2019 G09 Mathematics EM 0

"Education is a matter of life and death for
Pakistan. The world is progressing so rapidly

that without requisite advance in education, not
only shall we be left behind others but may be
wiped out altogether."
(September 26, 1947, Karachi) Quaid-e-Azam

Muhammad Ali Jinnah
Founder of Pakistan
J~Ji; ~!;( J~ Ji; ~;; J~

l:)~~ 01 l:)(; J~ (f~l:JJ
J~ Ji; ~ 1/
,
(I/ ~?1 ~j (lll! ( ~Jj J~
~,._W '(j
J~ J v~ f~
Jl&>l:J, (;,J"L l:), Lz/
Publishers Note
This book is being published in accordance with National Curriculum 2006 and
National Textbook and Learning Materials Policy 2007 as per International standards.
This book has been selected by Government of Punjab as sole textbook for adoption
and distribution in all Government Schools in Punjab. Suggestion are invited for
improvement of this book by pointing out any error in spellings, contents etc.
CONTENTS
Unit TITLE Page
Unit 1 MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS 1
Unit 2 REAL AND COMPLEX NUMBERS 33
Unit3 LOGARITHMS 57
Unit4 ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS AND ALGEBRAIC
FORMULAS 75
Units FACTORIZATON 97
Unit6 ALGEBRAIC MANIPULATION 114
Unit7 LINEAR EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES 130 I
Unit8 LINEAR GRAPHS & THEIR APPLICATION 145

Unit9 INTRODUCTION TO COORDINATE GEOMETRY 168
DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY
Unit 10 CONGRUENT TRIANGLES 185
Unit 11 PARALLELOGRAMS AND TRIANGLES 199
Unit 12 LINE BISECTORS AND ANGLE BISECTORS 210
Unit 13 SIDES AND ANGLES OF A TRIANGLE 218
Unit 14 RATIO AND PROPORTION 228
Unit 15 PYTHAGORAS ' THEOREM 238
Unit 16 THEOREMS RELATED WITH AREA 244
Unit 17 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY-TRIANGLES 252
ANSWERS 268
GLOSSARY 284
MATHEMATICAL SYMBOLS 292
SOME ALGEBRAIC FORMULAS 292
LOGARITHMIC TABLES 293
INDEX 297
BIBLIOGRAPHY I REFERENCES 302
All rights are reserved with the Punjab Curriculum and Textbook Board, Lahore. Approved by the
Federal Ministry of Education (Curriculum Wing), Islamabad, according to the National
Curriculum 2006 under the National Textbook and Leaming Materials Policy 2007.
N.O.C. F.1-16/2010-Maths, dated 2-12-2010
Authors : o Dr. Karam at H. Dar o Prof. lrfan-ul-Haq

SUPERVISOR Mazhar Hayat (Subject Specialist) tlOD (Pure Sci.en~es)
A1"tisUDeputy Director Graphics: 0 Aisha Waheed DIRECTOR (MANUSCRIPT):
MRS. NISAR QAMMAR
Prepared by: The Caravan Book House, Kachehri Road, Lahore.

Unit 1
MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS
Unit Outlines
1.1 Introduction to Matrices
1.2 Types of Matrices
1.3 Addition and Subtraction of Matrices
1.4 Multiplication of Matrices
1.5 Multiplicative Inverse of a Matrix
1.6 Solution of Simultaneous Linear Equations
Students Learning Outcomes
After studying this unit, the students will be able to:
* define
• a matrix with real entries and relate its rectangular layout (formation)
with real life,
• rows and columns of a matrix,
• the order of a matrix,
• equality of two matrices.
* define and identify row matrix, column matrix, rectangular matrix, square
matrix, zero/null matrix, identity matrix, scalar matrix, diagonal matrix,
transpose of a matrix, symmetric and skew-symmetric matrices.
* know whether the given matrices are conformable for addition/subtraction.
* add and subtract matrices.
* multiply a matrix by a real number.
* verify commutative and associative laws under addition.
* define additive identity of a matrix.
* find additive inverse of a matrix.
* know whether the given matrices are conformable for multiplication.
* multiply two (or three) matrices.
* verify associative law under multiplication.
* verify distributive laws.
* show with the help of an example that comm~tative law under multiplication
does not hold in general (i.e., AB t= BA).
* define multiplicative identity of a matrix.
* verify the result (AB)1 =B1At.
Matrices and Determinants 2
* define the detenninant of a square matrix.

* evaluate detenninant of a matrix.
* define singular and non-singular matrices.
* define adjoint of a matrix.
* find multiplicative inverse of a non-singular matrix A and verify that
AA- 1 =I= A- 1A where I is the identity matrix.
* use adjoint method to calculate inverse of a non-singular matrix.
* verify the result (ABr1 =B- 1A- 1
* solve a system of two linear equations and related real life problems in two
unknowns using
• Matrix inversion method,
• Cramer' s rule.
Introduction
The matrices and determinants are used in the field of Mathematics, Physics,
Statistics, Electronics and other branches of science. The matrices have played a very
important role in this age of computer science.
The idea of matrices was given by Arthur Cayley, an English mathematician of
nineteenth century, who first developed, "Theory of Matrices" in 1858.
1.1 Matrix
A rectangular array or a formation of a collection of real numbers, say 0, 1, 2, 3,
1 3 4
4 and 7, such as; and then enclosed by brackets'[ ]'is said to form
7 2 '() .
a matrix [ ~ ~ ~ J. Similarly [ ~ !J is another matrix.

We term the real numbers used in the formation of a matrix as entries or
elements of the matrix. (Plural of matrix is matrices)
The matrices are denoted conventionally by the capital letters A, B, C, ... , M, N
etc. of the English alphabets.
1.1.1 Rows and Columns of a Matrix
It is important to understand an entity of a matrix with the followipg formation.
1 2 0 R 1 In matrix A, the entries presented in horizontal
way are called rows.
A= 3 5 4 R2
In matrix A there are three rows as shown by
2 1 -1 R3 R1, R2 and R3.
It is interesting to note that all rows have same number of elements and all
columns have same number of elements but number of elements in rows and columns
may not be same.
1.1.2 Order of a Matrix
The number of rows and columns in a matrix specifies its order. If a matrix M
has m rows and n columns, then M is said to be of order m-by-n. For example,
1 2 3
M =[ ] is of order 2-by-3, since it has two rows and three columns, whereas
1 0 2
the matrix N = [- ~ ~ ~l is a 3-by-3 matrix and P =[ 3 2 5 ] is a matrix of order

2 3 1J
l-by-3.
1.1.3 Equal Matrices
Let A and B be two matrices. Then A is said to be equal to B, and denoted by
A= B, if and only if;
(i) the order of A = the order of B
(ii) their corresponding entries are equal.
Examples
(i) A= [ -! ~ J and B = [ _! ~~~ J are equal matrices.
We see that:
(a) the order of matrix A= the order of matrix B
(b) their corresponding elements are equal.
Thus A=B
2 3 2 3
(ii) L -- [ -1 2 J and M -- [ -1 2
J are not equal matrices.
_
We see that order of L = order of M but entries in the second row and second
column are not same, so L -::t M.
(iii) p = [ _~ 3]
2 and Q = [-12 3 2 04] are not equal matrices.
We see that order of P "#order of Q, so P "# Q.
EXERCISE 1.1
1. Find the order of the following matrices.
A= [:5 ~]' B = [;
~]' c =[ 2 4 ],
D=
[~]. E= [ ~ ;]. F = [ 2]
G=
[~
3
2
4 ~]. H= [ i 3
0 :]
2. Which of the following matrices are equal?
A= [ 3 ], B= [3 5 ], c =[ 5 - 2 ],
D = [5 3 ], E=[: ~]' F= [~].

G=
[ 3- 1]
3+3 ' H=[: ~]' I= [ 3 3 + 2 ],
[2+2 2-2]
J= 2+4 2+0
3. Find the values of a, b, c and d which satisfy the matrix equation
1.2 Types of Matrices

(i) Row Matrix
A matrix is called a row matrix, if it has only one row.
e.g., the matrix M = [2 -1 7] is a row matrix of order 1-by-3 and
M = [1 -1] is a row matrix of order l-by-2.
(ii) Column Matrix
A matrix is called a column matrix, if it has only one column.
5 Mathematics 9
e.g., M = [
respectively.
~] and N = l~l
are column matrices oforder 2-by- l and 3-by- l
(iii) Rectangular Matrix

A matrix M is called rectangular if, the number of rows of M is not equal to the
number of columns of M.
e.g • A = li ~l B= [: : ; l C= [I 2 3] and D= m are all
rectangular matrices. The order of A is 3-by-2, the order of B is 2-by-3, the order of C
is 1-by-3 and order of D is 3-by-1, which indicates that in each matrix the number of
rows =t the number of columns.
(iv) Square Matrix
A matrix is called a square matrix, if its number of rows is equal to its number
of columns.
e.g., A=[~ -;J H~ -:1

B= and C = [3] are square matrices of
orders, 2-by-2, 3-by-3 and 1-by-1 respectively.

(v) Null or Zero Matrix
A matrix M is called a null or zero matrix, if each of its entries is 0.
e.g., [~ ~J. [o o], [~] , [~ ~ ~] and l~ ~ ~l

are null matrices of orders 2-by-2, l-by-2, 2-by-l, 2-by-3 and 3-by-3 respectively.
Note that null matrix is represented by 0.
(vi) Transpose of a Matrix
A matrix obtained by changing the rows into columns or columns into
rows of a matrix is called transpose of that matrix. If A is a matrix, then its tra.nspose
is denoted by A1• •
A=[~ A'=[~
-~l
e.g., (i) If 1
2
, then 12 -11
4
-1 4 0 -2
(ii) If B = [~
0
-1 ~] , then B'=[i -~]
(iii) If C= [0 1] , then d = [ ~]
If a matrix A is of order 2-by-3, then order of its transpose At is 3-by-2.
(vii) Negative of a Matrix
Let A be a matrix. Then its negative, -A is obtained by changing the signs of all
the entries of A, i.e.,
If A= [ ~ -; J, then -A= [ =~ ~ J.
(viii) Symmetric Matrix
A square matrix is symmetric, if it is equal to its transpose i.e., matrix A is
symmetric if At= A.
e.g., (i) If
M= [~ ~ -1
2
4
l is a square matrix, then
[~ ~l = M. Thus Mis a symmetric matrix.

2
M'= -1
4
~l A'=[~ ~J~A
1 -1
(ii) If 2 2
A=[-! ilien
1 2
Hence A is not a symmetric matrix.

(ix) Skew-Symmetric Matrix
A square matrix A is said to be skew-symmetric, if At= -A.
7 Mathematics 9
e.g.; if A= -2
0 20 3]1 , then
[-3 -1 0
=~]=-[~2
-2
o
At= 2
-20 -3] [o
-1 = - (-2) 0
2
0 !] =-A
[3 1 0 -(-3) -(-1) 0 -3 -1
Since At= -A, therefore A is a skew-symmetric matrix.

(x) Diagonal Matrix
A square matrix A is called a diagonal matrix if atleast any one of the entries of
its diago•al is not zero and non-diagonal entries are zero.
e.g., A= [~ ~ ~], [~ ~ ~land [~ ~ ~]

B= C= are all diagonal
003 002 003
matrices of order 3-by-3.
M =[ ~ ~Jand N =[~ ~Jare diagonal matrices oforder 2-by-2.

(xi) Scalar Matrix
A diagonal matrix is called a scalar matrix, if all the diagonal entries are same
and non-zero. For example r~ ~ ~] where k is a constant "# 0, 1.

0 0 k
Also A = [~0 0~ 2~] ,B = [ ~ ~] and C =[5] are scalar matrices oforder
3-by-3, 2-by-2 and 1-by-1 respectively.

(xii) Identity Matrix
A diagonal matrix is called identity (unit) matrix if all diagonal entries are 1.
It is denoted by I.
e.g., A= [~ ~ ~] is a 3-by-3 identity matrix,

0 0 1
B= [~ ~] is a 2-by-2 identity matrix,
and C = [1] is a l-by-1 identity matrix.
Note: (i) The scalar matrix and identity matrix are diagonal matrices.
(ii) Every diagonal matrix is not a scalar or identity matrix.
EXERCISE 1.2
1. From the following matrices, identify unit matrices, row matrices, column
matrices and null matrices.
A=[~ ~], B = [2 3 4], C= [~].
2.
D= [~ ~], E = [ 0 ],
From the following matrices, identify

F= u]
(a) Square matrices (b) Rectangular matrices
(c) Row matrices (d) Column matrices
(e) Identity matrices (f) Null matrices
ll ~1J
3
(ii)
(iii) [: =:J
(iv) [~
1.r 01] (v) 1 426]
[35
(vi) [3 10 -1]
3.
(vii) m (viii)
H~ ~J (ix) [
From the following matrices, identify diagonal, scalar and unit (identity)
~~l
matrices.
A=[~ ~]' B=[~ ~]'

D=[~ ~]'
5-3
E= [ 0
9 Mathematics 9
4. Find negative of matrices A, B, C, D and E when:
A=UJ,s=[; -1 ]
1 ' c=
[2
3 ~]'
[=! ;],
D= E= [; -; ]
u~I
5. Find the transpose of each of the following matrices:
A=[_! l B =[5 I -6], C = ] ,
D=[~ ;] ' E= [~ ;] ' F= [; ~]

6. Verify that if A= [ ~ i].B= [; ~],then
(i) (At)t =A (ii) (Bt)t = B
1.3 Addition and Subtraction of Matrices

1.3.1 Addition of Matrices
Let A and B be any two matrices with real number entries. The matrices A and
B are conformable for addition, if they have the same order.
e.g., A= [ i ~ ~ J and B = [ -i ; ~ J are conformable for addition.

Addition of A and B, written A + B is obtained by adding the entries of the
matrix A to the corresponding entries of the matrix B.
e.g., A + B =[ i ~ ~ ]+ [ - 2
1 ; ~]
-[2+(-2) 3+3 o+4 J-[o 6 4]
- 1+1 0+2 6+3 - 2 2 9
1.3.2 Subtraction of Matrices
If A and B are two matrices of same order, then subtraction of matrix B from
matrix A is obtained by subtracting the entries of matrix B from the corresponding
entries of matrix A and it is denoted by A- B.
e.g., A= [ i ; ~ J and B = [ _~ ; ; J are conformable for

' · subtraction.
i.e., A - B =[~
3
5
2
4 ;]
2-0 3-2
~]
4-2 J= [ 2 1
- [ 1-(-1) 5-4 0-3 2 1
Some solved examples regarding addition and subtraction are given below.
(a) If A= r~ -~ ~l] and B= r~ -~ ~].then

l2 s ls -2 7
A+B =l~ -~ ~] +lr =~ ~]

=
l
l+O
2+5 5-2
2+3
O+l -l+(-1) 73+2
+4] = 1
1+7 7
l
and A-B=A+(-B) =H
(b) If
2+3] =(30
3-2
2+4 3
and
Note that the order of a matrix is unchanged under the operation of matrix addition
and matrix subtraction.
11 Mathematics 9
1.3.3 Multiplication of a Matrix by a Real Number

Let A be any matrix and the real number k be a scalar. Then the scalar
multiplication of matrix A with k is obtained by multiplying each entry of matrix A
with k. It is denoted by kA.
Let A= r ~ =~ ~1
-1 3 2
be a matrix of order 3-by-3 and k = -2 be a real number.
Then
kA = (-2)A
-8Jl
=(-2)r ~ -1 4 r (-2)(1) (-2)(-1)
-1 0 = (-2)(2) (-2)(-1)
(-2)(4) r-2
(-2)(0) = -4
2
2 0
-1 3 2 1 (-2)(-1) (-2)(3) 1
(-2)(2) 2 -6 -4
Scalar multiplication of a matrix leaves the order of the matrix unchanged.
1.3.4 Commutative and Associative Laws of Addition of Matrices
(a) Commutative Law under Addition
If A and B are two matrices of the same order, then A + B = B + A is called
commulative law under addition.
J]
2 3 -2
LetA=
[ 25
6 4
1 2
J]
3 -2
then A+B =[ 2; 6 4
1 2
Similarly
=[
2+3 3-2
5-1 ' 6+4
2+4 1 +2 En ~ [: ,~
B+A = [-~ -~ i ] +
[ ; ] = [ ~ ~ ~ 1~ ; ]
4 -4 2 2 1 3 6 3 -1
Thus the commutative law of addition of matrices is verified:
A+B=B+A
(b) Associative Law under Addition
If A, B and C are three matrices of same order, then
(A + B) + C =A + (B + C) is called associative law under addition.
Let A =[; ~1 ~3 ] , B =
u~ 0] [ 3 -2 -!5]) [-i1
2
then (A + B) + C = ( 1 + -1 4
+
~2 ~3]
3 4 2
~]
2+3 3-2 . 0+5] [ 1 2
= 5-1
[ 2+4
6 + 4 1+1 + -21 0
1+2 3-4 2
~~
1 2
=U 10
3
}, ] + [
0
2
3
A+ (B +C)= [ 2; 6
1
3
6
0] [ 3+1
1 + -1-2
-2+2
4+0 1+4
5 +3 J
1 3 4+1 2+2 -4+0
3
6
0] [4 0 ~ J=[ ~
1 + -3 4 10
3
1 3 5 4 -4 7 5
Thus the associative law of addition is verified:
(A+ B) + C =A+ (B + C)
1.3.5 Additive Identity of a Matrix
If A and B are two matrices of same order and
A+B=A=B+A
then matrix B is called additive identity of matrix A.
For any matrix A and zero matrix 0 of same order, 0 is called additive identity
of A as
A+O=A=O+A
e.g., let A= [ ~ ; J and 0 = [ g g]
then A+O=[~ ; J + [ g g 1= [; ;]=A
O+A=[g g 1+ [; ; 1= [; ;]=A
13 Mathematics 9
1.3.6 Additive Inverse of a Matrix

If A and B are two matrices of same order such that
A+B=O=B+A
then A and Bare called additive inverse of each other.
Additive inverse of any matrix A is obtained by changing to negative of the
symbols (entries) of each non zero entry of A.
Let A= [ ~ -~ -~ ]
3 1 0
then B = (-A) = - [ ~ - ~ -~] = [

-3
-~ -2
-1
1 -~ ]
is additive inverse of A.
It can be verified as
A+B =
u 2
-1
1
-21 ] + r-10
0 -3
-2
1
-1
-~]
=
[ (1) + (-1)
O+O
(3) + (-3)
[-~ -2
(2) + (-2)
(-1)+(1)
(1)+(-1)
(1) + (-1) ]
(-2) + (2)
O+O
2
=
u g] 0
0
0
=0
B+A =
-3
1
-1 0
-1]
2 + [ 01
3
-1
1 -~]
[ (-1) + (1) (-2) + (2) (-1)+(1)]
~
0
= O+O (1)+(-1) (2) + (-2)
(-3)+(3) (-1)+(1) O+O
= [
0
0
g] =0
Since A + B = 0 = B + A
Therefore, A and B are additive inverse of each other.
EXERCISE 1.3
1. Which of the following matrices are conformable for addition?
A=[_~ ;], B= [~], C= [ ; -~], D= [2;1 ],

1 -2
-1
E= [ 1 2
-4 J
2+1
u
2. Find the additive inverse of following matrices.
A= [ !2 1]' B= -1
0
3 ' C=
-1] [_~],
-2 1
D= [ -~ -~ l E= [ b ~]' F= [ '1]
-1 ~
1
]
3. If A= [-1 2
~l B= [-~l C= [1 -1 2], D- -1 0
[12~l then find,
(i) A+[~ ~] (ii) B+ [-~] (iii) C+[-2 I 3]
i
(iv) D+ 2 O [o ~] (v) 2A (vi) (-l)B
(vii) (-2) C (viii) 3D (ix) 3C

4. Perform the indicated operations and simplify the following.
(i) m~H~ ~]) +[: ~J (ii) [~ ~H[~ ~H: ~1)

(iii) [2 3 1]+([1 o 2]-[2 2 2]) (iv) H-: -ll+l~ ~ ~l
(v) [~ ~ ~l+[-~ -~ -~1
3 1 2J 0 2 -1J
(vi)m~H~ m+[: :J
lj [-1
~ [~ l
2 -1 0
-2 ~ andC= -2
5. For the matrices A = [ 3 ~
llB= 1 1
-1
verify the following rules.
(i) A+C=C+A (ii) A+B=B+A
(iii) B+C=C+B (iv) A + (B + A) = 2A + B
(v) (C - B) +A= C + (A - B) (vi) 2A + B = A + (A + B)
(vii) (C-B) - A= (C - A) - B (viii) (A+ B) + C =A+ (B + C)
(ix) A + (B - C) = (A - C) + B (x) 2A + 2B = 2(A + B)
15 Mathematics 9
6. IfA=[; -; ] and B = [ _~ ~ ] , find (i) 3A - 2B (ii) 2At - 3B1•
7. If 2 [ _~ :J +3[~ -! ] = [ 1~ 10]
1 , then find a and b.
8. IfA= [ ~ i]' B=[~ ~ J, then verify that

(i) (A+ B)t =At+ Bt (ii) (A - B)t =At - B 1
(iii) A + At is symmetric (iv) A - At is skew symmetric

(v) B + Bt is symmetric (vi) B - Bt is skew symmetric
1.4 Multiplication of Matrices
Two matrices A and Bare conformable for multiplication, giving product AB if
the number of columns of A is equal to the number of rows of B.
e.g., let A = [ ; ~ J and B= [ ~ J. Here number of columns of A is equal

to the number of rows of B. So A and B matrices are conformable for multiplication.
Multiplication of two matrices is explained by the following examples.
(i) If A= (I i] andB = G ~],then AB=[! 2]G ~]

= [1 x 2 + 2 x 3 1 x 0 + 2 x 1] = [2 + 6 0 + 2] = [8 2],
is a 1-by-2 matrix.
(ii) If A = [ ~ _ ~ J and B = [- ~ ~ J , then
AB =G-!H-~ ~]= ['~~=:~:~~3~(3) lx0+3x2 ]

2x0+(-3)(2)
= r-1+9
-2-9
0+6] = [8
0_6 _ 1 _ 6] , is a 2-by-2 matrix.
1 6
1.4.1 Associative Law under Multiplication
If A, B and C are three matrices conformable for multiplication then associative
law under multiplication is given as
(AB)C =A(BC)
e.g., if A=[-~ ~J B = [~ :] and C=[ _~ ~ J then

17 Mathematics 9
= [-~ ~][~ ~]-[-~:~:~:~ 2x3+3x1]

-1~'3+0xl
4 +6 6+3 ] [ 10 9]
= [ -2+0 -3+0 = -2 -3
R.H.S. =AB + AC
= [-~ a~ :H-~ ~J [_~ ~J .

