Absorption of water and minerals
from the soil and translocation
 Photosynthesis and translocation
of photosynthesis
 Utilization and storage of
photosynthates
 Reproduction
2.1.2 FACTORS AFFECTING
CROP DISEASES
Plant diseases can be classified into 2 types:

• Infectious diseases = the diseases that

caused by the pathogens or biotic agent
such as fungi, bacteria, virus/viroid,
mycoplasmas, nematode etc. that can be
transmitted from one plant to another
• Non infectious diseases = the diseases
that caused by the abiotic agents or
environmental factors that cannot be
transmitted from one plant to another
INFECTIOUS DISEASE
CAUSED BY LIVING
ORGANISMS / BIOTIC
FACTOR

1. Fungi 2. Bacteria

3. Virus/Viroid 4. Mycoplasmas

6. Parasitic
5. Nematode higher plant
 1. Too low or 2. Lack or 3. Lack or 4. Lack of
too high a excess of soil excess of light oxygen
temperature moisture

6. Nutrient 8. Soil acidity

5. Air pollution 7. Mineral
deficiencies or alkalinity
toxicities
(pH)

9. Toxicity of 10. Improper

pesticides cultural
practices.

Non infectious disease caused

by environmental /abiotic factor
2.1.3 Symptoms & Sign of Crop Diseases

The development of the plant disease can be

seen through the symptoms or sign of the
disease.
1. Symptom

 the plant response to stress

 Observation of how the host is

manifesting infection by a
pathogen and disease
development due to a pathogen
 SYMPTOM VS
2.Sign SIGN
 the visible sign that showed the appearance or the
occurrence of the pathogen in the form of mycelium,
sclerotium etc.
 the reproductive or vegetative structure of the
pathogen
 Signs are the actual organisms causing the disease.
 Conks – woody reproductive structures of fungi
 Fruiting bodies – reproductive structures of fungi; could be
in the form of mushrooms, puffballs, pycnidia, rusts, or
conks
 Mildew – whitish growth produced by fungi composed of
mycelium

 Mushrooms – fleshy
reproductive
structures of fungi
 Mycelium – thread-like vegetative growth of
fungi
 Slime Flux or Ooze – A bacterial discharge that
oozes out of the plant tissues, may be gooey or
a dried mass.
 Spore masses – masses of spores, the
“seeds” of a fungus.
 PLANT DISEASE SYMPTOMS

CHANGES OF COLOUR DEATH OF CELLS SYMPTOM HYPOPLASTIC

(NECROSIS) DEFORMATION

GENERAL LOCAL
Chlorosis HYPERPLASTIC
NECROSIS NECROSIS

Etiolation Soft rot Scab HYPOPLASTIC

The Mosaic Dry rot Leaf spot

important Vascular wilt Anthracnose

Symptoms: Damping off Rust

Blight Downy mildew

Powdery
Blast
mildew

Dieback Canker
 SYMPTOM CHANGES OF COLOUR
Chlorosis
Yellowing of leaves due to:
• Loss of chlorophyll
pigment/lack of active
chlorophyll
• Nutrient deficiency
• Toxicity of
minerals/pesticide.
SYMPTOM CHANGES OF COLOUR
Etiolation
• Symptom of yellowing &
elongation of stem and
leaves due to lack of light
(under dark condition)
SYMPTOM CHANGES OF COLOUR
Mosaic
• Characterized by non- uniform
coloration, with intermingled
normal, light green and
yellowish patches, usually
caused by a virus; often used
interchangeably with mottle
SYMPTOM DEATH OF
CELL /
GENERAL NECROSIS
General necrosis
• Necrosis occur in the
whole plant that causes
rot of plant/tissues
Soft rot
• Occur to the fruit and
vegetable that cause by
the bacteria.
• The infected part of plant
become rot and watery.
SYMPTOM DEATH OF
CELL /
GENERAL NECROSIS
Dry rot
• Un-watery rot
• Normally caused by
fungus
SYMPTOM DEATH OF
CELL /
GENERAL NECROSIS
Vascular wilt
• The wilt due to the clog of
xylem vessels by the
mycelium or the bacteria
that cause the leaf and
stem wilt or lack of turgor
in the leaves and other
herbaceous organs
SYMPTOM DEATH OF
CELL /
GENERAL NECROSIS
Damping off
• Most prevalent on seedlings
and cutting.
• Infection is at the basal stem
or root of seedling
• Pathogen enters through
wounds or through the very
thin cuticles which seedling
posses when grown under
damp, poorly lit condition.
SYMPTOM DEATH OF
CELL /
GENERAL
Blight NECROSIS
• The fast and overall death of
plant tissue such as shoot or
leaves.
• Pathogens kill the cells/tissue
with which they are in close
contact and become generally
distributed either by spreading
through the plant or by means
of multiple infections
SYMPTOM DEATH OF
CELL /
GENERAL NECROSIS
Blast
• The sudden death of
shoot and flower
• Eg: paddy blast –
Pyricularia oryzae
SYMPTOM DEATH OF
CELL /
GENERAL
Dieback
NECROSIS
• The progressive death of
plant started from shoot
to downwards
 Local necrosis
• The necrosis sites are limited
Symptom where only involved a part or a
few plant cells/tissues