2x0+3x3 2x1+3xl] [ 2x2+3x(-1) 2x2+3x0]
- [ -lxO+Ox3 -lxl+Ox1 · + -lx2+0x(..:...1) -lx2+0x0
= [~ · -~H-~ 4] = [9+1 5+4] =[ 10 9] = L.H.&

-2 0-2 -1-~_ -2 -3
Which shows that
A(B + C) = AB + AC; Similarly we can verify (ii).
(b) Similarly the distributive laws of multiplication over subtraction are as follow.
(i) A(B-C)=AB-AC (ii) (A-B)C=A<;-BC
Let A= [ ~ i J, B = [ -: ~ J and _c = [ i ; J, then in (i)

L.H.S. =A(B - C)
=[~ i ]([-: ~] -[i ; ])

= [ ~ 3]
1
( [-1-2
1-1
1-1 ] ) - [ 2
0-2 - 0 i] [-~ -~]
= [ (2)(-3)+(3)(0) 2(0)+J(.-2)
(-0)(-3)+1x0 OxO+(l)(-2) ]
_ r-6+0
- O+O
0-6 ] = [-6 -:-6 ]
0-2 0 -2
R.H.S. = AB - AC
= [2(-1)+3(1) 2(1)+3(0)]- [2x2+3xl 2x1+3x2]

0(-1)+1(1) 0(1)+1(0) I
Ox2+lxl Oxl+lx2
=[~ ~]-[i ~ J= [ : =·; ~ =~] = [-; =~]

Matrices and Determinants 18 ·
which shows that

A(B - C) = AB - AC; Similarly (ii) can be verified.
1.4.3 Commutative Law of Multiplication of Matrices
Consider the manices A= [ ~ ~] and B = [ l

~ -~ then
AB= [0 . 1][ol OJ [Oxl+lxO OxO+l(-2)]=[0 -2]

2 3 -2 - 2x1+3x0 2x0+3(-2) 2 -6
and BA=[~ -~J[~ ~Ho~~~~~;~ 2 ;:::~=~)]=[~ -~J

Which shows that, AB -:t. BA
Commutative law under multiplication in matrices does not hold in general i.e.,
if A and B are two matrices, then AB -:t. BA.
· Commutative law under multiplication holds in particular case. .·
e.g., if A= [~ ~] and B = [-~ ~l then

AB = [~ m-~ ~]
-[2x(-3)+0x0 2xO+Ox4]-[-6 OJ
- Ox(-3)+1x0 OxO+lx4 - o 4
and BA = [-~ ~][~ ~.]

-[-3x2+0x0 -3xO+Oxl] -[-6 o]
- Ox2+4x0 Ox0+4xl - o 4
Which shows that AB = BA.
1.4.4 Multiplicative Identity of a Matrix
Let A be a matrix. Another matrix B is called the identity matrix of A under
multiplication if
AB=A=BA
If A = [ ~ _~ J, B = [ ~ ~ J, then
21 Mathematics 9
6. For tlie matrices
A= [ - ~ ~], B= [ _ ~ -~ ] , C = [ -; -~ ]
Verify that (i) (AB)t = Bt At (ii) (BC)t =ct Bt.
1.5 Multiplicative Inverse of a Matrix
1.5.1 Determinant of a 2-by-2 Matrix
Let A= [ ~ ~ J be a 2-by-2 square matrix. The detenninant of 1:-· denoted by

det A or IAI is defined as
IAI = det A = det [ ~ ~] = =ad - be = /. ., E R
~ ].
1
e.g., Let B = [ _
2
Then IBI = det B = I -~ ~ I= 1 x 3 - (-2)(1) = 3 + 2 = 5

If M= [ i ~ ], then det M = Ii ~ I = 2 x 3 - 1x 6 = 0
1.5.2 Singular and Non-Singular Matrix

A square matrix A is called singular, if the determinant of A is equal to zero.
i.e., IAI = 0.
For example, A = [ ~ ~] is a singular matrix, since det A = I x 0 - 0 x 2 =0

.
A square matrix A is called non-singular, if the determinant of A is not equal to
zero. i.e., IAI -:t 0.
For example, A = [ ~ ~] is non-singular, since det A = 1 x 2 - 0 x 1 =2;, 0

Note that, each square matrix with real entries is either singular or non-singular.
1.5.3 Adjoint of a Matrix
Adjoint of a square matrix A = [ ~ ~ J is obtain_ed by interchanging the

diagonal entries and changing the sign of other entries. Adjoint of matrix A is denoted
as Adj A.
i.e., Adj A = [ -~ -: ]
Matrices and Determinan.ts 22
'·.·
e.g., if A = [ ; ~ J, then _Adj A = [_ ~

If B = [ i =! ], then Adj B = [ =~
1.5.4 Multiplicative Inverse of a Non-singular Matrix
Let A and B be two non-singular square matrices of same order. Then A and B
are said to be multiplicative inverse of each other if
Inverse of Identity
AB=BA=I. matrix is Identity
The i~verse of A is denoted by A- , thus
1
matrix.
AA- 1 = A- 1A =I
Inverse of a matrix is possible only if matrix is non-singular.
1.5.5 Inverse of a Matrix using Adjoint
Let M = [ ~ ~ J be a square matrix. To find the inverse of M, i.e., ~ 1 • ~st
we find the determinant as inverse is possible only of a non-singular matrix.
IMI = I~ ~ I = ad - be :t= 0
. [ d - b ] I -Adj _
M
atjd AdJ M = _ c a , then ~ = IMI
e.g., Let A = [ _~ _~ J. Then
IAI= 1-~ -~I =-6-(-1)=-6+1=-5#0
-3 -21 ]
Thus A
_1 Adj A [ 1
=IA!= --_-- -
5
-1
5
-1]
2 --
2 2
-I 2 5 5 ]
~dAA =[ -l
-1+~
23 Mathematics 9
1.5.6 Verification of (AB)-1 =B-1 A-1

Let ·A= [-13 01] and B= [o3
Then det A= 3x0- (-l)xl = 1-:;; 0
and det B =Ox2 - 3(-1) =3 -:;; 0
Therefore, A and B are invertible i.e., their inverses exist.
Then, to·verify the law of inverse of the product, take
AB [ 3 l][O -1] [ 3xO+lx3 3x(-l)+lx2 ]
= -1 0 3 2 - -lxO+Ox3 -lx(-l)+Ox2
= [~ -:J
3 -1 I = 3 -:;; 0-
=> det (AB) =
IO l
and L.H.S. =(AB)

-1
=-[31 01 31]= [ -031 11
-
3
1
R.H.S. = B-1A- 1 where B- 1 = _!_[

'
2
3 -3 0 '
A- 1 = ![O
1 1
l] -lJ
3
1[ 2 1] 1[0 -1] 1 [ 2xO+lxl 2x(-l)+lx3]

=3 -3 o ·1 1 3 =3 -3xo+ox1 -3x(-l)+Ox3
= H°~' -23+3] = H~
-1 -1 -1
~Hi u
=<Asr'
Thus the law (AB) =B A is verified.
EXERCISE 1.5
1. Find the determinant of the following matrices.
(i) A = [ -1
2
1]
O (ii) B =[ 1
2
(iii) C=[ ~ ;] (iv) D= [ ~

2. Find which of the following matrices are singular or non-singular?
(i) A= [; ~] (ii) B =[~ ~]

(iii) C= [ ~ -: ] (iv) D= [ ~2 -!O ]
3. Find the multiplicative inverse (if it exists) of each.
(i) A=[-~~] (ii) B=[-~ -~J

C= [-23 -96] = -~l [
(iii) (iv) D
!J
4. If A =[ ! ~ J and B = [ ; =~ J, then
(i) A(Adj A) =(Adj A) A= (det A)I
5. Determine whether the given matrices are multiplicative inverses of each other.
(i)
3
[ 4 ;Jana[_: -;J (ii)[~ i]ana[-; -~J
6. If A = [ ~l ~ J, B = [ --: =~ J, D = [ ! 1·2 ; then verify that
(AB)- 1 =B-lA- 1
1
(i) (ii) (DA)-l = A- n-l
1.6 Solution of Simultaneous Linear Equations

System of two linear equations in two variables in general form is given as
ax+by=m
cx+dy=n
where a, b, c, d, m and n are real numbers.
This system is also called simultaneous linear equations.
We discuss here the following methods of solution.
(i) Matrix inversion method
(ii) Cramer's rule
(i) Matrix Inversion Method
Consider the system of linear equations
ax+by=m
ex+ dy= n
25 Mathematics 9
Then [ ~ ~ J [~ J = [ : J
or AX=B
where A = [ ~J ~ J, X = [ ~ J and
.• B= [: J
or X = A-fB·· · IAI =ad - be
Adj A _1 Adj A
or X =IA! x B ·: A = IA! and IAI :;t: 0
x ] = [ -~ -: ] [ : ]
or [ y ad-be
dm-bn ]
ad-be
- [ -cm +an
ad-be
dm-bn an-cm
=> x= ad-be and y =ad-be
(ii) Cramer's Rule
Consider the following system of linear equations.
ax+by=m
cx+dy=n
We know that
AX = B, where A = [ ~ ~ J, X = [ ~ J and B = [ : J
or or
[ _~ -~] [:] dm-bn ]

[ -cm+an
or = IAI = IAI
dm-bn
IAI
=
-cm+an
IAI
dm-bn IA)
or x= IAI - IAI
an-cm IAyl
and y = IAI = IAI
where IAxl = I~ ~ I and IAyl = I~ ~ I

Example 1
Solve the following system by using matrix inversion method.
4x -2y = 8
3x+y =-4
Solution
Step 1
[: -~J[:J=[~]
Step 2 The coefficient matrix M = [: - ~] is non-singular, since
det M =4xl- 3(-2) = 4 + 6 = 10 :t 0. So M-1 is possible.
Step 3
[:]=M-'[~]= 1~[-~ ~][~]
=1~[-~4-~16] =1~[1o]=[~]
~ [;]=[~]
~ x =0 and y = -4
Example2
Solve the following system of linear equations by using Cramer's rule.
3x-2y = 1
-2x+ 3y=2
Solution
3x-2y = 1
-2x+ 3y= 2
We have
A= [ _~ -; J, Ax= [ ; -; J, Ay = [ -~ ; J
IAI = 1-~
2
-3 I= 9 - 4 =5 :t 0 (A is non-singular)
27 Mathematics 9
1 -2
IAXI 2 3 3+4 7
x= IAI = ·5 =-5-=5
3 1
li\I
y= IAI =
-2 2 I =-5-=5
6+2 8
5
Example3
The length of a rectangle is 6 cm less than three times its width. The perimeter
of.the rectangle is 140 cm. Find the dimensions of the rectangle.
(by using matrix inversion method)
Solution
If width of the rectangle is x cm, then length of the rectangle is
y = 3x-6,
from the condition of the question.
The perimeter= 2x + 2y = 140 (According to given condition)
=> x + y =70 ...... (i)
and 3x-·y = 6 ...... (ii)
In the matrix form
det [; -1
1 ] - ., 1
- 3
1
-1
I = 1x(-1) -3 x 1 = -1- 3 = -4
I
:;t: 0
We know that
_1 _Adj A
X=A- 1B and A - IAI
Hence
[x]---4-1 [-1-3 . -1]1 [70]6
Y
76
-
-1[-70-6] -1[~76]
=4 -210+6 =4 -204 = 4
204
=[~:]
4
Thus, by the equality of matrices, width of the rectangle x = 19 cm and the
length y = 51 cm.
Verification of the solution to be correct, i.e.,
p = 2x 19 + 2x51 = 38 + 102 = 140 cm
(iv) In matrix multiplication, in general, AB ......... BA.

(v) Matrix A+ B can be found, if order of A and Bis ........ ..
(vi) A matrix is called ......... matrix, if number of rows and columns are
equal.
3: If [ a+ 3 b-4l] [-3 4] , then find a and b.

6 6 2
4. 2
If A= [ 1
3] -
0 ' B-
r's
L-2 ~ J, then find the following.
(i) 2A + 3B (ii) -3A + 2B
.
(iii) -3(A + 2B) (1v) 32 (2A- 3B)
~5.. Find the value of X, if. [ ~ _~ J + X = ~l l -2]-2 .
6. . If A= [ ~ -~ J, B = [ -; -~ J, then prove that

AB-:t=BA
7. If A = [ i :l ] and B = [ : 3 ~ J, then verify that

(ii) (ABf 1 =B- A-
1 1
(i) (AB)t = BtAt
SUMMARY
A rectangular array of real numbers enclosed within brackets is said to form a
*
matrix.
A matrix A is called rectangular, if the number of rows and number of columns
of A are not equal.
* A matrix A is called a square matrix, if the number of rows of A is equal to the
number of columns.
* A matrix A is called a row matrix, if A has only one row.
* A matrix A is called a column matrix, if A has only one column.
* A matrix A is called a null or zero matrix, if each of its entry is 0.
* Let A be a matrix. The matrix At is a new matrix which is called transpose of

matrix A and is obtained by interchanging rows of A into its respective columns
(or columns into respective rows).
* A square matrix A is called symmetric, if At = A.
* Let A be a matrix. Then its negative:-A is obtained by changing.the signs of all
the entries of A.
* The following laws of addition hold,

M + N = N +M (Commutative)
(M + N) + T =M + (N + T) (Associative)
* The matrices M and N are conformable for multiplication to obtain MN if the
number of columns of M = number of rows of N, where
(i) (MN) -:;:. NM, in general
(ii) (MN)T = M(NT) (Associative law)
(iii) M(N+T) =MN + MT}
(Distributive laws)
(iv) (N+T)M =NM + TM
* Law of transpose of product (AB)t = Bt At
(ABf1 = B-1 A-1
*
* AA- 1 =l=A- 1A
* The solution of a linear system of equations,
ax+by =m
cx+dy =n
by expressing in the matrix form [: ~] [;] =[:]

isgivenby [;]=[: ~Jtl
if the coefficient matrix is non-singular.
* By ushtg the Cramer's rule the determinental form of the solution ~f equations '
ax+by=m
cx+dy=n
is
m b a m
n d c n a b
X=7-----+ and y= , where =# 0
a b a b c d
c d c d
Unit2
REAL AND COMPLEX NUMBERS

Unit Outlines
2.1 Real Numbers
2.2 Properties of Real Numbers
2.3 Radicals and Radicands
2.4 Laws of Exponents I Indices
2.5 Complex Numbers
2.6 Basic Operations on Complex Numbers
* recall the set of real numbers as a union of sets of rational and irrational
numbers.
* depict real numbers on the number line.
* demonstrate a number with terminating and non-terminating recurring decimals
on the number line.
* give decimal representation of rational and irrational numbers.
* know the properties of real numbers.
* explain the concept of radicals and radicands.
* differentiate between radical form and exponential form of an expression.
transform an expression given in tadicarrorm to an exponential form and vice
versa.
J
* recall base, exponent and value.
* apply the laws of exponents to simplify expressions with real exponents.
* define complex number z represented by an expression of the form
z =a+ ib, where a and bare real numbers and i =Fi.
* recognize a as real part and bas imaginary part of z =a+ ib.
* define conjugate of a complex number.
* know the condition for equality of complex numbers.
* carryout basic operations (i.e., addition, subtraction, multiplication and division)
on complex numbers.
Introduction
The numbers are the foundation of mathematics and we use different kinds of
numbers in our daily life. So it is necessary to be familiar with various kinds of
numbers.
33
Real and Complex Numbers 34
In this unit we shall discuss real numbers and complex numbers including their
properties. There is a one-one correspondence between real numbers and the points
on the real line. The basic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and
di vision on complex numbers will also be discussed in this unit.
2.1 Real Numbers
We recall the following sets before giving the concept of real numbers.
Natural Numbers
The numbers 1, 2, 3, ... which we use for counting certain objects are called
natural numbers or positive integers. The set of natural numbers is denoted by N.
i.e., N = {1, 2, 3, ... }
Whole Numbers
If we include 0 in the set of natural numbers, the resulting set is the set of whole
numbers, denoted by W,
i.e., W = {O, 1, 2, 3, ... }
Integers
The set .of integers consist of positive integers, 0 and negative integers and is
denoted by Z i.e., Z = {... , -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ... }
2.1.1 Set of Real Numbers
First we recall about the set of rational and irrational numbrs.
Rational Numbers
All numbers of the form p/q where p, q are integers and q is not zero are called
rational number'.'>. The set of rational numbers is denoted by Q,
i.e:, Q= { %I p, q E Z" q *0 }
Irrational Numbers
The numbers which cannot be expressed as quotient of integers are called
irrational numbers.
The set of irrational numbers is denoted by Q',
i.e., Q' = { x I x * ~ ,p, q

*0 }E Z" q
For example, the numbers -{2 ,V ,-{5° , and e are all irrational num~ers.
7t
The union of the set of rational numbers and irrational numbers is known as the
set of r.~al numbers. It is denoted by R,
i.e., R = Q u Q'
Here Q and Q' are both subset of R and Q 11 Q' = <\>
35 Mathematics 9
Note:
(i) NcWcZcQ
(ii) Q and Q' are disjoint sets.
(iii) for each prime number p, -JP"
is an
irrational number.
(iv) square roots of all positive non-square
integers are irrational.
i.e., N c W c Z c Q c R
2.1.2 Depiction of Real Numbers on Number Line
The real numbers are represented geometrically by points on a number line I
such that each real number 'a' corresponds to one and only one point on number line I
and to each point P on number line !there corresponds precisely one real number.
This type of association or relationship is called a one-to-one correspondence. We
establish such correspondence as below .
. We first choose an arbitrary point 0 (the origin) on a horizontal line ! and
associate with it the real number 0. By convention, numbers to the right of the origin
are positive and numbers to the left of the origin are negative. Assign the number 1 to
the point A so that the line segment OA represents one unit of length.
p' 0 A p
II( I I I I I I I I I I I .. f,
.-a -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 a
The number 'a' associated with a point Pon I is called the coordinate of P, and
I is called the coordinate line or the real number line. For any real number a, the
point P'(-a) corresponding to -a lies at the same distance from 0 as the point P (a)
corresponding to a but in the opposite direction.
2.1.3 Demonstration of a Number with Terminating and Non-Terminating
decimals on the Number Line
First we give the following concepts of rational and i,rrational numbers.
(a) Rational Numbers
The decimal representations of rational numbers are of two types, terminating
. and recurring.
(i) Terminating Decimal Fractions

The decimal fraction in which there are finite number of digits in its decimal
part is called a terminating decimal fraction. For example~= 0.4 and ~ = 0.375
I
(ii) Recurring and Non-terminating Decimal Fractions

The decimal fraction (non-terminating) in which some digits are repeated again
and again in the same order in its decimal part is called a recurring decimal fraction.
2 4
For example 9 = 0.2222 ... and TI= 0.363636 ....
(b) Irrational Numbers

It may be noted that the decimal representations for irrational numbers are
neither terminating nor repeating in blocks. The decimal form of an irrational number
. would continue forever and never begin to repeat the same block of digits,
e.g., --J2 = 1.414213562 ... , 7t = 3.141592654 ... , e = 2.718281829 ... , etc
Obviously these decimal representations are neither terminating nor recurring.
We consider the following example.
Example
Express the following decimals in the form~· where p, q E Z and q -::;:. 0
-
(a) 0.3 = 0.333 ..... . (b) 0.23 = 0.232323 .....
Solution
-
(a) Let x = 0.3, which can be rewritten as
x = 0.3333 ... ...... (i)
Note that we have only one digit 3 repeating indefinitely.
So, we multiply both sides of (i) by 10, and obtain
lOx = (0.3333 ... ) x 10
or lOx = 3.3333 ... ...... (ii)
Subtracting (i) from (ii), we have
lOx- x = (3.3333 ... ) - (0.3333 ... )
or 9x= 3 =>
- 1
Hence0.3 =3
37 Mathematics 9
(b) Let x = 0.23 = 0.23 23 23 23 ...... .

Since two digit block 23 is repeating itself indefinitely, so we multiply both
sides by 100.
Then lOOx = 23.23
lOOx =23+0.23 =23 +x
=> lOOx-x =23
=> 99x =23
23
=> x -99
Thus 0 .23 = 23.

99
. al
is a ration number.
2.1.4 Representation of Rational and Irrational Numbers on Number Line

In order to locate a number with terminating and non-terminating recurring
decimal on the number line, the points associated with the rational numbers m and
n
- ~where m, n are positive integers, we subdivide each unit length into n equal parts.
Then the mth point of division to the right of the origin represents m and that to the
n
left of the origin at the same distance represents - m .
n
Example
Represent the following numbers on the number line.
( .) 2
I -
( .. ) 15
5· 11 7(... ) 7
lll - 19
Solution
(i) For representing the rational ~umber - ~' on the number line Cdivide the unit
length between 0 and -1 into five equal parts and take the end of the second
part from 0 to its left side. The point M in the following figure represents the
. al . 2
ration number - 5·
-2 -1 MO 2
15 1 .
(ii) T = 2 + ·::r It lies between 2 and 3.
15
7
.. I
-3 -2
I
-1
I I
0 2p
1f111111
3
... f
Divide the distance between 2 and 3 into seven equal parts. The point P
15 1
represents the number 7 = 2 7 .
(iii) For representing the rational number, -1§-, divide the unit length between -1
and -2 into nine equal parts. Take the end of the 7th part from -1. The point M
in the following figure represents the rational number, -1~ ·
-12
9
1111 llflllllll I I ... ,f,
- 2M -I 0 2
Irrational numbers such as {'i , '15

etc. can be located on the line I by
geometric construction. For example, the point corresponding to {'i may be
constructed by forming a right ~OAB with sides (containing \:be right angle) each of
length 1 as shown in the figure. By Pythagoras Theorem,
OB =~(1)2 + (1)2 ={'i
By drawing an arc with centre at 0 and radius OB = {'i we- get the point P
representing '\{2 on the number line.
'B
1111 I
0 pj\ l\
I I
-3 -2 -1 3
EXERCISE 2.1
1. Identify which of the following are rational and irrational numbers.
(i) --J3 (ii) i (iii) 7t (iv) i
1
(v) 7.25 (vi) -.J29
2. Convert the following fractions into decimal fractions.
(") 19 "') 57 (' ) 205 . 25
(1') 25
17
11 4 (111 g lV lS (v)
5
g (v1) 38
3. Which of the following statements are true and which are false?
(i) ~is an in:.~tional number. (ii) 7t is an irrational number.
39 Mathematics 9
(iii) ~ is a terminating fraction. (iv) %is a terminating fraction.
(v) ~is a recurring fraction.

4. Represent the following numbers on the number line.
(1.) 3
2 (")
11 - S4 3
("ll1') 14 ('lV ) -
5
2S (v) 2 3
4 (vi) '15
5. Give a ration~ number between% and i.
6. Express the following recurring decimals as the rational number !!.. where
q
-
p, q are integers and qt:. 0. (i) 0.5 (ii) 0.13 (iii) 0. 67
2.2 Properties of Real Numbers

If a, b are real numbers, their sum is written as a + b and their product as ab or
ax b or a · b or (a) (b).
(a) Properties of Real numbers with respect to Addition and Multiplication
Properties of real numbers under addition are as follows:
(i) Closure Property
a + b E R, '<;/ a, b E R
e.g., if-3 and 5 E R,
then -3 + 5 = 2 E R
(ii) Commutative Property
a+b =b + a, '<:/ a, b E R
R,
e.g., · if 2, 3 E
then 2 + 3 = 3 + 2
or 5 =5
(iii) Associative Property
(a+ b) + c =a+ (b + c), '<:/a, b, c E R
e.g., if 5, 7, 3 E R,
then (5 + 7) + 3 = 5 + (7 + 3)
or 12 + 3 = 5 + 10
or 15 = 15
(iv) Additive Identity

There exists a unique real number 0, called additive identity, such that
a + 0 = a = 0 + a, \;/ a E R
(v) Additive Inverse
For every a E R, there exists a unique real number -a, called the additive
inverse of a, such that
a+ (-a)= 0 =(-a)+ a
e.g., additive inverse of 3 is-3 since 3 + (-3) = 0 = (-3) + (3)
Properties of real numbers under multiplication are as follows:
(i) Closure Propei:ty
ab E R, \;/ a, b E R
e.g., if -3, 5 E R
then (-3)(5) E R
or -15E R
(ii) Commutative Property
ab =ba, \;/ a, b E R
1 3 R
e.g., if 3, 2 E
then (~)(~)=(~)(~)
or
(iii) Associative Property
(ab)c = a(bc), \;/ a, b, c E R
e.g., if 2, 3, 5 E R
then (2 x 3) x 5 = 2 x (3 x 5)
or 6 x 5 = 2 x 15
or 30 = 30
(iv) Multiplicative Identity
There exists a unique real number 1, called the multiplicative identity, such that
a . 1 =a = 1 . a, \;/ a E R
(v) Multiplicative Inverse
For every non-zero real number, there exists a unique real number a- or
1
~,
called multiplicative inverse of a, such that
41 Mathematics 9
aa- 1 =1 = a- 1a
1 1
or a x - = 1 =- x a
a a
e.g., if 5 e R, then~ e R
such that
1 1
5x5=l=5x5
So, 5 and~ are multiplicative inverse of each other.