death of
Scab
cell / Local the infection was on flower, fruit,

necrosis branch and other part of plant

Results of cork formation under
the epidermis due to fungal attack
Symptom death of
cell / Local necrosis
Leaf spots
• Spot of death cell or the presence of
small necrotic areas on leaves.
• This is as a results of virus, fungal,
bacteria, air pollution, insect bites etc.
Symptom death of
cell / Local necrosis
Anthracnose
• Normally infected by imperfect fungi or
Ascomycetes
• Produces blackish lesions
• Blackness being due to the presence of dark
spores, mycelium, or both.
• Cause mainly by species of Melanconiales in
the genera of Colletotrichum.
Symptom death of
cell / Local necrosis

Rust
• The appearance of rust, normally on
leaves.
Downy mildews
• The occurrence of
Symptom
yellowish rectangular death of
spot on the leaves.
cell / Local
necrosis
 SYMPTOM DEATH OF
CELL / LOCAL NECROSIS
Powdery mildews
• The appearance of
powdery spots on the
leaves
SYMPTOM DEATH OF
CELL / LOCAL NECROSIS
Canker
• A lesion in which an area of necrosis, including
cambium, slowly extends, due to the pathogen
growing rather slowly.
• Occur on woody plant and are economic
importance on both forest and orchard tree.
• Most are caused by fungi (ascomycetes) but
there are a few bacterial cankers.
SYMPTOM OF HYPERPLASTIC
DEFORMATION
• The features common to all such deformations
is that abnormal outgrowths of the host are
induced, either by the production of growth
stimulatory substances by the pathogen or by
pathogen induced stimulation of the
production of such substances by the host.
• Hyperplasia (Excessive development due to
increase in number of cells)
• Hypertrophy (Excessive development due to
increase in size of cell)
• Hypoplasia (Underdevelopment of tissue or
plant due to decreased cell enlargement)
• Hypotrophy (Underdevelopment of a tissue
or
plant due to reduced cell enlargement)
SYMPTOM OF HYPERPLASTIC
DEFORMATION
Gall
• Is a localized swelling
whose morphology is
quite unlike that of any
organ of a healthy plant of
the species concerned.
• May cause by a variety of
pathogen such as
bacteria, fungi, virus etc.
SMUT
• Occur on grain crop
such as corn, wheat, Symptom of
paddy etc.
• The seed grain
become enlarge
(abnormality)
hyperplastic

deformatio
 “WITCH’S BROOM”
• Rapid production of shoot
due to the abnormal Symptom of
development of cells.
• The infection was by the
fungal that induce the hyperplastic
production of shoot thus look
like broom.
deformatio
SYMPTOM OF HYPERPLASTIC
DEFORMATION / HYPOPLASIA /
RETARDATION /DWARFING
Phyllody
• the deformation of the flower
due to either infection of
disease or some other
external factors causing the
flower (petals) to be stunted.
 2.1.4 FACTORS INFLUENCE DISEASE
DEVELOPMENT
hybrid/variety genetics,

age of the plant at the time of infection, e

Many factors
influence
disease environment (e.g., soil, climate),
development
in plants
including weather (e.g., temperature, rain, wind, hail, etc.),

single versus mixed infections, and

genetics of the pathogen populations

2.1.4 FACTORS INFLUENCE
DISEASE DEVELOPMENT
• The amount of disease developed
depends on 3 factors which is generally
known as The Disease Triangle.
• The following are the three factors in
crop disease triangle:
i. Pathogen (virulence, abundance,
etc.)
ii. Host (susceptibility)
iii. Environment (conducive)
2.1.4 FACTORS INFLUENCE DISEASE DEVELOPMENT