(vi) Multiplication is Distributive over Addition and Subtraction
For all a, b, e e R
a(b + e) =ab+ ae (Left distributive law)
(a + b)e =ae + be (Right distributive law)
e.g., if 2, 3, 5 e R, then
2(3 + 5) = 2 x 3 + 2 x 5
or 2 x 8 = 6 + 10
or 16 = 16
And for all a, b, e E R
a(b - e) =ab - ae (Left distributive law)
(a - b)e =ae - be (Right distributive law)
e.g., if 2, 5, 3 e R, then
2(5 - 3) = 2 x 5 - 2 x 3
or 2 x 2 = 10-6
or 4=4
Note:
(i) The symbol V means "for all",
(ii) a is the multiplicative inverse of a- 1, i.e., a= (a- 1f 1
(b) Properties of Equality of Real Numbers

Properties of equality of real numbers are as follows:
(i) Reflexive Property
a= a, '\/a e R
(ii) Symmetric Property
lf a =b, then b =a, '\/ a, b E R
(iii) Transitive Property

If a = b and b = c, then a = c, V a, b, c E R
(iv) Additive Property
If a= b, then a+ c = b + c, V a, b, c E R
(v) Multiplicative Property
If a = b, then ac = be, \;/ a, b, c E R
(vi) Cancellation Property for Addition
If a + c = b + c, then a = b, \;/ a, b, c E R
(vii) Cancellation Property for Multiplication
If ac =be, cf. 0 then a= b, Va, b, c E R
(c) Properties of Inequalities of Real Numbers
Properties of inequalities of real numbers are as follows:
(i) Trichotomy Property
V a, b ER
ab
(ii) Transitive Property
\;/ a, b, c ER
(a) a< band b < c =>a< c (b) a>b ~d b > c => a > c
(iii) Additive Property
\;/ a, b, c ER
(a) a<b=>a+c<b+c and (b) a>b=>a+c>b+c
a<b=>c+a<c+b a>b=>c+a>c+b
· (iv) Multiplicative Property
(a) \;/a, b, c E Rand c > 0
(i) a > b => ac > be (ii) a ac < be
a> b =>ca> cb aca< cb
(b) \;/a, b, cE Rand c < 0
(i) a > b => ac < be (ii) a ac > be
a> b =>ca< cb aca> cb
(v) Multiplicative Inverse Property
\;/ a, b E R and a :t: 0, b -:t= 0
1 1
(a) a<b¢:=}a>b (b)
2.3.2 Difference between Radical form and Exponential form

In radical form, radical sign is used
e.g., x = !!:.{a is a radical form.
?c ?12
-\J x , -\/ x are examples of radical form.
In exponential form, exponential is used in place of radicals,
e.g., x = (a) 11n is exponential form.
312 2n .
x , z are examples of exponentlal form.
Properties of Radicals
Let a, b E Rand m, n be positive integers. Then,
(ii) ~n fa - 'fa
(i)
-\Jb - ~
!'In =a
(iii) (iv) W'=c'far (v) -\la
2.3.3 Transformation of an Expression given in Radical form to Exponential
form and vice versa
The method of transforming expression in radical form to exponential form and
vice versa is explained in the following examples.
Example 1
Write each radical expression in exponential ·notation and each exponential
expression in radical notation. Do not simplify.
(i)
Solution
+s (ii) w (iii) /
14 . )
( lV X
-3/2
(i) +s = (-8) 1/5 (ii) W =x5t3
(iii) /
Example 2
14
= w or c1Y ) 3
(iv) £ n = ~ or
3
c--[x f 3
Simplify ~ 16x4/
Solution
~ 16x4/ =~ c2)(8)(x)(x3)(y2)(y3) , ...... (factorizing)
=~ 2xy2 (23)(x3)(/) ' .. .... (arranging perfect cubes)
=M ~ c23)(x3)(/) • . ..... property (i)

45 Mathematics 9
!~!w!n?n
=-\J LX)l -\J 2 -\J x \J y ' ...... property (i)
=2xy~, ...... property (v)

EXERCISE 2.3
1. Write each radical expression in exponential notation and each exponential
expression in radical notation. Do not simplify.
(i) ~ (ii) 2315 (iii) -7 113 (iv) y- 213

2. Tell whether the following statements are true or false?
(i) 5
115
=-15 (ii) 2
213
=~ (iii) '149 ={'? (iv) V7' =x3
3. Siinplify the following radical expressions.
W2 _s {3 _3/8
(i) (ii) (iii) -\j32 (iv) -\j-Yi
2.4 Laws of Exponents I Indices
2.4.1 Base and Exponent
In the exponential notation an (read as a to the nth power) we call 'a' as the
base and 'n' as the exponent or the power to which the base is raised.
From this definition, recall that, we have the following laws of exponents.
If a, b E R and m, n are positive integers, then
I. am . an =am+n II (a m)n =amn
m IV
v VI a
0
= 1, whereat= 0
VII a
- n
=na1 , where a t= 0
2.4.2 Applications of Laws of Exponents
The method of applying the laws of indices to simplify algebraic expressions is
explained in the following examples. "
Example 1
Use rules of exponents to simplify each expression and write the answer in
terms of positive exponents.
-2 -3 7
x x y
(i) -3 4 (ii)
x y
Solution
-2
x x-3 y 7 x-5 y 7 (am an =am+n)
(i) -3 4 =--=34
x y x y
__
7-4
y_ -L
3
(am_
- -3+5 - 2 - - am-n)
x x an
(ii) ( 4a3 bor2 35

= ( 4a + x 1 J2 0
(:: = am-n, b = 1)
9a- 5 \ 9
= ( 4;8 J2 = ( 4:8 J2 (~Jn =(~J

(~J =~:
81
= 16a 16
Example2
Simplify the following by using laws of indices:
. ( 8
(1) 125
3 )-4/
.. 4(3)n
(11) 3n+l - 3n
Solution Using Laws of Indices,

i) (~)-4' 3
( 125 ) 4' 3 (125) 413 (5 3)413 54 625
( 125 = 8 = (8)4/3 = (23)4/3 = 24=16
(ii) 4(3t
3n+I - 3n
= 4(3t = 4(3t
3n[3 - 1] 2(3n)
= ±
2
=2
EXERCISE 2.4
1. Use laws of exponents to simplify:
213 115
(243f (32f
(i) 1
-.}(196f
(iii) (£: Y~: z;)-3

x y z
2. Show that
Xa )a+b ( i )b+c (Xe )c+a
( 'b x -c x -a =1
x x x
47 Mathematics 9
3. Simplify
21/3 x (27)1/3x(60)1/2 213 112
(216) x (25)
(i) 112 113 4 (ii)
(180) x(4f x (9/ (.04fl/2
3 2
(iii) 52 + (52)3 (iv)
32 3
(x) +x , x *0
2.5 Complex Numbers
We recall that the square of a real number is non-negative. So the solution of
the equation x2 + 1 = 0 or x2 =-1 does not exist in R. To overcome this inadequacy of
real numbers, we need a number whose square is -1. Thus the mathematicians were
tempted to introduce a larger set of numbers called the set of complex numbers which
contains R and every number whose square is negative. They invented a new number
Fi, called the imaginary unit, and denoted it by the letter i(iota) having the property
that i2 = -1. Obviously i is not a real number. It is a new mathematical entity that
enables us to enlarge the number system to contain solution of every algebraic
equation of the form x2 = -a, where a > 0. By taking new number i =Fi, the
solution set of x2 + 1 = 0 is
{Fi, -Fi} or {i, -i}
Note:
The Swiss mathematician Leonard Euler (1707 - 1783) was the first to use the
symbol i for the number Fi.
Numbers like Fi, Fs etc. are called pure imaginary numbers.
Integral Powers of i
By using i =Fi, we can easily calculate the integral powers of i.
e.g., z·2 =- 1 , z.3
=z.2x z. =-z,. z4 =z.2x z.2 =(- 1)(- 1) = 1, .8 =( .2)4 =(- 1)4 = 1,
1 1
i =(i2) =(-1) =-1, etc.

10 5 5
A pure imaginary number is the square root of a negative real numbe~-
2.5.1 Definition of a Complex Number

A number of the form z =a+ bi where a and bare real numbers and i =Fi, is
called a complex number and is represented by z i.e., z =a + ib
2.5.2 Set of Complex Numbers .
The set of all complex numbers is denoted by C, and
C = {z I z =a + bi, where a, b E R and i =Fi}
The numbers a and b, called the real and imaginary parts of z, are denoted as
a= Re(z) and b =lm(z).
Observe that:
(i) Every a E R may be identified with complex numbers of the form a + Oi taking
b = 0. Therefore, every real number is also a complex number. Thus R c C.
Note that every complex number is not a real number.
(ii) If a = 0, then a + bi reduces to a purely imaginary number bi. The set of purely
imaginary numbers is also contained in C.
(iii) If a =b =0, then z =0 + iO is called the complex number 0.
The set of complex numbers is shown in the following diagram:
Integers
Zero
Real Negative
numbers natural
Complex numbers
numbers Irrational
Pure numbers
imaginary
numbers
2.5.3 Conjugate of a Complex Number
If we change i to -i in z = a + bi, we obtain another complex number a - bi
called the complex conjugate of z and is denoted by z
(read z bar).
Thus, if z =-1 - i, then z=-1 + i.
The numbers a + bi and a - bi are called conjugates of each other.
Note that:
(i) z =z
(ii) The conjugate of a real number z = a = a + Oi coincides with the number itself,
since z= a + Oi =a - Oi = a.
(iii) Conjugate of a real number is the same real number.
2.5.4 Equality of Complex Numbers and its Properties
For all a, b, c, d E R,
a + bi = c + di if and only if a = c and b = d.
e.g., 2x + y2i =4 + 9i if and only if
2x = 4 and y2 = 9, i.e., x = 2 and y = ± 3
Properties of real numbers Rare also valid for the set of complex numbers.
(i) z 1 = z1 (Reflexive law)
49 Mathematics 9
(ii) If Z1 = Z2, then Z2 = Z1 (Symmetric law)

(iii) If Z1 = Z2 and Z2 = Z3, then Z1 = Z3 (Transitive law)
EXERCISE 2.5
1. . Evaluate
(i)
.? .so .12
l (ii) l (iii) l
(iv) (-i)g (v) (-i)5 (vi) l

.27
2. Write the conjugate of the following numbers.

(i) 2 + 3i (ii) 3-5i (iii) -z
(iv) -3 +4i (v) -4-i (vi) i-3
3. Write the real and imaginary part of the following numbers.
(i) 1+ i (ii) -1+2i (iii) -3i + 2
(iv) -2 - 2i (v) -3i (vi) 2 + Oi
4. Find the value of x and y if x + iy + 1 = 4 - 3i .
•
2.6 Basic Operations on Complex Numbers
(i) Addition
Let z1 =a+ ib and z2 =c +id be two complex numbers and a, b, c, d E R.
The sum of two complex numbers is given by
z 1 + z2 =(a+ bi) + (c +di)= (a+ c) + (b + d)i
i.e., the sum of two complex numbers is the sum of the corresponding real and
the ·imaginary parts.
e.g., (3 - 8i) + (5 + 2i) = (3 + 5) + (-8 + 2)i =8 - 6i
(ii) Multiplication
Let z1 =a+ ib and z2 = c +id be two complex numbers.
The products are found as
(i) If k E R, kz 1 = k(a + bi) = ka + kbi.
(Multiplication of a complex number with a sc~ar)
(ii) z1z2 =(a+ bi) (c +di)= (ac - bd) + (ad+ bc)i
(Multiplication of two complex numbers)
The multiplication of any two complex numbers (a + bi) and (c + di) is
explained as
z 1z2 =(a+ bi) (c +di)= a(c +di)+ bi(c +di)
= ac + adi + bci + bdi2
=ac + adi + bci + bd(-l) (since i2 =-1)
= (ac - bd) +(ad+ bc)i (combining like terms)

e.g., (2 - 3i) (4 +Si)= 8 + lOi - 12i - 15i2 = 23 - 2i. (since i2 = -1)
(iii) Subtraction
Let z1 =a+ ib and z 2 = c +id be two complex numbers.
The difference between two complex numbers is given by
z 1 - z2 = (a+ bi) - (c +di)= (a - c) + (b - d)i
e.g., (-2 + 3i) - (2 + i) = (- 2- 2) + (3 - l)i = - 4 + 2i
i.e., the difference of two complex numbers is the difference of the
corresponding real and imaginary parts.
(iv) Division
Let z1 =a+ ib and z2 =c +id be two complex numbers such that z2 * 0.
The division of a+ bi bye+ di is given by
Z1 a+ bi a+ bi e - di
-=-- =--x--' (Multiplying the numerator and
Z2 e + di e + di c - di
denominator by e - di, the complex
C<?njugate of e +di).
ae + bei - adi - bdi2
=
e2 - (di) 2
=ae + bci2 - adi + bd · ·2

since z = - 1
c +d2 '
_ (ae + bd) +(be - ad)i _ ae + bd (be- ad) .
- e2 + d1 - e2 + d1 + c2 + d1 z
Operations are explained with the help of following examples.
Example 1
Separate the real and imaginary parts of (-1 + -.J=2,) 2
Solution
Let z =-1 + -.J=2,, then
;: = (-1 + -.J=2,) 2 = (-1 + rf2.)2 ' changing to i-forrn
i\j2) (-1 + i\j2) = (-1) (-1 + i\j2) + N2 (-1 + i\/2)
= (-1 +
= 1 - N2 - i-{i + 2i2 =-1 - 2-{2 i

Hence Re Ci)=;; 1 and Im Ci)= -2-{i
51 Mathematics 9
Example 2
Express 1 : 2i in the standard form a + bi.
Solution
1 1 1 - 2i
We have 1+2i = 1+2i x 1 - 2i
(multiplying the numerator and denominator by 1 + 2i)

1 - 2i 1 - 2i
= 1 _ (2i)2 = 1 _ 4i2 , (simplifying)
1 -2i
5 ' (since i2 =-1)
1 2.
·=5- 5 i , which is of the form a + bi
Example 3
4 + 5i. .
Express 4 _Sim the standard form a+ bi.
Solution
4 + 5i 1 4 + 5i
4- 5i = (4 +Si). 4- 5i x 4 + 5i (multiplying and dividing by the
conjugate of (4- 5i))
2
(4 + 5i) 16 + 40i + 2sP
(simplifying)
=(4) 2 -(5i/ = 16 - 25i2
16 + 40i-25
=-----
16 + 25 (since P=-1)
Example4
Solve (3 - 4i) (x + yi) =1 + 0 · i for real numbers x and y, where i =Fi.
Solution
We have (3 - 4i)(x + yi) =1 + 0 · i
or 3x + 3iy - 4ix - 4i y 2
=1 + 0 · i
or 3x + 4y + (3y - 4x)i =1 + 0 · i
Equating the real and imaginary parts, we obtain
3x + 4y == 1 and 3y - 4x = 0
Solving these two equations simultaneously, we have x =253 and y=4

.. 25
EXERCISE 2.6
1. Identify the following statements as true or false.
(i) '1=3 '1=3 = 3 =-i
(ii) i
73 1
(iii) i 0 =-1
(iv) Complex conjugate of (-6i + i2) is (-1 + 6i)
(v) Difference of a complex number z = a + bi and its conjugate is a real
number.
(vi) If (a - 1) - (b + 3)i = 5 + 8i, then a= 6 and b = -11
(vii) Product of a complex number and its conjugate is always a non-negative
real number.
2. Express each complex number in the standard form a + bi, where a and b are
real numbers.
(i) (2 + 3i) + (7 - 2i) (ii) 2(5 + 4i) -3 (7 + 4i)
2 3 16 19 25
(iii) -(-3 + 5i)- (4 + 9i) (iv) 2i + 6i + 3i - 6i + 4i
3. Simplify and write your answer in the form a + bi.
(i) (-7 + 3i) (-3 + 2i) (ii) (2-~) (3-~)
2
(iii) c-{5 - 3i) (iv) (2 - 3i) (3 - 2i)
4. Simplify and write your answer in the form a + bi.
-2 2 + 3i 9-7i
(i) (ii) (iii)
1+ i 4-i 3+i
~ ~ ~J
2- 6i 4 + i 1
+ z· - 3-+-i
(iv) - 3 (v) ( (vi)
(2 + 3i) (1 - i)
5. Calculate (a) z (b) z + z (c) z- z (d) z z, for each of the following

(i) z =-i (ii) z= 2 + i
1+ i 4-3i
(iii) z=--
1- i (iv). z = 2 + 4i
6. If z= 2 + 3i and w = 5 - 4i, show that
(i) z+ w = z+ w (ii) z- w = z- w
(iii) zw= z w (iv)

w = ~
(3..) w' where w ':f:: 0.
1 1
(v) 2 (z + Z) is the real part of z. (vi) 2
i (z - z) is the imaginary part of z.
53 Mathematics 9
7. Solve the following equations for real x and y.

(i) (2 - 3i) (x + yi) =4 + i
(ii) (3 - 2i) (x + yi) = 2(x - 2yi) + 2i - 1
2
(iii) (3 + 4i) - 2(x - yi) = x + yi
REVIEW EXERCISE 2
1. Multiple Choice Questions. Choose the correct answer.
(i) (27£1)-213 ........ .
(a)
Yi_
9 (b) ff (c)
w-8 (d)
~
8
(ii) Write $ in exponential form ... : ....

(a) x (b) x 7 (c) x In (d) x112
(iii) wnte
. 4213 wit. h rad'1cal sign
. ........
(a) W (b) {f (c) ~ (d) '1"46

(iv) In V3s the radicand is ........
1
(a) 3 (b) (c) 35 (d) none of these
3
(v) (~~Jl/2 = ........
5 4 5 4
(a) (b) (c) (d)
4 5 4 5
(vi) The conjugate of 5 + 4i is .........
(a) -5 +4i (b) -5-4i (c) 5-4i (d) 5 + 4i
9
(vii) The value of i is .........
(a) 1 (b) -1 (c) (d) -z
(viii) Every real number is .........
(a) a positive integer (b) a rational number
(c) a negative integer (d) a complex number
(ix) Real part of 2ab(i + i2) is ..........
(a) 2ab (b) -2ab (c) 2abi (d) -2abi
(x) Imaginary part of -i(3i + 2) is ......
(a) -2 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) -3
(xi) Which of the following sets have the closure property w.r.t. addition ......... .
(a) {O} (b) {0,-1}
(c) {0, 1} (d) { 1, 'J'2, 1}

(xii) Name the property of real numbers used in ( - 'fl) x 1 =- ~ ........ .
(a) additive identity (b) additive inverse
(c) multiplicative identity (d) multiplicative inverse.
(xiii) If x,y,zeR,z<O,thenx<y=> ..... .
(a) xz<yz (b) xz>yz
~ ~=~ ~ oo~cl~~
(xiv) If a, b E R, then only one of a= b or a b holds is called ..... . I
(a) trichotomy property (b) transitive property

(c) additive property (d)· multiplicative property
(xv) A non-terminating, non-recurring decimal represents ..... .
(a) a natural number (b) a rational number
(c) an irrational number (d) a prime number
2. True or false? Identify.
(i) Division is not an associative operation.
(ii) Every whole number is a natural number.
(iii) Multiplicative inverse of 0.02 is 50.
(iv) 7t is a rational number.
(v) Every integer is a rational number.
(vi) Subtraction is a commutative operation.
(vii) Every real number is a rational number.
(viii) Decimal representation of a rational number is either terminating or
recumng.
- 8
(ix) 1.8 = 1+9
3. Simplify the following.
\isly-12 £s
r
(i) (ii) "'125 XI On y8m
( x3y4z5 J'5 ( 32x~y-43

x -2 y-I z-5
(iii) (iv)
625 x y z
No i= or '- -- • ~
55 Mathematics 9
213
(216) x (25) 112
4. Simplify
(0.04)-312
5. Simplify
cfJ+q ( q)q+r
( aq • :r + 5(cl · aY-r, a :f. 0
6. Simplify (a~:~) (::~n) (:n

2
:J
7. Simplify~x~x*
SUMMARY
* Set of real numbers is expressed as R =Q u Q', where
Q= {~ I p,qE Z,q:t- .0, },Q'= {xlxisnotrational}.
* Properties of real numbers w.r.t. addition and multiplication:

Closure: a + b E R, ab E R, V a, b E R
Associative:
(a+ b) + c =a+ (b + c), (ab)c =a(bc), Va, b, c E R
Commutative:
a + b =b + a, ab =ba, V a, b E R
Additive Identity:
a + 0 = a = 0 + a, V a E R,
Multiplicative Identity:
a · 1 =a = 1 · a, V a E R
Additive Inverse:
a + (-a) = 0 = (-a) + a, V a E R
Multiplicative Inverse:
1 1
a·-=1=-·a a:t-0
a a '
Multiplication is distributive over addition and subtraction:
a(b + c) =ab+ ac, Va, b, c E R
(b + c) a= ba +ca, Va, b, c E R
a(b - c) =ab - ac, Va, b, c E R
(a - b)c = ac - be, V a, b, c E R
* Properties of equality in R
Reflexive: a =a, V a E R
Symmetric: a =b => b =a, V a, b E R
Transitive: a= b, b = e ~ a= e, Va, b, e ER
Additive property: If a = b, then a+ e = b + e, V a, b, e E R
Multiplicative property: If a= b, then ae =be, Va, b, e E R
Cancellation property: If ae =be, e-::/: 0, then a= b,V a, b, e E R
In the radical Tx ,
~ is radical sign, x is radicand or base and n is index of
radical.
Indices and laws of indices:
V a, b, e E Rand m, n E z
(a
111 11
) =a 11
m , (ab )'
1
=a 11
b
11
( ~)n
b
=an b * 0
bn'
m n m+n
a a =a
m
~=am-fl a-::/: 0
an '
-n 1
a =-
an' a-::tO
0
a =1
* Complex number z = a + bi is defined using imaginary unit i = ~, where
a, b E R and a = Re (z), b = Im (z)
* Conjugate of z = a + bi is defined as z = a'- bi

Unit3
LOGARITHMS
Unit Outlines
3.1 Scientific Notation
3.2 Logarithm
3.3 Common and Natural Logarithm
3.4 Laws of Logarithm
3.5 Application of Logarithm

* express a number in standard form of scientific notation and vice versa.
* define logarithm of a number y to the base a as the power to which a must be
raised to give the number (i.e., if= y ~ loga.Y =x, a > 0, a f. 1 and y > 0).
* define a common logarithm, characteristic and mantissa of log of a number.
* use tables to find the log of a number.
* give concept of antilog and use tables to find the antilog of a number.
* differentiate between common and natural logarithm.
* prove the following laws of logarithm
• loga(mn) =logam + logan,
• loga( : ) =logam - logan,
• logamn =n logam,
• logam logmn =logan.
* apply laws of logarithm to convert lengthy processes of multiplication, division
and exponentiation into easier processes of addition and subtraction etc.
Introduction
The difficult and complicated calculations become easier by using logarithms.
Abu Muhammad Musa Al Khwarizmi first gave the idea of logarithms. Later
on, in the seventeenth century John Napier extended his work on logarithrris and
prepared tables for logarithms. He used "e" as the base for the preparation of
logarithm tables. Professor Henry Briggs had a special interest in the work of John
Napier. He prepared logarithim tables with base 10. Antilogarithm table was prepared
by Jobst Burgi in 1620 A.D.
57
Logarithms 58
3.1 Scientific Notation

There are so many numbers that we use in science and technical work that are
either very small or very large. For instance, the distance from the Earth to the Sun is
150,000,000 km approximately and a hydrogen atom weighs
0.000,000,000,000,000,000,000,001,7 gram. While writing these numbers in ordinary
notation (standard notation) there is always chance of making an error by omitting a
zero or writing more than actual number of zeros. To overcome this problem,
scientists have developed a concise, precise and convenient method to write very
small or very large numbers, that is calle~ scientific notation of expressing an
ordinary number.
A number written in the form ax lOn, where 1 $a < 10 and n is an integer, is
called the scientific notation.
The above mentioned numbers (in 3.1) can be conveniently written in scientific
8 24
notation as 1.5 x 10 km and 1.7 x 10- gm respectively.
Example 1
Write each of the following ordinary numbers in scientific notation
(i) 30600 (ii) 0.000058
Solution
4
(i) 30600 = 3.06 x 10 (move decimal point four places to the left)
(ii) 0.000058 =5.8 x 10-5 (move decimal point five places to the right)
Observe that for expressing a number in scientific notation
(i) Place the decimal point after the first non-zero digit of given number.
(ii) We multiply the number obtained in step (i), by lOn if we shifted the decimal
point n places to the left
(iii) We multiply the number obtained in step (i) by 10-n if ~e shifted the decimal
point n places to the right.
On the other hand, if we want to change a number from scientific notation to
ordinary (standard) notation, we simply reverse the process.
Example 2
Change each of the following numbers from scientific notation to ordinary
6
notation. (i) 6.35 x 10 (ii) 7 .61 x 10-4
Solution
6
(i) 6.35 x 10 = 6350000 (move the decimal point six places to the right)
(ii) 7.61 x 10-4 = 0.000761 (move the decimal point four places to the left)
59 Mathematics 9
EXERCISE 3.1
1. Express each of the following numbers in scientific notation.
(i) 5700 (ii) 49,800,000 (iii) 96,000,000
(iv) 416.9 (v) 83,000 (vi) 0.00643
(vii) 0.0074 (viii) 60,000,000 (ix) 0.00000000395
275,000
(x)
0.0025
2. Express the following numbers in ordinary notation.
(i) 6 x 10--4 (ii) 5.06 x 10 10
(iii) 9.018 x 10-6 (iv) 7.865 x 108
3.2 Logarithm
Logarithms are useful tools for accurate and rapid computations. Logarithms
with base 10 are known as common logarithms and those with base e are known as
natural logarithms. We shall define logarithms with base a> 0 .and a =t 1.
3.2.1 Logarithm of a Real Number
If ax= y. then xis called the logarithm of y to the base 'a' and is written as
loga y = x, where a > 0, a =t 1 and y > 0
i.e., the logarithm of a number y to the base 'a' is the index x of the power to
which a must be raised to get that number y.
The relations ax= y and loga y = x are equivalent. When one relation is given, it
can be converted into the other. Thus
I ax =y <:::} loga y ~ x I
ax = y and loga y = x are respectively exponential and logarithmic forms of the
same solution.
To explain these remarks ,we observe that
2 Logarithm of a
3 = 9 is equivalent to log39 = 2
negative number
and 2-
1
=~is equivalent to log2 ( 1) = -1. is not de.fined at
this stage.
Similarly, we can say that
log327 = 3 is equivalent to 27 = 33.
Logarithms 60
Example 3
Find log4 2, i.e., find log of 2 to the base 4.
Solution
Let log4 2 = x
Then its exponential form is 4x = 2
i.e., 22.t = 2 1 => 2x = 1
1
.. x=2
Deductions from Definition of Logarithm
1. Since a0 = 1, logal = 0 2. Since a 1 =a, logaa = 1
3.2.2 Definitions of Common Logarithm, Characteristic and Mantissa
Definition of Common Logarithm
In numerical calculations, the base of logarithm is always taken as 10. These
logarithms are called common logarithms or Briggesian logarithms in honour of
Henry Briggs, an English mathematician and astronomer, who developed them.
Characteristic and Mantissa of Log of a Number
Consider the following:
103 = 1000 ¢=> log 1000 = 3
2
10 = 100 ¢=> log 100 = 2
1
10 = 10 ¢=> log 10 = 1
10° = 1 ¢=> log 1 = 0
10- 1 =0.1 ¢=> log 0.1 = -1
10-2 = 0.01 ¢=> log 0.01 =-2
3
10- = 0.001 ¢=> log 0.001 = -3
Note:
By convention, if only the common logarithms are used throughout a
discussion, the base 10 is not written.
Also consider the following table
For the numbers the logarithm is
Between 1 and 10 a decimal
Between 10 and 100 1+ a decimal
Between 100 and 1000 2+ a decimal
Between 0.1 and 1 -1 + a decimal
Between 0.01 and 0.1 -2+ a decimal
Between 0.001and0.01 -3+ a decimal
61 Mathematics 9
Observe that
The logarithm of any number consists of two parts:
(i) an integral part which is positive for a number greater than 1 and negative for a
number less than 1, is called the characteristic of logarithm of the number.
(ii) a decimal part which is always positive, is called the mantissa of the logarithm
of the number.
(i) Characteristic of Logarithm of a Number > 1
The first part of above table shows that if a number has one digit in the integral
part, then the characteristic is zero; if its integral part has two digits, then the
characteristic is one; with three digits in the integral part, the characteristic is two, and
soon.
In other words, the characteristic of the logarithm of a number greater than 1 is
always one less than the number of digits in the integral part of the number.
When a number b is written in the scientific notation, i.e., in the form
b = a x 1()'1 where 1 ~ a < 10, the power of 10 i.e., n will give the characteristic of
log b.
Examples
Characteristic of
Number Scientific Notation
the Logarithm
1.02 1.02 x 10° 0
1
99.6 9.96 x 10 1
102 1.02 x 102 2
1662.4 1.6624 x 103 3
Characteristic of Logarithm of a Number < 1
The second part of the table indicates that, if a number has no zero immediately
after the decimal point, the characteristic is -1; if it has one zero immediately after
the decimal point, the characteristic is -2; if it has two zeros immediately after the
decimal point, the characteristic is -3; etc.
In other words, the characteristic of the logarithm of a number less than 1, is
always negative and one more than the number of zeros immediately after the
decimal point of the number.
Example
Write the characteristic of the log of following numbers by expressing them in
scientific notation and noting the power of 10.
0.872, 0.02, 0.00345
Logarithms 62
Solution
Scientific Characteristic of the
Number
Notation Logarithm
0.872 8.72 x 10-1 -1
0.02 2.0 x 10-2 -2
0.00345 3.45 x 10-3 -3
When a number is less than 1, the characteristic of its logarithm is written by
convention, as 3, 2 or T instead of -3, -2 or -1 respectively (3 is read as bar 3) to
avoid the mantissa becoming negative.
Note: 2.3748 does not mean -2.3748. In 2.3748, 2 is negative but .3748 is positive;
whereas in -2.3748 both 2 and .3748 are negative.
(ii) Finding the Mantissa of the Logarithm of a Number
While the characteristic of the logarithm of a number is written merely by
inspection, the mantissa is found by making use of logarithmic tables. These tables
have been constructed to obtain the logarithms up to 7 decimal places. For all
practical purposes, a four-figure logarithmic table will provide sufficient accuracy.
A logarithmic table is divided into 3 parts.
(a) The first part of the table is the extreme left column headed by blank square.
This column contains numbers from 10 to 99 corresponding to the first two
digits of the number whose logarithm is required.
(b) The second part of the table consists of 10 columns, headed by 0, 1, 2, .. .,9.
These headings correspond to the third digit from the left of the number. The
numbers under these columns record mantissa of the logarithms with decimal
point omitted for simplicity.
(c) The third part of the table further consists of small columns known as mean
differences columns headed by 1, 2, 3, ... ,9. These headings correspond to the
fourth digit from the left of the number. The readings of these columns are
added to the mantissa recorded in second part (b) above.
When the four-figure log table is used to find the mantissa of the logarithm of a
number, the decimal point is ignored and the number is rounded to four significant
figures.
3.2.3 Using Tables to find log of a Number
The method to find log of a number is explained in the following examples. In
the first two examples, we shall confine to finding mantissa only.
Example 1
Find the mantissa of the logarithm of 43.254
63 Mathematics 9
Solution
Rounding off 43.254 we consider only the four significant digits 4325.
(i) We first locate the row corresponding to 43 in the log tables and
(ii) Proceed horizontally till we reach the column corresponding to 2. The number
at .the intersection is 6355.
(iii) Again proceeding horizontally till the mean difference column corresponding to
5 intersects this row, we get the number 5 at the intersection.
(iv) Adding the two numbers 6355 and 5, we get .6360 as the mantissa of the
logarithm of 43.25.
Example2
Find the mantissa of the logarithm of 0:002347
Solution
Here also, we consider only the four significant digits 2347
We first locate the row corresponding to 23 in the logarithm tables and proceed
as before.
Along the same row to its intersection with the column corresponding to 4 the
resulting number is 3692. The number at the intersection of this row and the
mean difference column corresponding to 7 is 13. Hence the sum of 3692 and
13 gives the mantissa of the logarithm of 0.002347 as 0.3705
Note: I
The logarithms of numbers having the same sequence of significant digits have
the same mantissa. e.g., the mantissa of log of numbers 0.002347 and 0.2347 is 0.3705
For finding the common logarithm of any given number,
(i) Round off the number to four significant digits.
(ii) Find the characteristic of the logarithm of the number by inspection.
(iii) Find the mantissa of the logarithm of the number from the log tables.
(iv) Combine the two.
Example 3
Find (i) log 278.23 (ii) log 0.07058
Solution
(i) 278.23 can be round off as 278.2
The characteristic is 2 and the mantissa, using log tables, is .4443 II
.. log 278.23 = 2.4443

I
(ii) The characteristic of log 0.07058 is -2 which is written as 2 by convention.
Using log tables the mantissa is .8487, so that
log 0.07058 =2.8487
Logarithms 64
3.2.4 .The Concept of Antilogarithm and Use of Antilog Tables

The number whose logarithm is given is called antilogarithm.
i.e., if logaY =x, then y is the antilogarithm of x, or y = antilog x
Finding the Number whose Logarithm is Known
We ignore the characteristic and consider only the mantissa. In the
antilogarithm page of the log table, we locate the row corresponding to the first two
digits of the mantissa (taken together with the decimal point). Then we proceed along
this row till it intersects the column corresponding to the third digit of the mantissa.
The number at the intersection is added with the number at the intersection of this
row and the mean difference column corresponding to the fourth digit of the mantissa.
Thus the significant figures of the required number are obtained. Now only the
decimal point is to be fixed.
(i) If the characteristic of the given logarithm is positive, that number increased by
1 gives the number of figures to the left of the decimal point in the required
number.
(ii) If the characteristic is negative, its numerical value decreased by 1 gives the
number of zeros to the right of the decimal point in the required number.
Example
Find the numbers whose logarithms are (i) 1.3247 (ii) 2.1324
Solution
(i) 1.3247
Reading along the row corresponding to .32 (as mantissa = 0.3247), we get
2109 at the intersection of this row with the column corresponding to 4. The number
at the intersection of this row and the mean difference column corresponding to 7 is 3.
Adding 2109 and 3 we get 2112.
Since the characteristic is 1 it is increased by 1 (because there should be two
digits in the integral part) and therefore the decimal point is fixed after two digits
from left in 2112.
Hence antilog of 1.3247 is 21.12.
(ii) 2.1324
· Proceeding as in (i) the signific~nt figures corresponding to the mantissa 0.1324
are 1356. Since the characteristic is 2, its numerical value 2 is decreased by 1. Hence
there will be one zero after the decimal point.
Hence antilog of 2.1324 is 0.01356.
65 Mathematics 9
. EXERCISE 3.2
1. Find the common logaiithm of each of the following numbers.
(i) 232.92 (ii) 29.326
(iii) 0.00032 (iv) 0.3206
2. If log 31.09 = 1.4926, find values of the following
(i) log 3.109, (ii) log 310.9, (iii) log 0.003109, (iv) log 0.3109
without using tables.
3. Find the numbers whose common logarithms are (i) 3.5621 (ii) 1.7427
4. What replacement for the unknown in each of following will make the
statement true?
(i) log3 81 =L (ii) loga 6 =0.5
(iii) log5 n = 2 (iv) Hf = 40
5. Evaluate (i) log2 ; (ii) log 512 to the base 2-j2.

1 8
6. Find the value of x from the following statements.
(iii) log 8 =~
(i) log2x =5 (ii) log81 9 =x
64 2
(iv) log 64 = 2 (v) log x =4
x 3
3.3 Common Logarithm and Natural Logarithm

In 3.2.2 we have introduced common logarithm having base 10. Common
logarithm is also known as decadic logarithms named after its base 10. We usually
take logx to me~ log 1cr- , and this type of logarithm is more convenient to use in
numerical calculations. John Napier prepared the logarithms tables to the base e.
Napier's logarithms are also called Natural Logarithms. He released the fust ever log
tables in 1614. logex is conventionally given the notation In x.
In many theoretical investigations in science and engineering, it is often
convenient to have a base e, an irrational number, whose value is 2.7182818 ...
3.4 Laws of Logarithm
In this section we shall prove the laws of logarithm and then apply them to find
products, quotients, powers and roots of numbers.
(i) loga(mn) = logam + log0 n
(ii) log0 ( : ) = log0 m - log0 n
(iii) log0 mn =n logam

I
(iv) logan = logbn X logab

Logarithms 66
(i) log0 (mn) =log~ + logfl

Proof
Let log 0 m = x and log0 n = y
Writing in exponential form ax = m and cl = n.
.
i.e., ax+y -- mn
or log 0 (mn) = x + y = log 0 m + log 0 n
Hence log/mn) = log 0 m + log 0 n
Note:
(i) log0 (mn) t:- log 0 m X log 0 n
(ii) log 0 m + log0 n t:- log/m + n)
(iii) log 0 (mnp ... ) = log 0 m + log 0 n + logaP + ...
The rule given above is useful in finding the product of two or more numbers
using logarithms. We illustrate this with the following examples.
Example 1
Evaluate 291.3 x 42.36
Note that
Solution logJl =1
Let x = 291.3 x 42.36
Then log x =log (291.3 x 42.36)
=log 291.3 +log 42.36, (log 0 mn = log0 m + log 0 n)
= 2.4643 + 1.6269 = 4.0912
x = antilog 4.0912 = 12340
Example 2
Evaluate 0.2913 x 0.004236.
Solution
Let y = 0.2913 x 0.004236
Then logy =log 0.2913 +log 0.004236
- -
= 1.4643 + 3.6269
= 3.0912
Hence y = antilog 3.0912 = 0.001234
67 Mathematics 9
(ii) loga ( ~ J = loga171 - logan

Proof
Let logam = x and logan = y.
Then ax = m and cl = n
x
a m x-y m
-=-=>a =-
cl n n
i.e., loga ( : ) = x - y = Iogam - logan
· Hence loga ( : ) = logam ~ logan
Note:
i) ( m). logam
( 1oga n * logan
(ii) logam - logan t:- loga(m - n)
(iii) loga ( ~) = logal - logan = -logan
Example 1
291.3
Evaluate 42 .36
Solution
291.3 291.3
Let x = 42 .36 , then log x = log 42 . .
36
Then log x =log 291.3 - log 42.36
=2.4643 - 1.6269 =0.8374

j Thus L =
x = antilog 0.8374 6.877
L '
Example 2
0.002913
Evaluate 0. 04236
Solution
0.002913 (0.002913)
Let Y = 0.04236 'then log Y =log 0.04236
or logy =log 0.002913 - log 0.04236
Logarithms 68
logy = 3.4643 - 2.6269

= 3 + (0.4643 - 0.6269) - 2
= 3-0.1626- 2
= 3 + (1 - 0.1626) - 1 - 2 , (adding and subtracting 1)
= 2.8374 [·: 3 - 1-:- 2 =-3 - 1 - (~2) = -2 = 2]
Therefore, y = antilog 2.8374 = 0.06877
(iii)logaCmn) = n logt!ll
Proof
Let logamn =x, i.e., . x n
a =m
and logam = y, i.e., d ' = m
Then d~ = m" = (aYt
I.e., ax = c«t =«n => x = ny
.
i.e., 1ogamn = n 1oga m
Example 1
Evaluate ~(0.0163)3
Solution
= ~(0.0163) = (0.0163)
3 314
Let y
3 3 6.6366 8 + 2.6366
Then logy =4 (log 0.0163) =4 x 2.2122 = 4 = 4
= 2 + 0.6592 = 2.6592
Hence y = antilog 2.6592
= 0.04562
(iv) Change of Base Formula
logb n.
loga n = logb n x loga b or logb a
Proof
Let logb n = x. Then n = bx
Taking log to the base a, we have
loga n = logabx = x loga b =logb n loga b
Thus loga n =logb n loga b ...... (i)
Putting n = a in the above result, we get
Logarithms 70
EXERCISE 3.3
1. Write the following into sum or difference.
... ) 1 21x5
(i) log (Ax B) (1"1") 15.2
log 30 _5 (111 og--
8
(iv)
_3 f7
log · \j TS (v) log
(22) 113 •
(v1) log
25 x 47
53 29
2
2. Express log x -2 log x + 3 log (x + 1) - log (x - 1) as a single logarithm.
3. Write the following in the form of a single fogarithm.
(i) log 21 +log 5 (ii) log 25 - 2 log 3
(iii) 2 log x - 3 logy (iv) log 5 +log 6 - log 2
4. Calculate the following:
(i) log 32 x log 28 l
5. If log 2 = 0.3010, log 3 = 0.4771, log 5 = 0.6990, then find the values of the
following
(i) log 32 (ii) log 24 (iii) log~

8
(iv) log 3 (v) log 30
3.5 Application of Laws of Logarithm in Numerical Calculations

So far we have applied laws of logarithm to simple type of products, quotients,
powers or roots of numbers. We now extend their application to more difficult
examples to verify their effectiveness in simplification.
Example 1
Show that
16 25 81
7 log TS + 5 log 24 + 3 log 80 ~ log 2.
Solution
16 25 81
L.H.S. =7 log TS + 5 log 24 + 3 log 80
=7[log 16 - log 15] + 5[log 25 - log 24] + 3[log 81 - log 80]
=7[log 24 - log (3 x 5)] + 5[log 5 2 - log (23 x 3)] + 3[log 34
4
- log (2 x 5)]
=7[4 log 2 - log 3 - log 5] + 5[2 log 5 - 3 log 2 - log 3]
+ 3[4 log 3 - 4 log 2 - log 5]
73 Mathematics 9
(vi) The value of log ( ~) is ........

logp
(a) logp-log q (b)
log q
(c) logp +log q (d) log q-logp
(vii) log p - log q is same as ........
log(~)
logp
(a) log(;) (b) log (p- q) (c) (d)
log q
(viii) log (mn) can be written as ........
(a) (log mt (b) m log n (c) nlogm (d) log (mn)
(ix) logb a X loge b can be written as ........
(a) log0 c (b) logca (c) log0 b (d) logb c
(x) logy x will be equal to ........
logz x logx z logz x logzy
(a) (b) logy z (c) (d)
logy z logz y logzx
2. Complete the following.
(i) For common logarithm, the base is ......
(ii) The integral part of the common logarithm of a number is
called the .......
(iii) The decimal part of the common logarithm of a number is called the ..... .
(iv) If x =logy, then y is, called the ...... of x.
(v) ·If the characteristic of the logarithm of a number is 2, that number will
have ...... zero(s) immediately after the decimal point.
(vi) If the characteristic of the logarithm of a number is 1, that number will
have ...... digits in its integral part.
3. Find the value of x in the following.
(i) log3x = 5 (ii) log4256 = x
1
. ·1·) 1og625 5 =4x
(11 c·1v) -2
1og x=3
64
4. Find the value of x in the following.

(i) log x = 2.4543 (ii) log x = 0.1821
(iii) log x = 0.0044 (iv) log x = 1.6238
5. If log 2 = 0.3010, log 3 = 0.4771 and log 5 = 0.6990, then find the values of the
following.
(i) log 45 16
(1.1") log15 (iii) log 0.048
Logarithms 74
6. Simplify the following.

(8.97) 3 x (3.95) 2
(i) 125.47 (ii) ~342.2 (iii)
115.37
SUMMARY
* If ax = y,then x is called the logarithm of y to the base a and is written as
x = loga y, where a > 0, a t:. 1 and y > 0.
* If x = loga y, then ax= y.

* If the base of the logarithm is taken as 10, it is known as common logarithm and if
the base is taken as e ( ~2.718) then it is known as natural or Naperian logarithm.
* The integral part of the common logarithm of a number is called the characteristic
and the decimal part the mantissa.
* (i) For a number greater than 1, the characteristic of its logarithm is equal to the
number of digits in the integral part of the number minus one.
(ii) For a number less than 1, the characteristic of its logarithm is always negative
and is equal to the number of zeros immediately after the decimal point of the
number plus one.
* When a number is less than 1, the characteristic is always written as 3, 2, 1
(instead of-3, -2, -1) to avoid the mantissa becoming negative.
* The logarithms of numbers having the same sequence of significant digits have
the same mantissa.
* The number corresponding to a given logarithm is known as antilogarithm.
* loge 10 = 2.3026 and log 10e = 0.4343
* Laws of logarithms:
(i) loga (mn) = loga m + loga n
(ii) loga ( ~ )= loga m - logan
(iii) loga (mn) =n loga m

(iv) loga n = lagb n X loga b
Unit4
ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS AND

ALGEBRAIC FORMULAS
Unit Outlines
4.1 Algebraic Expressions
4.2 Algebraic Formulae
4.3 Surds and their Application
4.4 Rationalization

* know that a rational expression behaves like a rational number.
* defime a ration
· :·. al expression
· as the quotient
· - () of two po1ynmrua
p(x) · 1s p (x ) an d
. qx
q(x) where q(x) is not the zero polynomial.
* examine whether a given algebraic expression is a
• polynomial or not,
• rational expression or not.
* define :~~~ as a rational expression in its lowest terms if p(x) and q(x) are
polynomials with integral coefficients and having no common factor.
* examine whether a given rational algebraic expression is in lowest from or not.
* reduce a given rational expression to its lowest terms.
* find the sum, difference and product of rational expressions.
* divide a rational expression with another and express the result in its lowest
terms.
* l find value of algebraic expression for some particular real number.
* know the formulas
(a+ b) 2 +(a - b)~ = 2(a2 + b2 ),
(a+ b) 2 - (a - b) 2 =4ab
• fmd the value of a2 + b2 and of ab when the values of a + b and a - b are
known.
* know the formula
75
Algebraic Expressions and Algebraic Formulas 76
(a+ b + c) 2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2ab + 2bc + 2ca.

• find the value of a 2 + b2 + c2 when the values of a + b + c and
ab+ be+ ca are given.
• find the value of a + b +c when the values of a2 + b2 + c2 and
ab+ be+ ca are given.
• find the value of ab + be + ca when the values of a2 + b2 + c 2 and
a + b +c are given.
* know the formulas
(a+ b) 3 = a 3 + 3ab(a + b) + b 3 ,
(a - b) 3 = a 3 - 3ab(a - b) - b 3 ,
• find the value of a 3 ± b3 when the values of a ± b and ab are given.
• l
find the value of x 3 ± ~ when the value of x ± is given.
* know the formulas

a 3 ± b 3 =(a± b) (a2 ±ab+ b2 ).
• find the product of x + x1 and x2 + x21 - 1.