Host Host
Host

Pathogen
Environment Pathogen
Environment
Environment Pathogen

No Disease Slight Disease Severe Disease

PLANT DISEASE TRIANGLE

• The disease triangle is an important concept in plant
pathology.
• Disease will ONLY occur if these three factors interact
SIMULTANEOUSLY.
• For disease to occur all three of these must be present.
 2.1.4 FACTORS INFLUENCE DISEASE
DEVELOPMENT
i. How the Plant factor Affects disease Development
Genetic resistance or susceptibility of Host

• Vertical Resistance
• Horizontal Resistance

Degree of genetic uniformity of host in a particular field

• Monoculture, especially Clones

• Natural, Intermingled Populations, crop rotation

Type of crops

• Annual crops & foliar or fruit diseases develop much more rapidly (in weeks)
• Perennial woody diseases take longer time to develop (in years)

Age of host plants

• Some plants are susceptible only during growth period & become resistant during
mature period
 2.1.4 FACTORS INFLUENCE DISEASE
DEVELOPMENT
ii. How Pathogens Affect Development of disease
Levels of virulence
• Faster Production of Larger # Inoculum

Quantity of inoculum near hosts

Type of reproduction of the pathogen

• Monocyclic
• Polycyclic
• Responsible for most Sudden, Catastrophic Epidemics

Ecology of the pathogen

• Reproduce on Surface of Aerial Parts of Plant
• Reproduce inside Plant
• Reproduce on Infected Plant Parts in Soil

Mode of spread of the pathogen

• Breezes or Strong Winds
• Most Sudden & Widespread Epidemics
• Inoculum Carried by Airborne Vectors
• Wind-Blown Rain
• Carried on Seed, Tubers, Bulbs
• Insect vectors (beetle, aphids, whitefly etc.)
• Pathogens Spreading through Soil
• Usually Local, Slow-Spreading Diseases of Considerable
Severity
2.1.4 FACTORS INFLUENCE DISEASE
DEVELOPMENT
iii. How Environmental factors Affect Development of disease

Moisture
• Rain, dew, high humidity
• Dominant factor in diseases caused by oomycetes, fungi, bacteria &
nematodes
• High moisture also may effect the activity of vectors such as rainy
weather.

Temperature

• Affects disease cycles of pathogens

• Plants exposed to extreme temperature caused “stressed” and predisposed to
disease provided the pathogens remain vigorous.
• High and low temperature reduces the amount of inoculum.
2.1.4 FACTORS INFLUENCE DISEASE
DEVELOPMENT
• When a pathogen spreads to and affects many
individuals within a population over a relatively large
area and within a relatively short time, the
phenomenon is called an epidemic.
• An epidemic has been defined as any increase of
disease in a population.
• A similar definition of an epidemic is the dynamics of
change in plant disease in time and space.
• Plant disease epidemics develop as a result of the
timely combination of the same elements that result in
plant disease triangle.
• To describe the interaction of this components of plant
disease, it can be expanded to include time and
humans which is known as plant disease epidemics or
Disease Pyramid thus make it consist of five
components.
2.1.4 FACTORS INFLUENCE DISEASE
DEVELOPMENT
iv. Disease development is also affected by Time
Climatic condition & stage of growth when host and
pathogens may coexist.

Season of the year

Duration & frequency of favorable temp. & rains

Time appearance of vectors

The duration of infection cycle

2.1.4 FACTORS INFLUENCE DISEASE DEVELOPMENT

v. How Humans Affect Development of Plant Disease

Site Selection & Preparation

Selection of Propagative Material

Introduction of Exotic Pathogens

Cultural Practices

Disease control measures

Introduction of new pathogens or

disease