• find the product of x - x1 and x2 + x21 + 1.
• find the continued product of
(x + y) (x- y) (x2 + xy + y2) (x2-xy + y2).
* recognize the surds and their application.
* explain the surds of second order. Use basic operations on surds of second
order to rationalize the denominators and evaluate it.
* explain rationalization (with precise meaning) of real numbers of the types
1 1
- c , _c_c and their combinations where x and y are natural numbers
a+ b 'JX 'JX + \fY
and a and b integers.
4.1 Algebraic Expressions
Algebra is a generalization of arithmetic. Recall that when operations of
addition and subtraction are applied to algebraic terms, we obtain an algebraic
3x + _~ and 3.xy + ~ (x :t= 0) are algebraic expressions.
2
expression. For instance, 5x -
\JX X
Polynomials
A polynomial in the variable x is an algebraic expression of the form
...... (i)
77 Mathematics 9
~here n, the highest power of x, is a non-negative integer called the degree of the
P,Olynomial .and each coefficient ~( 1 is a real number. The coefficient a 11 of the highest
power of x is called the leading coefficient of the polynomial. The expression
h 4y3 + x 2y2 + 8x is a polynomial \in two \variables x and y and has degree 7.
From the study of similar properties of integers and polynomials w.r.t. addition
and multiplication, we may say that polynomials behave like integers.
Self Testing
Justify the following as polynomial or not a polynomial.
(i) 3x2 + 8x + 5 (ii) x3 + ~2.x2 + 5x - 3
3x2 + 2x + 8
(iii) x2 + ~ - 4 (.IV ) 3x + 4
4.1.1 Rational Expressions Behave like Rational Numbers

Let a and b be two integers, then ~ is not necessarily an integer. Therefore,
number system is extended and ~ is defined as a rational number where a, b E Z and
b:tO.
Similarly, if p(x) and q(x) are two polynomials, then p((x)) is not necessarily a
- qx .
polynomial, where q(x) =t 0. Therefore, similar to the idea of rational numbers,
concept of rational expressions is developed.
4.1.2 Rational Expression
The quotient~~;~ of two polynomials p(x) and q(x), where q(x) is a non-zero
polynomial, is called a rational expression.
x + 8 , 3x + s =t o·IS a rationa
For examp1e, 2x+l
3
· 1 expression.
·
In the rational expression~~~~' p(x) is called the numerator and q(x) is known as
·
th e denonnnator of th e rat10n
· al expression
· p(x)
q(x)" The ration
· al express10n
· p(x)
q(x) nee d not
be a polynomial.
Note:
Every polynomial p(x) can be regarded as a rational expression, since we can
- -. Thus, every po1ynonn"al IS
· p(x) as p(x)
wnte . 1 expression,
. a ratlona . but every ration
. al
1
expression need not be a polynomial.
Self Testing
Identify the following as a rational expression or not a rational expression.
2x + 6 .. 3x + 8 .. . .x2 + 4x + 5 . ~
(i) 3x - 4 (n) .x2 + x + 2 (m) x 2 + 3\[x + 4 (iv) 3x2 + 1
4.1.3 Properties of Rational Expressions
The method for operations with rational expressions is similar to operations
with rational numbers.
Let p(x), q(x), r(x), s(x) be any polynomials such that all values of the variable
that make a rational expression undefined are excluded from the domain. Then
following properties of rational expressions hold under the supposition that they all
are defined (i.e., denominator(s)-::/:. 0)
(1.) p(x) r(x) "f d 1 "f ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (Equality)

q(x) = s(x) 1 an on y 1 p x s x = q x r x
ii) p(x)k _ p(x)

( (Cancellation)
q(x)k - q(x)
p(x) r(x) p(x) s(x) + q(x) r(x)
(iii) - + - = (Addition)
q(x) s(x) q(x) s(x)
p(x) _ r(x) = p(x) s(x) - q(x) r(x)
(iv) (Subtraction)
q(x) s(x) q(x) s(x)
p(x) r(x) p(x) r(x)
(v) - ·-= (Multiplication)
q(x) s(x) q(x) s(x)
p(x) . r(x) _ p(x) s(x) p(x) s(x)
(vi) q(x).,.. s(x) - q(x) · r(x) = q(x) r(x) (Division)
(vii) Additive inverse of:~~~ is-:~~~

· · ·) Mult•1plicahve
(vm · mverse
· ·
or reciprocal of p(x)
q(x) 1s q(x) p (x ) -::/:. 0, q(x)-::/:. O.
· p(x),
4.1.4 Rational Expression in its Lowest form

The rational expression:~~~ is said to be in its lowest form, if p(x) and q(x) are
polynomials with integral coefficients and have no common factor.
x+l
For example , - 2- - is in its lowest form.
x +1
4.1.5 To examine whether a rational expression is in lowest form or not
To examine the rational expression:~~~, find H.C.F. of p(x) and q(x). If H.C.F
is l, then the rational expression is in lowest form.
•.
_J
79 Mathematics 9
~-
1 2
For example, is in its lowest form as H.C.F of x - 1 and x + 1 is 1.
x +1
4.1.6 Working Rule to reduce a rational expression to its lowest terms

. . 1 . b p(x)
Le t the given rationa expression e q(x)
Step I Factorize each of the two polynomials p(x) and q(x).

Step II Find H.C. F. of p(x) and q(x).
Step ill Divide the numerator p(x) and the denominator q(x) by the H.C. F. of p(x)
and q(x). The rational expression so obtained, is in its lowest terms.
In other words, an algebraic fraction can be reduced to its lowest form by first
factorizing both the polynomials in the numerator and the denominator and then
cancelling the common factors between them.
Example
Reduce the following algebraic fractions to their lowest form.
Ix+ mx- ly- my 3x2 + 18x + 27
(i) (ii)
~-~ ~-~
Solution
m ~+mx-fy-~_~+~-~+~
3x2 - 3y 2 - 3(x2 - y2)
_ (/ + m) (x - y)
- 3(x + y) (x - y)
...... (factorizing)
l+m
=--- ...... (cancelling common factors)
3(x+y)
which is in the lowest form.
3x2 + 18x + 27 _ 3(x2 + 6x + 9)
(ii) ...... (monomial factors)
5x2 - 45 - 5(x2 - 9)
_ 3(x + 3) (x + 3)
...... (factorizing)
- 5(x + 3)(x - 3)
_ 3(x + 3)
- 5(x- 3)
...... (cancelling common factors)
which is in the lowest form.

4.1.7 Sum, Difference and Product of Rational Expressions
For finding sum and difference of algebraic expressions containing rational
expressions, we take the L.C.M. of the denominators and simplify as explained in the
following examples by using properties stated in 4.1.3. -
Algebraic Expressions and Algebraic Formulas BO
Example 1
. lify (")
i -. 1- - - -
1 + 2x 2 2x2 x 1
Simp 4 + -x-+-2
(ii) __,4x,...---1-6 - _x2___
x-y x+y x2-y
Solution
1 1 2x 1 1 2x
(i) -----+ ------+-----
x- y x + y x2-y2 - x-y x + y (x + y) (x-y)
x + y- (x-y) + 2x
(L.C.M. of denominators)
- (x + y) (x - y)
_x+y-x+y+2x
- (x + y) (x - y)
2x+2y
=---=---- (simplifying)
(x + y)(x-y)
= 2(x + y) 2
(cancelling common factors)
(x + y)(x-y) - x-y
2x2 x 1
(ii) +
.x4 -16 x2-4 x+2
-
2x2 ---+--
x 1
(difference of two squares)
- (x2 + 4) (x2 - 4) x2 - 4 x + 2
=(x2 + 4)(x2x2
+ 2) (x - 2)
- (x + 2)x(x- 2) +x -+1 -2
2.x2-x(x2 + 4) + (x2 + 4) (x- 2) 2.x2-x3 - 4x + x3 + 4x - 2.x2- 8
= (x2 + 4) (x + 2)(x- 2) = (x2 + 4) (x + 2) (x- 2) ·
-8
(on simplification)
- (x2+4) (x+2) (x-2)
-8 -8
= 2 2 = 4
(x + 4)(x - 4) x - 16
Example2
. x+2 4x2 - 9y2
Fmd the product 2x _ 3y · xy + 2y (in simplified form)
Solution
x + 2 4x2- 9y2 (x + 2) ((2x)2 - (3y) 2]
(monomial factors)
2.x- 3y · xy + 2y - (2.x- 3y) (x + 2)y
(x + 2) (2.x + 3y) (2.x- 3y)
(factorizing)
y(x + 2) (2.x- 3y)
_ 2x + 3y
(reduced to the lowest form)
y
81 Mathematics 9
· 4.1.8 Dividing a Rational Expression with another Rational Expression

In order to divide one rational expression with another, we first invert for
changing division to multiplication and simplify the resulting product to the lowest
terms.
Example
?xy l4y
Simplify .2 _,_ - y -
x - 4x + 4 · x -4
Solution
?xy l4y
X2 - 4x + 4 + i2 - 4
i2-4
.2 ?xy • -
=r-4x+4 -
l4y
...... (changing division into multiplication)
?xy (x + 2)(x- 2)
=(x-2)(x-2) l4y
. . . . . . (factorizing) .
_ x(x + 2)
-2(x-2) ...... (reduced to lowest form)
·l:J.1.9 · Evaluation of Algebraic Expression for some particular Real Number

Definition
If specific numbers are substituted for the variables in an algebraic expression,
the resulting number is called the value of the expression.
Example
3.A/Y+6.
Evaluate 5(x + y) 1f x =-4 and y =9
Solution
We have, by putting x =-4 and y = 9,
3.A/Y + 6 - 3(-4) 2
..fa
+ 6 - 3(16) (3) + 6 - 150 -
5(x+y) - 5(-4+9) - 5(5) - 25 - 6
EXERCISE 4.1
1. Identify whether the following algebraic expressions are polynomials
(Yes or No).
-- c
(1') 3x 2+:x-
1 5 (ii) 3x3 -4x2 -x\JX+ 3
3x
(iii) x2 - 3x + '12 (iv) 2x-1 +8
2. State whether each of the following expressions is a rational expression or not.

(i) 3-j;.; (ii) x3 - 2x2 + 0
3~ + 5 2 + 3x - x
2
(iv)~
2
x + 6x + 9
(iii) 2
x -9
3. Reduce the following rational expressions to the lowest form.
(i)
120 iy3z5 (ii)
8a(x +. 1)
2
30x3yz2 2(x - 1)
2 3 3 2 2
(iii) (x + y) - 4.xy (iv) (x - y )(x - 2xy + y )
2
(x- y}1 (x -y) (x + xy + y2)
(x + 2) (x 2 - 1) x
2
- · 4x + 4
(v) (x + 1) (x2 - 4) (vi) 2x2 - 8
5 2 2 2
64x -64x ... ) 9x - (x - 4)
(vii) 2 (Vlll 4 + 3x-x2
(8x + 8) (2x + 2)
x3y-2z
4. Evaluate (a) for
xz
(i) x = 3, y = -1, z = -2 (ii) x = -1, y = -9, z = 4
2
x y3- 5z4
(b) ~--for x= 4,y=-2,z=-1
xyz
5. Perform the indicated operation and simplify.
(i) 15 4 (ii) 1 + 2x 1 - 2x
2x - 3y - 3y - 2x 1 - 2x 1 + 2x
x 2 -25 x+5 x _y_ 2xy
(iii) 2 - (iv) - - - - 2 2
x -36 x+6 x-y x+y x -y
x-2 x+2 1
_______1 2
2___ 4
(v) 2 - 2 (vi) -4--
x +6x+9 2x - 18 x-1 x+l x +1 x -1
6. Perform the indicated operation and simplify.
2
(i) (x2 _ 49 ) . 5x + 2
x+7
(ii) 4x - 12 + 8 - 2x
x2 - 9 x + 6x + 9
f
6 6 2
x 2 - y 2+x+xy+y
( 4 +5
x -1 x
(1'1'1') 2 2 4) (iv) 2 · --
x -y x +2x+l 1-x
2 2 2
x +xy x +xy x -x
(v)
y(x + y) · y(x + y) + xy - 2y
-------------------8;;;3;------------;M-;,.a~th:ematics 9
.
4.2 Algebraic Formulae
4.2.1 Using the formulas
2 2 2 2
(i) (a+ b) +(a -b) = 2(a + b ) and (a+ b)2 - (a -b) 2 = 4ab
2
The process of finding the values of a + b2 and ab is explained in the following
examples.
Example
If a+ b =7 and a - b =3, then find the value of (a) a 2 + b2 (b) ab
Solution
We are given that a+ b =7 and a- b= 3
(a) To find the value of (a 2 + b2), we use the formula
2
(a+ b) +(a - b)2 = 2(a2 + b2 )
Substituting the values a + b = 7 and a - b = 3, we get
2 2 2
(7) + (3) = 2(a + b 2)
=> 49 + 9 = 2(a2 + b2)
2 2
=> 58 = 2(a + b ) •..... (simplifying)
2
29 =a + b
2
=> ••.•.•. (dividing by 2)
(b) To find the value of ab, we make use of the formula
(a+ b/- (a - b/ =4ab
2
=> (7) (3)2 = 4ab
- ...... (substituting given values)
=> 49 ·_9 =4ab
=> 40 =4ab ...... (simplifying)
=> 10 =ab ....... (dividing by 4)
2 2
Hence a + b =29 and ab= 10.
(a + b + c )2 =a + b + c + 2ab + 2bc + 2ca
2 2 2
(ii)
This formula, square of a trinomial, involves three expressions, namely;
2 2 2
(a+ b + c), (a + b + c ) and 2(ab +be+ ca). If the values of two of them are known,
the value of the third expression can be calculated. The method is explained in the
following examples.
Example 1
2 2 2
If a + b + c = 43 and ab+ be+ ca= 3, then find the value of a+ b + c.
Solution
We know that
2 2 2 2
(a+ b + c) =a + b + c + 2ab + 2bc + 2ca
~ (a+ b + c) 2 =a2 + b2 + c2 + 2(ab +be+ ca)

~
2 2 2
(a+ b + c)2 =43 + 2 x 3 (Putting a + b + c =43 and ab+ be+ ca= 3)
~ (a+ b + c)2 =·49
~ a+b+c =±'149
Hence a + b + c =± 7
Example2
2
If a + b + c = 6 and a2 + b + c =24, then find the value of ab + be + ca.
2
Solution
We have
(a+ b + c)
2
=a2 + b2 + c2 + 2ab + 2bc + 2ca
2
(6) =24 + 2(ab +be+ ca)
~ 36 = 24 + 2(ab +be+ ca)
~ 12 = 2(ab +be+ ca)
Hence ab + be + ca = 6
Example3
2 2 2
If a+ b + c = 7 and ab+ be+ ca= 9, then find the value of a + b + c .
Solution
We know that
(a+ b + c)
2
=a2 + b2 + c2 + 2ab + 2bc + 2ca
2 2 2 2
~ (a+ b + c) = a + b + c + 2(ab +be+ ca)
(7)2 =a + b + e + 2(9)
2 2 2
~
~ 49=a2 + b2 + c2 + 18
2 2 2
~ 31 = a + b + c
2 2 2
Hence a + b + c = 31
(iii)
3
=3
(a+ b) a + 3ab(a + b) + b
3
(a - b )3 =a 3 - 3ab(a - b) - b
3
Example 1
If 2x - 3y = 10 and xy = 2, then find the value of sx3 - 21y3.
Solution
We are given that 2x- 3y = 10
3 1
x - 3 =64+ 12
x
3 1
x - 3
x
=76
(iv) a3 ± b
3
=(a ± b) (a 2 + ab + b 2)
The procedure for finding the products of ( x ± ~) and x2 + : 2 + 1 is also

explained in the following examples.
Example 1
Factorize 64x3 + 343/
Solution
We have
64x3 + 3_43/ = (4x) 3 + (7y)3
= (4x + 7y) [(4x) 2 - (4x) (7y) + (7y)2]
= (4x + 7y) (16x2 - 28.xy + 49/)
Example2
3
Factorize 125x - 1331/
Solution
We have
3 3
125x3 - 1331/ = (5x) - (l ly)
= (5x - 1ly) [(5x)2 + (5x) (1 ly) + (1 ly) 2]
=(5x - 2
1 ly) (25x + 55.xy + 121/)
Example3
Find the product ( ~ x + ix) (~ x 2

- 1+ ~2 )
Solution
( ~ x + ix) (~ i - 1 + ~2)
87 Mathematics 9
=(ix+;) [(ix J-(ix )(;)+(;)2]

=(ix )3 +(;)3
Example 4
4 x - 5x ) ( 16 x 2 + 25x2 + 1)
Find the product ( 5 4 25 16
Solution
4 5 ) ( 16 2 25 )
( Sx - 4x 25 x + 16x2 + 1
(rearranging)
=(~x-ix)[(~x J+(~x )(ix)+(ixJJ

4
=( 5 x
)3- (4x5 )3 =125
64 3 125
x - 64x3
Examples .
Find the continued product of (x +y) (x - y) (x2+xy +y2) (x2- xy +/)
Solution
(x +y) (x - y) (x2+xy +/) (x2- xy +/)
=(x +y) (x2-xy +/) (x -y) (x2+xy +/) (rearranging)
=(x3 +y3) (x3 _y3) =(x3)2 _ (y3)2 = y6x6 _
EXERCISE 4.2
1. (i) If a + b = 10 and a - b = 6, then find the value of (a 2 + b2).
(ii) If a + b = 5, a - b = -{17, then find the value of ab.
2 2
2. If a + +c =
b
2
+c =-1, then find the value of ab+ be + ca.
45 and a+ b
3. If m +n +p =10 and mn +np +mp =27, then find the value of m- +n +p . ? 2 2
4. 2
If x +y2 +z2 =78 and xy +yz +zx =59, then find the value bf x +y +z.
5. If x +y +z =12 and x2 +y2 +z2 =64, then find the value of xy +yz +zx.
6. If x + y =7 and xy = 12, then find the value of x3 + /.
7. If 3x + 4y = 11 and xy = 12, then find the value of 27x3 + 64y3.

8. If x-y =4 and xy =21, then find the v..alue of x3 -y3.
9. If 5x - 6y = 13 and xy = 6, then find the value. of 125x3 - 216y3.
1 3 1
10. If x + - = 3, then find the value of x + 3
x x
1 3 i
11. If x - - = 7, then find the value of x - 3
x x
3~) =5, then find the value of ( 27x + 2~x3 )

3
12. If ( 3x +
12~x3)
1 3
13. If ( 5x - 5x) = 6, then find the value of ( 125x -
14 . .
F actonze c·)
1 x 3 - y3 - x + y (1·1·) 8x 3 - 21y3
1
15. Find the products, using formulas.

(i)
2
(x + /) (x
4
- x l
2
+ y4). (ii) cx3 - y3) cx6 + x3y3 + y6)
2 4 2 2
(iii) (x-y) (x + y) (x2 + /) (x2 + xy + /) (x -xy + /) (x -x y + /)
2 2 2 4 2
(iv) (2x - 1) (2x + 1) (4x4 + 2x + 1) (4x - 2x + 1)
4.3 Surds and their Application
4.3.1 Definition
An irrational radical with rational radicand is called a surd.
Hence the radical ~ is a surd if

(i) a is rational, (ii) the result~ is irrational.
e.g., ~ , ffe, ~. YiO are surds.

But~ and ~2 +-{17 are not surds because 7t and 2 +-{17 are not rational.
Note that for the surd ~. n is called surd index or the order of the surd and the
rational number 'a' is called the radicand. ~is third order surd.
Every surd is an irrational number but every irrational number is not a surd.
e.g., the surd Ts is an irrational number but the irrational number~ is not a silrd.
89 Mathematics 9
4.3.2 Operations on surds

(a) Addition and Subtraction of Surds
Similar -surds (i.e., ·surds having same irrational factors) can be added or
· subtracted into a single term is explained in the following examples.
Example ·
Simplify by combining similar terms.
(i) 4--J?,- 3-{27 + 2-{75. (ii) VUs -ViSO + ~

rSoiution
(i) 4--J?, - 3-{27 + 2-fii>
= 4--J?, - 3~ + 2'125 x 3 = 4--J?, - 3J9 --J3 + 2-{25 x '13
= 4--J?,-9'/3 + 10\[3 = (4-.9 + 10) '13 = 5--J?,
(ii) VUs -ViSO + ~
=~64 x 2-~125 x 2 +~216x 2
= ~(4) 3 x 2- ~(5) 3 x 2 + ~(6) 3 x 2
=~ Vi-TcSf Vi + Yc6)3 Vi
= 4Vi- 5Vi + ~ = c4 - 5 + 6) Vi= 5Vi
(b) Multiplication and Division of Surds
We can multiply and divide surds of the same order by making use of the
following laws of surds
~--n {q_
~-\{b
and the result obtained will be a surd of the same order.
If surds to be multiplied or divided are not of the same order, they must be reduced to
the surds of the same order.
Example
Simplify and express the answer in the simplest form.
(i) ffe-)35 (ii) vu

'13Vi
91 Mathematics 9
(iii) c-{5 + -{3 )(-{5 --{3 ) (iv) ( -{2 + ~ ) (-{2 - ~ )

c~ +w )(~-w )(x + y)(x2 + /)
(v)
4.4 Rationalization of Surds
(a) Definitions
(i) A surd which contains a single term is called a monomial surd. e.g., -{i,, -{3 etc.
(ii) A surd which contains sum of two monomial surds or sum of a monomial surd
and a rational number is called a binomial surd.
e.g., -{3 + --j7 or '12
+ 5 or -{ii. - 8 etc.
We can extend this to the definition of a trinomial surd.
(iii) If the product of two surds is a rational number, then each surd is called the
rationalizing factor of the other.
(iv) The process of multiplying a given surd by its rationalizing factor to get a
rational number as product is called rationalization of the given surd.
(v) Two binomial surds of second order differing only in sign connecting their
terms are called conjugate surds. Thus (,fa+ -{b) and (,fa - -{b) are conjugate
surds of each other.
The conjugate of x +Wis x - '5.
The product of the conjugate surds ,fa + -{b and ,fa - -{b,
(,fa+ -{b) c,fa--{b) =(,fa,) 2 - (--[b) 2 =a - b,
is a rational quantity independent of any radical.
Similarly, the product of a + b\[;;,, and its conjugate a - b\[;;,, has no radical. For
example,
(3 + -{5) (3 --{5) =(3) 2 - (-{5)2 =9 - 5 =4, which is a rational number.
(b) Rationalizing a Denominator
Keeping the above discussion in mind, we observe that, in order to rationalize a
denominator of the form a + ~ (or a - ~), we multiply both numerator and
denominator by the conjugate factor a - ~(or a+ h--{x). By doing this we eliminate
the radical and thus obtain a denominator free of any surd.
(~) Rationalizing Real Numbers of the Types ~ , ~ 1 '1J

a+ x x+ y
1 1
For the expressions b- c , _c _c and their combinations, where x, y are
a+ -vx 'JX + \JY
natural numbers and a, b are integers, rationalization is explained with the help of
following examples.
Example 1
. ali th . 58
Ration _ze e denommator _ 2:\J5
7
Solution
To rationalize the denominator, we multiply both the numerator and
denominator by the conjugate (7 + 2j5) of (7 - 2j5), i.e.,
58 - 58x 7 + 2j5 - 58(7 + 2j5)
7- 2j5 - 7 - 2j5 7 + 2j5 - (7) 2 - (2j5) 2
- 58(7 + 2j5) .
- _ , (radical is eliminated in the denominator)
49 20
= 58(7 ;92j5) = 2(7 + 2j5)
Example 2
Rationalize the denominator "J5 ~ :\[i

Solution
Multiply both the numerator and denominator by the conjugate (-{5 -12) of
cJS + -{2,), to get
2
5-2
Example 3
6 j6 4'13
Simplify
2=\[3 - :\[6 + =\[3 + :\fi - :\[6 - :\fi
Solution
First we shall rationalize the denominators and then simplify. We have
6 + j6 - 4:f3 ~
2-13 - j6 -13 + -{i j6 - -{i
= 6 x 2-13 + j6 + j6 x -13- -{i - 4\[3 x j6 + j2
~-j6 ~+j6 ~+-{i ~--{i j6--{i j6+-{i
= 6c2'13 + j6) ~---J6c-13 -:[2) _4-{3c + -{2) J6
c2'13)2 _c--J"6)2 c-13)2 _c-{2)2 c'16>2- c-{2)2
1 1
or x2 + 2x x -x + 2x =36
1
or x2 + x2 = 34
EXERCISE 4.4
1. Rationalize the denominator of the following.
3 14 6 1
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) 3 + 2'15
40 -{98 ~'127
15 2 0-1 ... 15+0
-(v)
-{31-4
(vi)
'15-~
(vii)
)3+1 ( Vlll) '15 _0
2. Find the conjugate of x + '1)i .
(i) 3 +-[i (ii) 4-'15 (iii) 2+0 (iv) 2 + '15
(v) 5+-[i (vi) 4--{ls (vii) 7-16 (viii) 9 + -{2
3. (i) If x = 2 - 0 ,find x1 (ii) If x = 4 - -{17 , find±

1
(iii) If x = 0 + 2, find x + -x
4. Simplify
(i) 1+ -fl + 1- fl (ii) 1 + 2 + 1
'15+0 '15~~ 2+0 '15-0 2+'15
2 1 3
. (iii) '15 +0 + 0 +-{2- '15 +-{2
5. (i) If x = 2 + 0. find the value of x -±and ( x - ~ J
1 2 1 1
_~ --12
If x = '15
3
(1"1") ~' fim d th e v alue of x + - •X + 2 an d x + 3
"5+"2 x x x
3 3 3
[Hint: a 2 + b2 =(a+ b) 2 - + b =(a+ b) - 3ab(a + b)]
2ab and a
. . . 0-1 0+1 _r;
6. Detenmne the rat10nal numbers a and b 1f 0 + + 0- 1 = a + b 'I 3 ·
1
REVIEW EXERCISE 4
(i) 4x + 3y - 2 is an algebraic ........ .
(a) expression (b) sentence (c) equation (d) inequation
4
(ii) The degree of polynomial 4x + 2x2y is .........
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
3 b3 . al
(iii) a + is equ to .........
2 2 2 2
(a) (a - b)(a +ab+ b) (b) (a+ b)(a - ab+ b)
(c)
2 2
(a - b)(a - ab+. b ) (d)
2
(a-b)(a +ab-b)
2
(iv) (3 + -{i )(3 - -{i ) is equal to .........

(a) 7 (b) -7 (c) -1 (d) 1
(v) Conjugate of surd a + '1b is .........
(a) -a +'1b (b) a-'1b (c) ~ +'1b (d) ~ -'1b
1 1 . al
(vi) a _ b - a + b is equ to .........
2a 2b -2a -2b
(a) (b) (c) (d)
a2-b2 a2 - b2 a2- b2 a2 - b2
a2 - b2
(vii) a + b is equal to .........
(a-b) 2 2
(a) (b) (a+ b) (c) a+b (d) a-b
(viii) (~ + '1b )(~ - '1b ) is equal to .........
(a) a2 + b2 (b) a2 - b2 (c) a-b (d) a+b
2. Fill in the blanks.
2
(i) The degree of the polynomial x / + 3.xy + y3 is ......... .
2
(ii) x - 4 = ......... .
(iii) x3 + :3 =(x+ ~) (......... )

(iv) 2(a2 +b2)= (a+b) 2 + ( ........... .)2
(v) ( x-~J = ........ .

(vi) Order of surd ~ is ......... .
1
(vii) _r;; - ........ .
2- \JJ
3.
1
If x + - = 3, find
x
cl)X
2
+21 (··)
11 x4 +41
x x
1 01x+21
4. If x - -x =2 , find 2 (··)
11 x4 +41
x x
3
5. Find the value of x + y3 and .xy if x + y = 5 and x -y = 3.
6. If p =2 + -{3 , find
(i) p + .!. (ii) p- .!.p
p
(iii) p2 + ~
p
(iv) p
2
-1zp
7. If q = -{5 + 2, find
1 1
(i) q+- (ii) q--
q q
2 1 2 1
(iii) q+2 (iv) q-2
q q
8. Simplify
(i)
~ a2 + 2 + ~a2 - 2 1 1
(ii)
~a2 + 2 - ~a2 - 2 a-~a -x 2 2
a +~a
2
-x2
SUMMARY
* An algebraic expression is that in which constants or variables or both are
combined by basic operations.
* Polynomial means an expression with many terms.
* Degree of polynomial means highest power of variable.
* Expression in the form~~~~, (q(x) -:t:- 0) is called rational expression.

* An irrational radical with rational radicand is called a surd.
* In ~ , n is called surd index or surd order and rational number x is called

radicand.
* A surd which contains a single term is called monomial surd.
* A surd which contains sum or difference of two surds is called binomial surd.
* Conjugate surd of--{x + {Y is defined as --{x- {Y .
Unit5
FACTORIZATION
Unit Outlines
5.1 Factorization
5.2 Remainder Theorem and Factor Theorem
5.3 Factorization of a Cubic Polynomial
* recall factorization of expressions of the following types.
• ka+kb+kc
• ac + ad + be + bd
• a 2 ± 2ab + b2
• a2-b2
• a 2 ± 2ab + b2 - c 2
* factorize the expressions of the following types.
Type I:
a4 + a 2b2 + b4 or a4 + 4b4
Type II:
. X2+px+q
Type ill:
aX2 +bx+ c
Type IV:
(ai2 +bx+ c) (ai2 +bx+ d) + k
(x + a) (x + b) (x + c) (x + d) + k
{ (x + a) (x + b) (x + c) (x + d) + kX2
Type V:
a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 + b3
a 3 - 3a2b + 3ab2 - b3
Type VI:
{/.,, ± //'
* state and prove Remainder theorem and explain through examples.
* find Remainder (without dividing) when a polynomial is divided by a linear
polynomial.
* define zeros of a polynomial.
* state and prove Factor theorem.
* use Factor theorem to factorize a cubic polynomial.
97
r-acLOrtLi:l.l/UI I
Introduction
Factorization plays an important role in mathematics as it helps to reduce the
study of a complicated expression to the study of simpler expressions. In this unit, we
will deal with different types of factorization of polynomials.
5.1 Factorization
If a polynomial p(x) can be expressed as p(x) = g(x)h(x), then each of the
polynomials g(x) and h(x) is called a factor of p(x). For instance, in the distributive
property
ab+ ac = a(b + c),
a and (b + c) are factors of (ab+ ac).
When a polynomial has been written as a product consisting only of prime
factors, then it is said to be factored completely.
(a) Factorization of the Expression of the type ka + kb +kc
Example 1
Factorize Sa - Sb + Sc
Solution
Sa - Sb+ Sc= S(a - b + c)
Example 2 <"
Factorize Sa - Sb - lSc
Solution
Sa - Sb - lSc =S(a - b - 3c)
(b) Factorization of the Expression of the type ac + ad + be + bd
We can write ac +ad+ be+ bd as
(ac +ad)+ (be+ db)
= a(c + d) + b(c + d)
=(a+b)(c+d)
For explanation consider the following examples.
Example 1
Factorize 3x - 3a + xy - ay
Solution
Regrouping the terms of given polynomial
3x + xy- 3a - ay = x(3 + y) - a(3 + y) (monomial factors)
=(3 + y) (x- a) (3 + y) is common factor
Factorization 102
-
=x(x - 3) - 4(x - 3)
= (x - 3) (x - 4)
(ii) X2 + 5x - 36
From the possible factors of 36, the suitable pair is 9 and -4 because
9 + (-4) = 5 and 9 x (-4) = -36
Hence X2 + 5x - 36 = X2 + 9x - 4x - 36
= x(x + 9) - 4(x + 9) ~
= (x + 9) (x- 4)
(c) Factorization of the Expression of the type ax 2 + bx + c, a -:t= 0
Let us explain the procedure of factorization by the following examples.
Example
Factorize (i) 9X2 + 2lx- 8 (ii) 2X2 - 8x - 42 (iii) IOX2- 41.xy + 21/
Solution
(i) 9X2 + 21x - 8
In this case, on comparing with ax2 +bx+ c, ac = (9) (-8) = -72
From the possible factors of 72, the suitable pair of numbers (with proper sign)
is 24 and-3 whose
sum= 24 + (-3) = 21, (the coefficient of x)
and their product= (24) (-3) = -72 = ac
Hence 9X2 + 21x - 8
= 9X2 + 24x - 3x - 8
= 3x(3x + 8) - (3x + 8)
= (3x + 8)(3x- 1)
(ii) 2X2- 8x - 42 =2(X2 - 4x- 21)
2
Comparing x - 4x - 21 with ax? + bx+ c
we have ac = (+1)(-21) = -21
From the possible factors of 21, the suitable pair of numbers is - 7 and +3 whose
sum= -7 + 3 = -4 and product = (-7) (3) = -21
Hence X2 - 4x - 21 ·
=X2 + 3x - 7x - 21
= x(x + 3) - 7(x + 3)
=(x + 3) (x - 7)
Hence 2X2- 8x- 42 = 2(X2- 4x- 21) = 2(x + 3) (x- 7)
103 Mathematics 9
(iii) 10x2- 41.xy + 21y2

This type of questions on factorization can also be done by the above procedure
of splitting the middle term.
Here ac = (10) (21) = 210
Two suitable factors of 210 are -35' and -6
Their sum= -35 -6 =-41
and product= (-35) (-6) =210
Hence 10x2- 41.xy + 21y2
= 10x2 - 35.xy - 6.xy + 21y2
= 5x(2x- 7y) -•3y(2x- 7y)
=(2.x- 7y) (5x- 3y)
(d) Factorization of the following types of Expressions
(ax2 + bx + c) (ax 2 + bx + d) + k
(x + a) (x + b) (x + c) (x + d) + k
(x + a) (x + b) (x + c) (x + d) + kx 2
We shall explain the method of factorizing these types of expressions with the
help of following examples.
Example 1
Factorize (x2-4x- 5) (x2- 4x- 12)- 144
Solution
(x2-4x- 5) (x2- 4x- 12)- 144
Let y =x
2
- 4x. Then
(y- 5) (y- 12) - 144 =l- 17y - 84
=l- 21y + 4y- 84
= y(y - 21) + 4(y - 21)
= (y- 21) (y + 4)
= (x2- 4x - 21) (x2 - 4x + 4) (since y = x 2 - 4x)
= (x2- 7x + 3x- 21) (x- 2) 2
= [x(x - 7) + 3(x - 7)] (x - 2) 2
= (x - 7) (x + 3) (x - 2) (x - 2)
Factorization 104
Example 2
Factorize (x + 1) (x + 2) (x + 3) (x + 4) - 120
Solution
We observe that 1+4 = 2 + 3.
It suggests that we rewrite the given expression as
[(x + 1) (x + 4)] [(x + 2) (x + 3)] - 120
2 2
(x + 5x + 4) (x + 5x + 6) - 120
Let x2 + Sx =y, then
we get (y + 4) (y + 6) - 120
= y2 + lOy + 24 - 120
=y2 + lOy- 96
=y2 + 16y - 6y - 96
=y(y+ 16)-6(y+ 16)
= (y + 16) (y - 6)
= (x2 + Sx + 16) (x2 + Sx - 6) since y =x 2 + Sx
= (x2 + Sx + 16) (x + 6) (x - 1)
Example 3
2
Factorize (x2 - Sx + 6) (x + Sx + 6) - 2x2
Solution
2
(x - Sx + 6) (x2 + Sx + 6) - 2x2
=~-~-2x+~~+~+2x+~-~
= [x(x - 3) - 2(x - 3)][x(x + 3) + 2(x + 3)] - 2x2
= [(x - 3) (x - 2)][(x + 3) (x + 2)] - 2x2
= [(x - 2) (x + 2)][(x - 3) (x + 3)] - 2x2
2 2
= (x - 4) (x - 9) - 2x2
=x 4 - 13x2 + 36 - 2x2
=x 4 - 1sx2 + 36
=x 4 - 12x2 - 3x2 + 36
=x2cx2 - 12) - 3(x2 - 12)
= (x2 - 12) (x2 - 3)
= [(x)2 - (2-{3 )2] [(~/- c-13 )2]
= (x - 2-{3 ) (x + 2-{3 ) (x - -{3 ) (x + {3 )
Factorization 106
EXERCISE 5.2
Factorize
1
1. (i) x4+4-3 (ii) 3x4 + 12y4 (iii) a4 + 3a2b 2 + 4b4
x
4 4 2 4 2
(iv) 4x + 81 (v) x +x + 25 (vi) x + 4x + 16
2. (i) x2 + 14x + 48 (ii) x2-21x + 108

(iii) x2- llx-42 (iv) x2 +x-132
3. (i) 4x2 + 12x + 5 (ii) 30x2 + 7x-15

(iii) 24x2 - 65x + 21 (iv) 5x2-16x-21
(v) 4x2- 17.xy + 4y2 (vi) 3x2 - 38.xy - 13y2
(vii) 5x2 + 33.xy- 14y2 (viii) (5x - ~ ) \ 4(5x -· ~) + 4, x :t 0

4. (i) (x2 + 5x + 4) (x2 + 5x + 6) - 3
(ii) (x2- 4x) (x2- 4x- 1) - 20
(iii) (x + 2) (x + 3) (x + 4) (x + 5) - 15
(iv) (x + 4) ~- 5) (x + 6) (x - 7) - 504
(v) (x + 1) (x + 2) (x +3) (x + 6) - 3x
2
5. (i) x3 + 48x - 12x2 - 64 (ii) sx3 + 60x2 + 150x + 125

(iii) x3 - 18x2 + 108x- 216 (iv) sx3 - 125y3 - 60x2y + 150.xy2
6. (i) 21 + sx3 (ii) 125.x3- 216y3
(iii) 64.x3 + 27y3 (iv) sx3 + 125y3
5.2 Remainder Theorem and Factor Theorem
5.2.1 Remainder Theorem
If a polynomial p(x) is divided by a linear divisor (x - a), then the remainder is
p(a). •
Proof
Let q(x) be the quotient obtained after dividing p(x) by (x - a). But the divisor
(x- a) is linear. So the remainder must be of degree zero i.e., a non-zero constant, say
R. Consequently, by division Algorithm we may write
p(x) =(x- a) q(x) + R
This is an identity in x and so is true for all real numbers x. In particular, it is
,true for x =a. Therefore,
JOI Mamemat1cs 9
pW=~-aj~aj+R=O+R=R
i.e., p(a)= the remainder. Hence the theorem.
Note: Similarly, if the divisor is (ax- b), we have
p(x) =(ax- b) q(x) + R
Substituting x = Jz so that ax - b = 0, we obtain

a
p(~)=o · q(~)+R=O+R=R
Thus if the divisor is linear, the above theorem provides an efficient way of
finding the remainder without being involved in the process of long division.
5.2.2 To fmd Remainder (without dividing) when a polynomial is divided by a
Linear Polynomial
Example 1
Find the remainder when 9.x2 - 6x + 2 is divided by
(i) x - 3 (ii) x + 3 (iii) 3x + 1 (iv) x
Solution
Let p(x) =9.x2 - 6x + 2
(i) When p(x) is divided by x - 3, by Remainder Theorem, the remainder is
R = p(3) = 9(3) 2 - 6(3) + 2 = 65
(ii) Whenp(x) is divided by x + 3 = x- (-3), the remainder is
R = p(-3) = 9(-3) 2 - 6 (-3) + 2 = 101
(iii) Whenp(x) is divided by 3x + 1, the remainder is
R= P( -t) = 9( -t )2 - 6 ( -t) + 2= 5
(iv) When p(x) is divided by x, the remainder is
R = p(O) = 9(0)2 - 6(0) + 2 = 2
Example2
Find the value of kif the expression .x3 + kx2 + 3x - 4 leaves a remainder of -2
when divided by x + 2.
Solution
Let p(x) = .x3 + kx 2 + 3x - 4
By the Remainder Theorem, when p(x) is divided by x + 2 = x - (-2), the
remainder is
p(-2) = (-2) 3 + k(-2) 2 + 3(-2)- 4.
=-8 +4k-6-4
=4k-18
Factorization 1Ui:J
By the given condition, we have

p(-2) = - 2 => 4k- 18 = -2 => k = 4
5.2.3 Zero of a Polynomial
Definition
If a specific number x = a is substituted for the variable x in a polynomial p(x)
so that the value p(a) is zero, then x =a is called a zero of the polynomial p(x).
A very useful consequence of the remainder theorem is what is known as the
factor theorem.
5.2.4 Factor Theorem
The polynomial (x - a) is a factor of the polynomial p(x) if and only if p(a) = 0.
Proof
Let q(x) be the quotient and R the remainder when a polynomial p(x) is divided
by (x- a). Then by division Algorithm, .
p(x) = (x - a) q(x) +R
By the Remainder Theorem, R =p(a).
Hence p(x) = (x - a) q(x) + p(a)
(i) Now if p(a) = 0, then p(x) = (x - a) q(x)
i.e., (x - a) is a factor of p(x)
(ii) Conversely, if (x - a) is a factor of p(x), then the remainder upon dividing p(x)
by (x- a) must be zero i.e., p(a) =0
This completes the proof.
Note: The Factor Theorem can also be stated as, "(x - a) is a factor of p(x) if and
only if x =a is a solution of the equation p(x) =O".
The Factor Theorem helps us to find factors of polynomials because it
determines whether a given linear polynomial (x - a) is a factor of p(x). All we need
is to check whether p(a) = 0.
Example 1
Determine if (x - 2) is a factor of .x3 - 4x2 + 3x + 2.
Solution
For convenience, let
p(x) =x 3 -
4x2 + 3x + 2
Then the remainder for (x- 2) is
p(2)= (2) 3 - 4(2)2 + 3(2) + 2
=8-16+6+2=0
Hence by Factor Theorem, (x - 2) is a factor of the polynomial p(x).
Example 2
Find a polynomialp(x) of degree 3 that has 2, -1, and 3 as zeros (i.e., roots).
Solution
Since x = 2, -1, 3 are roots of p(x) =0
so by Factor Theorem (x - 2), (x + 1) and (x - 3) are the factors of p(x).
Thus p(x) = a(x - 2) (x + 1) (x - 3)
where any non-zero value can be assigned to a.
Talcing a = 1, we get
p(x) = (x - 2) (x + 1) (x - 3)
=x3 - 4.x2 + x + 6 as the required polynomial.
EXERCISE 5.3
1. Use the remainder theorem to find the remainder when
(i) 3x3 - 10.x2 + l3x - 6 is divided by (x - 2)
(ii) 4x3 - 4x + 3 is divided by (2x- 1)
4
(iii) 6x + 2x3 - x+2 is divided by (x + 2)
3 2
(iv) (2x - 1) + 6(3 + 4x) -10 is divided by (:b. + I)
(v) x3 - 3.x2 + 4x - 14 is divided by (x + 2)
2 (i) If (x + 2) is a factor of 3x2 - 4kx- 4k2, then find the value(s) of k.
(ii) If (x - 1) is a factor of x3 - kx2 + l lx - 6, then find the value of k.
3. Without actual long division determine whether
(i) (x - 2) and (x - 3) are factors of p(x) = x3 - 12.x2 + 44x - 48.
(ii) (x - 2), (x + 3) and (x - 4) are factors of q(x) =x3 + 2.x2 - 5x - 6.
4. For what value of mis the polynomial p(x) = 4x 3
- 7.x2 + 6x - 3m exactly
divisible by x + 2?
5. Determine the value of kif p(x) = kx3 + 4.x2 + 3x - 4 and
q(x) =x3- 4x + k leaves the same remainder when divided by (x- 3).
6. The remainder after dividing the polynomialp(x) =x3 + ax2 + 7 by (x + 1) is 2b.
Calculate the value of a and b if this expression leaves a remainder of (b + 5) on
being divided by (x- 2).
7. The polynomial x3 + zx2 + mx + 24 has a factor (x + 4) and it leaves a remainder
of 36 when divided by (x- 2). Find the values of land m.
Factorization 112
(viii) Factors of 27x3- -\are ..... .

x
(a) ( 3x - ~), ( 9x2 + 3 + : 2) (b) ~ 2

( 3x + ), ( 9x + 3 + : 2 )
(c) ( 3x - ~ ), ( 9x2 - 3 +: 2) (d) ( 3x + ~), ( 9x2 - 3 + x;)
2. Completion Items. Fill in the blanks.

(i) x 2 + 5x + 6 = ........ .
(ii) 4a 2 - 16 = ........ .
(iii) 4a 2 + 4ab + ( ......... )is a complete square
2 2
£ L
(iv) 2 - 2 + 2 = ·········
y x
(v) + y)(x2 - xy + y 2) = ........ .
(x
4
(vi) Factored form of x - 16 is ........ .
(vii) If x - 2 is factor of p(x) =x 2 + 2kx + 8, then k = ........ .
3. Factorize the following.
2 2 2
(i) x + 8x + 16 - 4y2 (ii) 4x -16y
2
(iii) 9x + 27x + 8 (iv) 1-64z3
3 1
(v) 8x - 3 (vi) 2y2 + 5y-3
27
.Y
(vii) x3 +x2 -4x-4
(ix) 1 - 12pq + 36p2q2
SUMMARY
* If a polynomial is expressed as a product of other polynomials, then each
polynomial in the product is called a factor of the original polynomial.
* The process of expressing an algebraic expression in terms of its factors is
called factorization. We learned to factorize expressions of the following types:
• ka+kb+kc
• ac + ad + be + bd
2 2
• a ± 2ab + b
• a2 - b2
2 2 2
• (a ± 2ab + b ) - c
4 22 4 4 4
• a + a b + b or a + 4b
113 Mathematics 9
2
• x +px+ q
2
• ax +bx+ c
2 2
• (ax +bx+ c) (ax +bx+ d) + k
• (x + a) (x + b) (x + c) (x + d) + k
2
• (x + a)(x + b)(x + c)(x + d) + kx
3 2 2 3
• a + 3a b + 3ab + b
3 2 2 3
• a - 3a b + 3ab - b
• a3 ± b3
* If a polynomial p(x) is divided by a linear divisor (x - a), then the remainder is
p(a).
* If a specific number x = a is substituted for the variable x in a polynomial p(x)

so that the value p(a) is zero, then x = a is called a zero of the polynomial p(x).
* The polynomial (x - a) is a factor of the polynomial p(x) if and only if p(a) =0.
Factor theorem has been used to factorize cubic polynomials.
Unit6
ALGEBRAIC MANIPULATION
Unit Outlines
6.1 Highest Common Factor and Least Coll)mon Multiple
6.2 Basic Operations on Algebraic Fractions _..
6.3 Square Root of Algebraic Expression

,After studying this unit, the students will be able to:
* find Highest Common Factor and Least Common Multiple of algebraic
expressions.
* use factor or division method to determine highest common factor and Least
Common Multiple.
.· * know the relationship between H.C.F and L.C.M .
* solve real life problems related to H.C.F and L.C.M.
* use highest common factor and least common multiple to reduce fractional
expressions involving +,-,x,+.
* find square root of algebraic expressions by factorization and division.
Introduction
In this unit we will first deal with finding H.~.F. and L.C.M. of algebraic
expressions by factorization and long division. Then by using H.C.F. and L.C.M. we
will simplify fractional expressions. Toward the end of the unit finding square root of
algebraic expression by factorization and division are discussed.
6.1 Highest Common Factor (H.C.F.) and Least Common Multiple

(L.C.M.) of Algebraic Expressions
6.1.l(a) Highest Common Factor (H.C.F.)
If two or more algebraic expressions are given, then their common factor of
highest power is called the H.C.F. of the expressions.
(b) Least Common Multiple (L.C.M.)
If an algebraic expression p(x) is exactly divisible by two or more expressions,
then p(x) is called the Common Multiple of the given expressions. The Least
Common Multiple (L.C.M.) is the product of common factors together with non-
common factors of the given expressions.
114
115 Mathematics 9
6.1.2(a) Finding H.C.F.

We can find H. C. F. of given expressions by the following two methods.
(i) By Factorization (ii) By Division
Sometimes it is difficult to find factors of given expressions. In that case,
method of division can be used to find H. C. F. We consider some examples to
explain these two methods.
(i) H.C.F. by Factorization
Example
Find the H. C. F. of the following polynomials.
X2 - 4, X2 + 4x + 4, 2x2 + x - 6
Solution
By factorization,
X2 - 4 = (x + 2) (x - 2)
X2 + 4x + 4 =(x + 2) 2
2x2 + x - 6 = 2x2 + 4x - 3x - 6 = 2x(x + 2) - 3(x + 2)
=(x + 2) (2x- 3)
Hence, H. C. F. =x + 2
{ii) H.C.F. by Division
Example
Use division method to find the H. C. F. of the polynomials
p(x)=i3-7X2+ 14x-8 and q(x)=x3 -7x+6
Solution
1
x3-7x + 6 x3 - 7X2 + l4x - 8
+x3 - 7x + 6
+
2
- 7x + 2lx - 14
Here the remainder can be factorized as
-7X2 + 2lx- 14 7-7(i2- 3x + 2)
We ignore -7 because it is not common to both the given polynomials and
consider X2 - 3x + 2.
Algebraic Manipulation 116
x+3
.x2- 3x + 2 x3
+ O·.x2 - 7x + 6
3 2
x - 3x + 2x
+
2
3x - + 6
9x
3x2 - 9x + 6
+
0
Hence H. C. F. of p(x) and q(x) is .x2 - 3x + 2
Observe that
(i) In finding H. C. F. by division, if required, any expression can be multiplied by
a suitable integer to avoid fraction.
(ii) In case we are given three polynomials, then as a first step we find H. C. F. of
any two of them and then find the H. C. F. of this H. C. F. and the third
polynomial.
(b) Finding L.C.M. by Factorization
Working Rule to find L.C.M. of given Algebraic Expressions
(i) Factorize the given expressions completely i.e., to simplest form.
(ii) Then the L.C.M. is obtained by taking the product of each factor appearing in
any of the given expressions, raised to the highest power with which that factor
appears.
Example
Find the L.C.M. of p(x) = 12(x3 - 3
y) and q(x) = 8(x3 -xy)2
Solution
By prime factorization of the given expressions, we have
p(x) = 12(x3 - y 3) =22 x 3 ?< (x - y) (x2 + xy + y2)
and q(x) = 8(x3 -xy2) = 8x(x2 - / ) = 23x(x + y) (x-y)
Hence L.C.M. of p(x) and q(x),
2
3
2 x 3 x x(x + y) (x - y) (x + xy + y2) =24x (x + y) cx3 - /)
6.1.3 Relation between H.C.F. and L.C.M.
Example
5 4
By factorization, find (i) H.C.F. (ii) L.C.M. of p(x) = 12(x - x ) and
4 2
q(x) = 8(x - 3x3 + 2x ). Establish a relation between p(x), q(x) and H.C.F. and
L.C.M. of the expressions p(x) and q(x). ·
117 Mathematics 9
Solution
Firstly, let us factorize completely the given expressions p(x) and q(x) into
irreducible factors. We have
5 4 4 2 4
p(x) = 12(x -x ) = 12x (x- l) ·= 2 x 3 x x (x- 1)
4 3 2 2 2 3 2
and q(x) = 8(x - 3x + 2x ) = 8x (x - 3x + 2) = 2 x (x- 1) (x- 2)
2 2
H.C.F. of p(x) and q(x) = 2 x (x- 1) = 4i (x - 1)
L.C.M. of p(x) and q(x) = 23x 3 x x4(x- l)(x- 2)
Observe that
p(x) q(x) = 12x4 (x - 2
1) x 8x (x - 1) (x - 2)
2
= 96x6 (x - 1) (x - 2) ...... (i)
and (L.C.M.) (H.C.F.)
= [23 x 3 x x4 (x- 1) (x - 2)] [4x 2 (x - 1)]
= [24x4 (x - 1) (x - 2)] [4x2 (x - 1)]
= 96x6 (x - 1)2 (x - 2) ...... (ii)
From (i) and (ii) it is clear that
IL.C.M. x H.C.F. =p(x) x q(x) I

Hence, if p(x), q(x) and one of H.C.F. or L.C.M. are known, we can find the unknown
by the formulae,
p(x) x q(x) H CF p(x) x q(x)
I. LCM
. . . H.C.F. or . . . L.C.M.
II. If L.C.M., H.C.F. and one of p(x) or q(x) are known, then
L.C.M. x H.C.F.
p(x ) = q(x) '
L.C.M. x H.C.F.
q(x ) = p(x)
Note: L.C.M. and H.C.F. are unique except for a factor of (-1).
Example 1
Find H.C.F. of the polynomials,
3 2
p(x) = 20(2x + 3x - 2x)
4
q(x) = 9(5x + 40x)
Then using the above formula (I) find the L.C.M. of p(x) and q(x).
Solution
We have
p(x) = 20(2.x3 + 3x2 - 2.x) =20x (2.x2 + 3x- 2)
2
= 20x(2.x + 4x - x - 2) = 20x[2.x(x + 2) - (x + 2)]
= 20x (x + 2) (2.x- 1) = 22 x 5 xx (x + 2) (2.x- 1)
4
q(x) = 9(5x + 40x) =45x(x + 8)
3
2 2 2
= 45x (x + 2) (x - 2x + 4) = 5 x 3 xx (x + 2) (x - 2x + 4)
Thus H.C.F. of p(x) and ,q(x) is
=5x (x + 2)
_ p(x) x q(x)
Now, using the formula L ·C ·M · - H.C.F.
we obtain
2 2 2
_ 2 x 5 x x(x + 2)(2.x- 1) x 5x3 x x(x + 2)(x - 2x + 4)
L.C.M. - 5x(x + 2) ·
= 4 x 5 x 9 xx (x + 2) (2.x- l)(x2 -2.x + 4)

= 180x (x + 2) (2.x - l)(x2 - 2x + 4)
Example2
Find the L.C.M. of
2
p(x) =6x3 - 7x - 27x + 8 and q(x) =6x3 + 17x2 + 9x - 4
Solution
We have, by long division,
1
3 2 3 2
6x - 7x - 27x + 8 ) 6x + 17x + 9x - 4
3 2
6x - 7x - 27x + 8
+ +
24x2 + 36x - 12
But the remainder 24x2 + 36x- 12
= 12(2.x2 + 3x - 1)
Thus, ignoring 12, we have
119 Mathematics 9
3x-8
2 3 2
2x + 3x-1 ) 6x - 7x - 27x + 8
3 2
6x + 9x -3x
+
- 16x2 - 24x + 8
2
- 16x - 24x + 8
+ +
0
2
Hence H.C.F. of p(x) and q(x) is = 2x + 3x - 1
By using the formula, we have
· p(x) x q(x)
L.C.M. = H.C.F.
3
_ (6x -7x2- 27x + 8) (6x3 + 17x2 + 9x-4)
- 2x2 + 3x-1
::;; 6x 3 - 7x2 - 27x + 8 ( 3 2 )

2x2 + 3x _ 1 x 6x + 17x + 9x - 4
= (3x- 8) (6x3 + 17x2 + 9x-4)

6.1.4 Application of H.C.F. and L.C.M.
Example
The sum of two numbers is 120 and their H.C.F. is 12. Find the numbers.
Solution
Let the numbers be 12x and 12y, where x, y are numbers prime to each other.
Then 12x + 12y =120
i.e., x + y = 10
Thus we have tO find two numbers whose sum is 10. The possible such pairs of
numbers are (1, 9), (2, 8), (3, 7), (4, 6), (5, 5)
The pairs of numbers which are prime to each other are (1, 9) and (3, 7)
Thus the required numbers are
1 x 12, 9 x 12; 3 )( 12, 7 x 12
i.e., 12, 108 and 36, 84.
EXERCISE 6.1
L Find the H.C.F. of the following expressions.
7 7
(i) 39x lz and 91.x5y6z (ii) 102x/z, 85x2yz and 187xyz2
Algebraic Manipulation .
2.
120
Find the H.C.F. of the following expressions by factorization.

-
(i) X2- + 5x +·6, X2- - 4x - 12
(ii) x 3 - 27, X2- + 6x - 27, 2X2- - 18
(iii) x 3
- 2X2- + x, X2- + 2x - 3, X2- + 3x - 4
(iv) 18(x3 - 9i2- + 8x), 24(i2- - 3x + 2)
(v) 36(3x + 5x3 - 2i2-), 54(27x4 - x)
4
3. Find the H.C.F. of the following by division method.

(i) x3 + 3X2- - 16x + 12 x3 + X2- - lOx + 8
4
(ii) x + x3 - 2X2- + x - 3 5x3 + 3X2- - 17x + 6
(iii) 2.x5 -
4x4 - 6x x5 + x4 - 3x3 - 3X2-
4. Find the L.C.M. of the following expressions.
(i) 39x1y3z and 91x5y6z7 (ii) 102x/z, 85i2-yz and 187.xyz2
5. Find the L.C.M. of the following expressions by factorization.
(i) X2- - 25x + 100 and X2- - x - 20
(ii) X2- + 4x + 4, X2- - 4, 2X2- + x - 6
(iii) 2(x4 - y4), 3(x3 + 2i2-y - .xy2 - 2y3)
(iv) 4(x4 - 1), 6(x3 - X2- - x + 1)
6. For what value of k is (x + 4) the H.C.F. of X2- + x- (2k + 2) and 2X2- + kx- 12?
7. If (x + 3) (x- 2) is the H.C.F. of p(x) = (x + 3) (2i2- - 3x + k) and
q(x) = (x - 2) (3i2- + 7x - l), find k and l.
8. The L.C.M. and H.C.F. of two polynomials p(x) and q(x) are 2(x4 - 1) and
(x + 1) (i2- + 1) respectively. If p(x) = x3 + X2- + x + 1, find q(x).
9. ·Let p(x) = 10(i2- - 9) (i2- - 3x + 2) and q(x) = lOx(x + 3) (x - 1)2 • If the H.C.F.
of p(x), q(x) is lO(x + 3) (x - 1), find their L.C.M.
10. Let the product of L.C.M and H.C.F of two polynomials be
2
(x + 3) (x - 2) (x + 5). If one polynomial is (x + 3) (x - 2) and the second
polynomial is x2 + kx + 15, find the value of k.
11. Waqas wishes to distribute 128 bananas and also 176 apples equally among a
certain number of children. Find the highest number of children who can get the
fruit in this way.
6.2 Basic Operations on Algebraic Fractions
We shall now carryout the operations of addition, difference, product and
division on algebraic fractions by giving some examples. We assume that all fractions
are defined.
121 Mathematics 9
Example 1
x+3 · x+2 x+l ,...
Simplify 2 + 2 + 2 , x i- 1, ._ _3
x - 3x+ 2 x - 4x+ 3 x - 5x+ 6
Solution
x+3 + x+2 + x+l
2
x - 3x + 2 x2 - 4x + 3 x2 - 5x + 6
= 2
x+3 +
2
x+2 +
2
x+ 1
x - 2x - x + 2 x - 3x - x + 3 x - 3x - 2x + 6
= x+3 + x+2 + x+l
x(x - 2) - l(x - 2) x(x - 3) - l(x - 3) x(x - 3) - 2(x - 3)
= x+3 + x+2 + x+l
(x - 2) (x - 1) (x - 3) (x - 1) · (x - 3) (x - 2)
= (x + 3)(x - 3) + (x + 2)(x- 2) + (x + l)(x - 1)
(x - l)(x - 2)(x- 3)
2
x - 9 + x2 - 4 + x2 - 1
= --------
(x- l)(x- 2) (x- 3)
= - -3x2- - -14 ---

(x - 1) (x - 2) (x - 3)
Example 2
2
x3 - 8 x + 6x + 8 as an algebraic expression reduced to
Express the product - 2- - x 2
x -4 x -2x+l
lowest form, xi- 2, -2, 1
Solution
By factorizing completely, we have
2
x3 - 8
-2--x
x + 6x + 8
2
x -4 x -2x+l
- (x - 2) cx2+ 2x + 4) x (x + 2) (x + 4)
- 2 ...... (i)
(x - 2) (x + 2) x (x - 1)
. 2
Now the factors of numerator are (x - 2), (x + 2x + 4), (x + 2) and (x + 4) and
the factors of denominator are
(x - 2), (x + 2) and (x - 1)2.
Therefore, their H.C.F. is (x - 2) x (x + 2).
By cancelling H.C.F. i.e., (x - 2) (x + 2) from (i), we get the simplified fonn of
cx2 + 2x + 4) (x + 4)
given product as the fraction (x _ l/
Example3
2 3
· x+x+lb
Divide x2 _ y x2, x -l · to 1owest ~orms.
d · lifyb y re ducmg
_ x + an srmp
9 4 3
Solution
We have
x
2
+x + 1
+ 2
x3 - 1
2
x -9 x -4x+ 3
_ (x2 + x + 1) (x2 - 4x + 3)
- 2 x 3 ...... (inverting)
(x - 9) (x - 1)
2 2 .
_(x +x+ 1) (x -x-3x+3)
- 2 3 ...... (splitting the middle term)
(x -9)(x -1)
- cx2+x+1) (x-3) (x-1) __ 1_ 3
2
- (x + 3)(x- 3)(x- 1) (x + x + 1) - x + 3 ' x -t-
EXERCISE 6.2
Simplify e.ach of the following as a rational expression.
2
x x - 6 x2 + 2.x - 24
-
1. 2 + 2
x -9 x -x-12
2.
x+1 x- 1 4x J 4x
[ x - 1 - x + 1 - x2 + 1 + x4 - 1
1 1 2
3. 2 + 2 2
x - 8x + 15 x - 4x + 3 x - 6x + 5
2
(x + 2)(x + 3) (x + 2)(2.x - 32)
4. 2
x - 9
+ (x - 4) (x2 - x - 6)
x+ 3 1 4x
5. 2 + - 2
2.x + 9x + 9 2(2.x- 3) 4x - 9
1 a+ 1
6. A--, whereA=--
A a-1
7. [ ~+-2 ] [£±1+_4]
x-2 2-x - x+2 4-i
8. What rational expression should be subtracted from
2.x2 + 2.x - 7 x- 1
to get-- ?
x 2 +x- 6 x- 2
123 Mathematics 9
Perform the indicated operations and simplify to the lowest form.

x 2 +x- 6 x 2 -4
9. 2 x-2--
x -x-6 x -9
x 3 - 8 x 2 + 6x + 8 .
-2--x 2
x -4 x -2x+l
4
x -8x 2x-1 x+3
11. 2 x 2 x 2
2x + 5x - 3 x + 2x + 4 x - 2x
2/ + 7y - 4 . 4/ - 1
12. 2 -:- 2
3y - 13y + 4 6y + y - 1
2
13. x +
[ x2 - y2
l _x 2 - l J _,_ [ x + Y _ x - Y J
x2 + y2 . x- y x +y
6.3 Square Root of Algebraic Expression

Definition
As with numbers we define the square root of a given expression p(x) as
another expression q(x) such that q(x) . q(x) =p(x).
As 5 x 5 =25, so square root of 25 is 5.
It means we can find square root of the expression p(x) if it can be expressed·as
a perfect square.
In this section we shall find square root of an algebraic expression
(i) by factorization
(ii) by division
Example 1
Use factorization to find the square root of the expression
2
4x -12x + 9
2
Solution We have, 4x -12x + 9
= 4x2 - 6x - 6x + 9 = 2x(2x - 3) - 3(2x - 3) ·
=(2x - 3) (2x - 3) =(2x - 3) 2
2
Hence '14x 12x + 9
-
= ± (2x- 3)
Example 2
Find the square root of x 2 + 2 + 12 x + - 1 ( 1) + 38, x
"i x x
-:t:. 0
Solution
x 2 -5x + 4
x2 ) · x4 - 10x3 + 33x2- 42.x + 20
±x4
2
-10x3 + 33x
+·10x3 ± 25x2
2
2.x -10x+4) 8x2 -42.x+ 20
±8x2 +40x ± 16
- 2x + 4
For making the given expression a perfect square the remainder must be zero.
Hence
(i) we should add (2.x-4) to the given expression
(ii) we should subtract (-2x + 4) from the given expression
(iii) we should take -2.x + 4 = 0 to find the value of x. This gives the required value
of x i.e., x =2.
EXERCISE 6.3
1. Use factorization to find the square root of the following expressions.
(i) 4x2 - 12.xy + 9y2
(ii)
(iii)
2 2 2
(iv) 4(a + b)2 - 12(a - b ) + 9(a - b)
4x6- 12x3y3 + 9y6
(v)
9x4 + 24x2y2 + 16/
(vi) (x+~J-4( x-~) (x;tO)
(vii) (x2+ :1 )2-{ x+~J +12 (x;tO)

2
(viii) (x2 + 3x + 2) (x + 4x + 3) (xi ·+ Sx + 6)
(ix) cx2 + 8x + 7) (2.x2 - 2
x - 3) (2.x + 1 lx - 21)
127 Mathematics 9
2. Use division method to find the square root of the following expressions.
2
(i) 4x + 12xy + 9y2 + 16x + 24y + 16
4 3
(ii) x - 10x + 37x2-60x + 36
4
(iii) 9x -6x3 +1x2 - 2x + 1
2
(iv) 4 + 25x - 12x - 24x3 + 16x4
2 2
(v) x2 -10:!+27-10~+; (x:;eO,y:;eO)
y y x x
3. Find the value of k for which the following expressions will become a perfect
square.
4 3 4 2
(i) 4x - 12x + 37x - 42x + k (ii) x -4x3 + 10x2 -kx + 9
4. Find the values of I and m for which the following expressions will become
perfect squares.
4 3 2
(i) · x + 4x + 16x +Ix+ m (ii) 49x4 - 70x3 + 109x2 +Ix- m
4 3
5. To make the expression 9x - 12x + 22x2 - 13x + 12, a perfect square
(i) what should be added to it?
(ii) what should be subtracted from it?
(iii) what should be the value of x?
REVIEW EXERCISE 6
1. Choose the correct answer,
(i) H.C.F. of p 3q- pq3 and p 5q2- p 2q5 is ......
(a) pq(p~ -q2) (b) pq(p- q)
(c) p2q2(p- q) (d) pq(p3 -q3)
(ii) H.C.F. of 5x2y2 and 2ox3y3 is ..... .
(a) sx2y2 (b) 2ox3y3 (c) 1oox5y5 (d) 5xy
(iii) H.C.F. of x - 2 and x2 + x - 6 is ..... .
(a) x2 + x- 6 (b) x + 3 (c) x- 2 (d) x + 2
3 3 2 2
(iv) H.C.F. a + b and a ab + b is ..... .
-
(a) a+ b (b) a2 - ab+ b2
(c) (a - b) 2 (d) a 2 + b2
(v) H.C.F. of x2 - 5x + 6 and x2 - x - 6 is ......
(a) x-3 (b) x+2 (c) x2-4 (d) x-2
(vi) H.C.F. of a2 - b2 and a3 - b3 is ..... .
(a) a-b (b) a+b
2 2
(c) a +ab+ b (d) a2 - ab+ b2
(vii) H.C.F. of i2- + 3x + 2, X2- + 4x + 3, and i2- + 5x + 4 is ..... .

(a) x+ 1 (b) (x+ l)(x+2)
(c) x+3 (d) (x+4)(x+l)
(viii) L.C.M. of 15i2-, 45.xy and 30.xyz is ...... .
(a) 90.xyz (b) 90i2-yz (c) 15.xyz (d) 15i2-yz
2 2 4 4
(ix) L.C.M. of a + b and a - b is ...... .
(a) a 2 + b2 (b) a 2 - b2 (c) a4 - b4 (d) a - b
(x) The product of two algebraic expressions is equal to the ...... of their H.C.F.
andL.C.M.
(a) Sum (b) Difference
(c) Product (d) Quotient
(xi) . lify
Simp a 1
9a2 - b2 + 3a - b = ·········
4a 4a-b 4a+b b
(a) , 9a2 - b2 (b) 9a2 - b2 (c) 9a2- b2 (d) 9a2-b2
2
. . a + Sa - 14 a + 3
(xii) Simplify a 2 - 3a - 18 x a - 2 = ·········
a+? a+? a+3 a-2

(a) (b) (c) (d)
a-6 a-2 a-6 a+3
2 b b2
(xin
... ) s·implify a43 - b3
b4 -..-. a az
+a +
a - + b2 =·········
1 (b) _1_ () a-b a+b

() (d) a2 + b2
a a+b a- b c a 2 + b2
(xiv) Simplify(~+
x+y
Y _ 1) + ( 1--x-) = ........ .
x+y
x __}'__ l x
(a) ' x+y (b) x+y (c) x (d) y
(xv) The square root of a 2 - 2a + 1 is ...... .
(a) ±(a+l) (b) ±(a-1) (c) a-1 (d) a+l
4
(xvi) What should be added to complete the square of x .+ 64? ..... .
(a) 8i2- (b) - 8i2- (c) 16i2- (d) 4i2-
(xvii) The square root of x 4 + ~ + 2 is ...... .

x
(a) ±( x+~) (b) ±( X2-+ ~) (c) ±(x-~) (d) ±( i2-- ~)

129 Mathematics 9
2. Find the H.C.F. of the following by factorization.

8x4 - 128, 12x3 - 96
3. Find the H.C.F. of the following by division method.
y3 + 3/- 3y - 9, l + 3/ - 8y - 24
4. Find the L.C.M. of the following by factrization.
12x2 - 75, 6x2 - 13x - 5, 4x2 - 20x + 25
4 2 4 3 2
5. If H.C.F. of x + 3x3 + 5x + 26x + 56 and x + 2x - 4x - x + 28 is
x2 + 5x + 7, find their L.C.M.
6. Simplify
3 3
(i) 3 2 - 3 2
x +x +x+l x -x +x-1
2
a+b. a-ab
(ii) 2 2 2
a - b -...- a - 2ab + b2
7. Find square root by using factorization.
( x + : 2 ) + 10 ( x +' ~) + 27
2
(x # 0)
8. Find square root by using division method.

. 2 2
4x + 20x + 13 _ 30y + 2l_ (x, y # O)
y2 y x x2
SUMMARY
* We learned to find the H.C.F. and L.C.M. of algebraic expressions by the
methods of factorization and division.
* We established a relation between H.C.F. and L.C.M. of two polynomials p(x)
and q(x) given by the formula
L.C.M. x H.C.F. =p(x) x q(x)
and used it to determine L.C.M. or H.C.F. etc.
'
* Any unknown expression may be found if three of them are known by using
the relation
L.C.M x H.C.F =p(x) x q(x)
* H.C.F. and L.C.M. are used to simplify fractional expressions involving basic
operations of+, -,x, +.
* Determination of square root of algebraic expression by factorization and
division methods has been defined and explained.
Unit7
LINEAR EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES

Unit Outlines
7.1. Linear Equations
7.2. Equations Involving Absolute Value
7.3. Linear Inequalities
7 .4. Solving Linear Inequalities

After studying this unit the students will be able to:
* recall linear equation in one variable.
* solve linear equation with rational coefficients.
* reduce equations, involving radicals, to simple linear form and find their
solutions.
* define absolute value.
* solve the equation, involving absolute value, in one variable.
* define inequalities ( >,<)and(~,$).
* recognize properties of inequalities (i.e. trichotomy, transitive, additive and
multiplicative).
* solve linear inequalities with rational coefficients.
Introduction
In this unit we will extend the study of previously learned skills to the solution
of equations with rational coefficients of Unit 2 and the equations involving radicals
and absolute value. Finally, after defining inequalities, and recalling their trichotomy,
transitive, additive and multiplicative properties we will use them to solve linear
inequalities with rational·coefficients.
7 .1 Linear Equations
7.1.1 Defmition
A linear equation in one unknown variable x is an equation of the form
ax + b = 0, where a, b e R and a -=t= 0.
A solution to a linear equation is any replacement or substitution for the
variable x that makes the statement true. Two linear equations are said to be
equivalent if they have exactly the same solution.
130
131 Mathematics 9
7.1.2 Solving a Linear Equation in One Variable

The process of solving an equation involves finding a sequence of equivalent
equations until the variable x is isolated on one side of the equation to give the
solution.
Technique for Solving
The procedure for solving linear equations in one variable is summarized in the
following box.
* If fractions are present, we multiply each side by the L.C.M. of the
denominators to eliminate them.
* To remove parentheses we use the distributive property.
* Combine alike terms, if any, on both sides.
* Use the addition property of equality (add or subtract) to get all the variables on
left side and constants on the other side.
* Use the multiplicative property of equality to isolate the variable.
* Verify the answer by replacing the variable in the original equation.
Example 1
· . 3x x-2 25
Solve the equation - - - - =-
' 2 3 6
Solution
Multiplying each side of the given equation by 6, the L.C.M. of denominators 2,
3 and 6 to eliminate fractions, we get
9x - 2(x - 2) = 25
=> 9x - 2x + 4 = 25
=> 7x = 21
=> x =3
Check
Substituting x .= 3 in original equation,
l (3) - 3 - 2 =25
2 3 6
9 1 25
2-3 =6
625 =625 , W hiCh.IS true
Since x = 3 makes the original statement true, therefore the solution is correct.
Note: Some fractional equations may have no solution.
Linear Equations and Inequalities 132
Example2
3
Solve - - - 2 = _lL, y ;;e 1
y-l y-l
Solution
To clear fractions we multiply both sides by the L.C.M. =y - 1 artd get
3 - 2(y- 1) = 3y
=> 3-2y + 2 =3y
=> -Sy =-5
=> y =1
Check
Substituting y = 1 in the given equation, we have
_3_ - 2 = ]ill_
1-1 1-1
1_2 3
0 = 0
But~ is undefined. So y = 1 cannot be a solution.
Thus the given equation has no solution.
Example3
3x- l 2x
Solve - - - - - = x , x# 1
3 x- l
Solution
To clear fractions we multiply each side by 3(x - 1) with the assumption that
x - 1 ;;e 0 i.e., x ;;e 1, and get
(x - 1) (3x - 1) - 6x = 3x(x - 1)
2
4x + 1 - 6x =3x - 3x
2
=> 3x -
=> - IOx + 1 = -3x

-7x =-1
1
x--
-7
Check
1
On substituting x = 7 the original equation is verified a true statement. That
means the restriction x ;;e 1 has no effect on the solution because t ;;e I.
.
Hence our solution x =71.1s correct.
133 Mathematics 9
7.1.3 Equations Involving Radicals but Reducible to Linear Form

Definition
Raising each side of tl}.e equation to a certain power .may produce a
nonequivalent equation that has more solutions than the original equation. These
additional solutions are called extraneeus solutions. We must check our answer(s) for
such solutions when working with raqic~equations.
When raising each side of the equation to a certain power may produce a
nonequivalent equation that has more . solutions than the original equation. These
additional solutions are called extraneous solutions. We must check our answer(s) for
such solutions when working with radical e9uations.
Note: An important point to be noted is that raising each side to an odd power will
always give an equivalent equation; whereas raising each side to an even power might
not do so.
Example 1
Solve the equations
(a) '12x-3-7=0 (b) 13x+5=1x-l

Solution
(a) To isolate the radical, we can rewrite the given equation as
'12x-3 =7
=> 2x-3 =49 ...... (squaring each side)
=> 2x = 52 => x = 26
Check
Let us substitute x =26 in the original equation. Then
-v 2(26) - 3 - 7 = 0
'152-3-7 =0
--./49-7 =0
0 =0
Hence the solution set is {26}.
(b) We have
13x+ 5 =1x- l ...... (given)

=> 3x+ 5 =x- l ...... (taking cube of each side)
=> 2x =-6 => .X=-3
Check
We substitute x = - 3 in the original equation. Then
Unear Equations and Inequalities 134
~3(-3)+5 =~-3-1 => ~=~

Thus x =-3 satisfies the original equation.
Here ~ is a real number because we raised each side of the equation to an
odd power.
Thus the solution set= {-3}
Example2
Solve and check: '1sx- 7 -'1x + 10 = 0
Solution
When two terms of a radical equation contain variables in the ·radicand, we
express the equation such that only one of these terms is on each side. So we rewrite
the equation in this form to get
'1sx-1='1x+10
5x- 7 = x + 10, ...... (squaring each side)
17
4x = 17 => x--4-
Check
Substituting x = ¥-in original equation.
'1 sx - 7 - '1 x+ 10 =O
'1,...-5~(~. .7. .,)~--7 -~ =0
Vi-VJ 0 =0
=0
. 17 ak th . .
1.e., x = 4 m es e given equation a true statement'.
Thus solution set = { ~}.

Example3
Solve '1x + 7 + '1x + 2 = '1ru: + 13
135 Mathematics 9
Solution
'1x+ 7 +'1x+ 2 ='16x + 13
Squaring both sides we get
x + 7 + x + 2 + 2 '1~<x-
. +_7_)(_x_+_2_) = 6x + 13·
2
~ 2 '1x + 9x + 14 = 4x + 4
2
~ '1x + 9x + 14 = 2x + 2
Squaring again
2
x + 9x + 14 = 4x2 + 8x + 4
~
2
3x - x - 10 =0
~
2
3x - 6x + 5x - 10 = 0
~ 3x(x - 2) + 5(x - 2) =0
~ (x - 2) (3x + 5) =0
5
~ x=2,-3
On checking, we see that x =2 satisfies the equation, but x =- j does not

satisfy the equation. ·So solution set is {2} and x =- j is an extraneous root.
EXERCISE 7.1
1. Solve the following equations.
(l') 2 1 1 x-3 x-2
3x-2x=x+6 (ii) -3---2-=-1
(iii) .!.2 (x -.!.) + ~ = ~ + .!. (.!.- 3x) (iv) x+~=2(x-i)-6x

6 3 6 3 2
_5(.;_x_-_3_._) _ x _ _ ~ x 2x
(v) 6 - 1 9 (vi) . - =2--- , x:t=2
3x- 6 x- 2
2x 2 5 5 1 5 2
(vii)
2x + 5 = 3- 4x + 10 ' x *- 2 """) 2x
(vm x-1 +3=6+ x- l' x:t= 1
. )
(IX 2 _ _+1_
_2_ 1
1=-+1' x=t= ±1 2 1 1
x - l x x (x) 3x + 6 =6- 2x + 4 ' x :;t - 2
2. Solve each equation and check for extraneous solution, if any.

(i) ...j3x + 4 =2 (ii) ~2x - 4 - 2 =0
(iii)vx- 3 -7 = o (iv) 2--[t+4 = 5
(v) ~2x + 3 = ~x-·2 (vi) ~2 - t = 12t - 28
(vii) '12t + 6 - '12t - 5 = 0 (V~ll···)--\J2x+S=

GIL 2 ,X=#=-2s
7.2 Equation Involving Absolute Value
Another type of linear equation is the one that contains absolute value. To solve
equations involving absolute value we first give the following definition.
7.2.1 Definition
The absolute value of a real number 'a' denoted by lal, is defined as
a, if a~O
lal=
{
-a,
if a< 0
e.g., 161=6, 101=0 and 1-61=-(-6)=6
Some properties of Absolute Value
If a, b E R, then
(i) I a I~ 0 (ii) I -a I = I a I
(iii) I ab I = I a I · I b I (iv) I : I = :: : . b *a
7.2.2 Solving Linear Equations Involving Absolute Value
Keeping in mind the definition of absolute value we can immediately say that
Ix I= 3 is equivalent to x = 3 or x = -3,
because x = +3 or x = -3 make I x I = 3 a true statement.
For solving an equation involving absolute value, we express the given
equation as an equivalent compound sentence .and solve each part separately.
Example 1
Solve and check, 12x :I- 31 = 11
Solution
By definition, depending on whether (2x + 3) is positive or negative the given
equation is equivalent to
+(2x + 3) = 11 or -(2x + 3) = 11
In practice, these two equations are usually written as
2x + 3 =+ 11 or 2x + 3 =-11
2x =8 or 2x = -14
x =4 or x =-7
137 Mathematics 9
Check
Substituting x = 4, in the original equation, we get
12(4) + 31 = 11
i.e., 11 = 11, true
Now substituting x = -7, we have
12(-7) + 31 = 11
1-111 = 11
11 = 11,
true
Hence x = 4, - 7 are the solutions to the given equation.
or Solution set= {-7, 4}
Note: For an equation like 31x - 11 - 6 = 8, do not forget to isolate the absolute value
expression on one side of the equation before writing the equivalent equations. In the
equation under consideration we must first write it as
Ix- 11=14/3
Example2
Solve 18x - 31 = 14x + 51
Solution
Since two numbers having the same absolute value are either equal or differ in
sign, therefore, the given equation is equivalent to
8x - 3 = 4x + 5 or 8x - 3 =-(4x + 5)
4x =8 or 12x =-2
x =; 2 or x =-1/6
. 1
On checking we find that x =2, x = - 6 both satisfy the original equation.
Hence the solution set = { - i ,2 } .
~ometimes it may happen that the solution(s) obtained do not satisfy the
original equation. Such solution(s) (called extraneous) must be rejected. Tht!refore, it
is always advisable to check the solutions in the original equation.
Example 3
Solve and check 13x + 101 =5x + 6
Solution
The given equation is equivalent to
± (3x + 10) = 5x + 6
i.e., 3x + 10 = 5x + 6 or 3x + 10 = -(5x+ 6)
-2x =-4 or 8x =-16
x =2 or x =-2
On checking in the original equation we see that x =-2 does not satisfy it.
Hence the only solution is x = 2.
EXJ;RCISE 7.2
1. Identify the following statements as True or False.
(i) Ix I= 0 has only one solution.
(ii) All absolute value equations have two solutions.
(iii) The equation Ix I= 2 is equivalent to x = 2 or x = -2.
(iv) The equation Ix- 41 = -4 has no solution.
(v) The equation 12x - 31 = 5 is equivalent to 2x - 3 = 5 or 2x + 3 = 5.
2. Solve for x
(i) 13x - 51 =4 (ii) k13x + 21 - 4 =11
(iii) 12x + .51 = 11 (iv) 13+2xl=16x- 71
(v) Ix+ 21 - 3 = 5 - Ix+ 21 (vi) k Ix+ 31 + 21 = 9
(vii) 13 ~5x I -t=~ ( ... ) Ix+

Vlll
2-x
51 -- =6
7.3 Linear Inequalities

In Unit 2 we discussed an important comparing property of ordering real
numbers. This order relation helps us to compare two real numbers 'a' and 'b' when
*
a b. This comparability is of primary importanc-e in many applications. We may
compare prices, heights, weights, temperatures, distances, costs of manufacturing,
distances, time etc. The inequality symbols < and > were introduced by an English
mathematician Thomas Harriot (1560- 1621).
7.3.1 Defining Inequalities
~
Let a, b be real numbers. Then a is greater than b if the difference a - b is

positive and we denote this order relation by the inequality a > b. An equivalent
statement is that in which bis less than a, symbolised by b <a_. Similarly, if a - bis
negative, then a is less than band expressed in symbols as a< b.
Sometimes we know that one number is either less than another number or
equal to it. But we do not know which one is the case. In such a situation we use the
symbol "~" which is read as "less than or equal to". Likewise, the symbol "~" is used
to mean "greater than or equal to". The symbols <, >, ~ and ~ are also called
inequality signs. The inequalities x > y and x < y are known as strict (or strong)
inequalities whereas the inequalities x ~ y and y ~ x are called non-.strict (or weak).
139 Mathematics 9
If we combine a <:: b and b < e we get a double inequality written in a compact

form as a < b < e which means "b lies between a and e" and read as "a is less than b
less than c". Similarly, "a$ b $ e" is read as "bis between a and e, inclusive."
A linear inequality in one variable x is an inequality in which the variable x
occurs only to the first power and has the standard form
ax + b < 0, a :;e 0
where a and bare real numbers. We may replace the symbol< by>,~ or;::: also.
7 .3.2 Properties of Inequalities
The properties of inequalities which we are going to use in solving linear
inequalities in one variable are as under.
1 Law of Trichotomy
For any a, b e R, one and only one of the following statements is true.
a b
An important special case of this property is the case for b =O; namely,
a < 0 or a = 0 or a > 0 for any a e R.
2 Transitive Property
Let a, b, e E R.
(i) If a > b and b > e, then a > e
(ii) If a b, then a + e > b + e
If a < b, then a + e 0 and b > 0, then a + b > 0
If a < 0 and b < 0, then a + b < 0
4 Multiplicative Property
Let a, b, e, de R
(i) If a > 0 and b > 0, then ab > 0, whereas a < 0 and b < 0 => ab > O
(ii) If a > b and e > 0, then ae > be
or if a 0, then ae < be
(iii) If a > b and e < 0, then ae < be
or if a be
The above property (iii) states that the sign of inequality is reversed if each side
is multiplied by a negative real number.
(iv) If a> band e > d, then ae > bd
7 .4. Solving Linear Inequalities

The method of solving an algebraic inequality in one variable is explained with
the help of following examples.
Example 1
Solve 9 - 7x > 19 - 2x, where x E R.
Solution
9-7x > 19-2x
9-5x > 19 (Adding 2x to each side)
-5x > 10 (Adding-9 to each side)
x <- 2 ... .. .. (Multiplying each side by ....: l)
' 5
Hence the solution set = { x I x < - 2}
Example2
1 2 1 .
Solve 2x - 3::;; x + 3 , where x E R.
Solution
1 2 1
2x-3::;;x+3
To clear fractions we multiply each side by 6, the L.C.M. of 2 and 3 and get
or 3x - 4 ::;; 6x + 2
or 3x::;; 6x + 6
or -3x ::;; 6
or x ~-2
Hence the solution set = {x I x ~ -2}.

Example3
1-2x
Solve the double inequality - 2 < < 1, where x E R.
3
Solution
The given inequality is a double inequality and represents two separate
inequalities
1-2x 1-2x
-2 < -- and -.-- < 1
3 3
141 Mathematics 9
1-2.x
-2<-3-<l
or -6<1-2.x <3
or -7< -2.x <2
7
or -> x >-1
2
i.e., -1< x < 3.5
So the solution set is {x I - 1 < x < 3.5}.
Example4
Solve the inequality 4x - 1 ::;; 3 ::;; 7 + 2.x, where x E R.
Soluti(m
The given inequality holds if and· only if both the separate inequalities
4x - 1 ::;; 3 and 3 ::;; 7 + 2x hold. We solve each of these inequalities separately.
The first inequality 4x - 1 ::;; 3
gives 4x::;; 4 i.e., x::;; 1 ...... (i)
and the second inequality 3 ::;; 7 +2x yields -4 ::;; 2x
i.e., -2::;; x which implies x ~ -2 ...... (ii)
Combining (i) and (ii), we have -2::;; x::;; 1
Thus the. solution set = {x I -2 ::;; x ::;; 1 } .
EXERCISE 7.3
1. Solve the following inequalities.
(i) 3x + 1 < 5x - 4 (ii) 4x - 10.3 ::;; 21x - 1.8
. . 1
... ) 4 1
(111 1
-2x~-7+4x (iv) x - 2(5 - 2.x) ~ 6x - 32
3x+ 2 2.x+ 1
(v) -9---3->-l (vi) 3(2.x + 1) - 2(2.x + 5) < 5 (3x - 2)
2 2 1
(vii) 3(x- 1) - (x - 2) > - 2(x + 4) (viii) 2 3 x + 3 (5x - 4) > - 3 (8x + 7)
2. Solve the following inequalities.
(i) - 4 < 3x + 5 < 8 (ii) - 5 ::;; 4 ~ 3x < 1

x-2 7-x
(iii) - 6 < - - < 6 (iv) 3 ~--~ 1
4 2
x-4
( v) 3x - 10 ~ 5 < x + 3 (vi) -3 ~-=-5<4
(vii) 1 - 2x < 5 - x ~ 25 - 6x (viii) 3x- 2 < 2x + 1<4x + 17
REVIEW EXERCISE 7
1. Choose the correct answer.
(i) Which of the following is the solution of the inequality 3 - 4x ~ 11? ..... .
14
(a) -8 (b) -2 (c) (d) None of these
4
(ii) A statement involving any of the symbols <, >, ~or~ is called
(a) equation (b) identity
(c) inequality · (d) linear equation
(iii) x = ...... is a solution of the inequality -2 < x < ~.

3
(a) -5 (b) 3 (c) 0 (d) 2
(iv) If xis no larger than 10, then ... . . .
(a) x2'.8 (b) x~lO (c) x < 10 (d) x> 10
(v) If the capacity c of an elevator is at most 1600 pounds, then ..... .
(a) c < 1600 (b) c 2'. 1600 (c) c ~ 1600 (d) c > 1600
(vi) x =0 is a solution of the inequality ..... .
(a) x>O (b) 3x+5<0
(c) x+2<0 (d) x-2<0
2. Identify the following statements as True or False.
(i) The equation 3x - 5 = 7 - x is a linear equation.
(ii) Th equation x - 0.3x =O.?x is an identity.
(iii) The equation -2x + 3 =8 is equivalent to -2x = 11.
(iv) To eliminate fractions, we multiply each side of an equation by the L.C.M.
of denominators.
(v) 4(x + 3) =x + 3 is a conditioncil equation.
(vi) The equation 2(3x + 5) = 6x + 12 is an inconsistent equation.
(vii)To solve j x = 12, we should multiply each side by j.

(viii) Equations having exactly the same solution are called equivalent
equations.
(ix) A solution that does not satisfy the original equation is called extraneous
solution.
143 Mathematics 9
3. Answer the foil owing short questions.

(i) Define a linear inequality in one variable.
(ii) State the trichotomy and transitive properties of inequalities.
(iii) The formula relating degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius is F = 59 C + 32.

For what value of C is F < O?
(iv) Seven times the sum of an integer and 12 is at least 50 and at most 60. Write
and solve the inequality that expresses this relationship.
4. Solve each of the following and check for extraneous solution, if any,
(i) '12t + 4 = FJ @) '13x- 1 - 2~8 - 2x =0
5. Solve for x
(i) f3x + 141- 2 = 5x (ii) j Ix - 31 =~ Ix + 21
6. Solve the following inequality
1 l -2x 1
") - 3 <-5-<
(1') -3x+ 5 <- 1 (11
SUMMERY
* Linear Equation in one variable x is ax + b = 0 where a, b E R, a -:/:. 0.
* . Solution to an equation js that value of x which makes it a true statement.
* Two linear equations _ar~d equivalent if they have ex~ctly the same solution.
* An inconsistent equation is that whose--so!ution set is q,. '
* Additive property of equality: .
If a =·b, then a + c =b + c
and a-e=b-e, Va,b,ee R
* Multiplicative property of equality: If a= b, then ae =be
* Cancellation property: If a+ e =b + e, then a= b
If ae = be, e -:t. 0 then a = b, V a, b, e E R .
* To solve an equation we find a sequence of equivalent equations to isolate the
variable x on one side of the equali~ to get solution.
* , A radical equation is that in which the variable occurs under the radical. It must
be checked for any extraneous solution(s).
* Absolute value of a real number a is defined as
a, if a~O
lal=
{ -a, if a<O
* Properties of Absolute value:

If a, b E R, then
(i) I a I:?.'. 0
(ii) I -a I = I a I
(iii) I ab I = I a I · I b I
. lab I=Thi
(1v)
la I
, b*0
(v) Ix I= a is equivalent to x =a or x =-a
* Inequality symbols are < , > , ~ , :?.'.
* A linear inequality in one variable x is ax + b < 0, a *0
* Properties of Inequality:
(a) Law of Trichotomy
If a, b E R then a b
(b) Transitive law
If a > b and b > e, then a> e
(c) Multiplication and division:
(i) If a > b, e > 0, then ae > be and~>!!..

e e
a b
(ii) If a > b, e < 0, then ae < be and - < -
e e
Units
LINEAR GRAPHS & THEIR APPLICATION
Unit Outlines
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Cartesian Plane
8.3 Conversion Graphs
8.4 Graphical Solution of Equations in two variables.

* identify pair of real numbers as an ordered pair.
* recognize an ordered pair through different examples.
* describe rectangular or Cartesian plane consisting of two number lines
interesting at right angles at the point 0.
* identify origin (0) and coordinate axes (horizontal and vertical axes or x-axis
and y-axis) in the rectangular plane.
* locate an ordered pair (a, b) as a point in the rectangular plane and recognize.
• a as the x-coordinate (or abscissa),
• b as the y-coordinate (or ordinate).
* draw different geometrical shapes (e.g., line segment, triangle and rectangle
etc.) by joining a set of given points.
* construct a table for pairs of values satisfying a linear equation in two variables.
* plot the pairs of points to obtain the graph of a given expression.
* choose an appropriate scale to draw a graph.
* draw a graph of
• an equation of the form y = c,
• an equation of the form·x = a,
• an equation of the form y = mx,
• an equation of the form y =mx + c.
* draw a graph from a given table of (discrete) values.
* solve appropriate real life problems.
* interpret conversion graph as a linear graph relating to two quantities which are
in direct proportion.
* read a given graph to know one quantity corresponding to another.
* read the graph for conversions of the form. ·
• miles and kilometers,
145
Linear Graphs and Their Application 146
• acres and hectares,

• degrees Celsius and degrees Fahrenheit,
• Pakistani currency and @other currency, etc.
* solve simultaneous linear equations in two variables using graphical method.
8.1 Cartesian Plane and Linear Graphs
8.1.1 An Ordered Pair of Real Numbers
An ordered pair of real numbers x and y is a pair (x, y) in which elements are
written in specific order, ·
i.e., (i) (x, y) is an ordered pair in which first element is x and second is y.
such that (x, y) -::t (y, x) where, x -::t y.
(ii) (2, 3) and (3, 2) are two different ordered pairs.
(iii) (x, y) = (m, n) only if x = m and y = n.
8.1.2 Recognizing an Ordered Pair
In the class room the seat of a student is the example of an ordered pair. For
example, the seat of the student A is 5th place in the 3rd row, so it corresponds to the
ordered pair (3, 5). Here 3 shows the number of the row and 5 shows its seat number
in this row.
Similarly an ordered pair (4, 3) represents a seat located to a student A in the
examination hall at the 4th row and 3rd column i.e., 3rd place in the 4th row.
8.1.3 Cartesian Plane
A cartesian plane establishes one-to-one correspondence between the set of
ordered pairs R x R ={(x, y) I x, y e R} and the points of the Cartesian plane.
In plane two mutually perpendicular straight lines are drawn. The lines are
called the coordinate axes. The point 0, where the two lines meet is called origin.
This plane is called the coordinate plane or the Cartesian plane.
8.1.4 Identification of Origin and Co- I
ordiante Axes y
The horizontal line XOX' is called the
x-axis and the vertical line YOY' is called the
y-axis. The point 0 where the x-axis and y-
axis meet is called the origin and it is denoted
by 0(0, 0). x' 0( J,q x-
We have noted that each point in the
plane either lies on the axes of the coordinate
plane or in any one of quadrants of the plane
namely XOY, YOX', X'OY' and Y'OX y'
respectively called the first, second, third and '
147 Mathematics 9
fourth quadrant of the plane subdivided by the coordinate axes of the plane.
They are denoted by Q-1, Q-11, Q-ID and Q-IV respectively.
The signs of the coordinates of the points {x, y) are shown below;
y.
r TT r T
-- ... ~
y y ()
-- 11
v >O v >O
x -
0 I{
'<
y i<'l1
TTl
~~·
r.
'<.
y > ()
T'7
~ .
y kO y co
.
y
e.g., 1. The point (-3, -1) lies in Q-ID. 2. The point (2, -3) lies in Q-IV.
3. The point (2, 5) lies in Q-1. 4. The point (2, 0) lies on x-ixis.
8.1.S Location of the point P(a, b) in the Plane corresponding to the Ordered
Pair (a, b)
Let (a, b) be an ordered pair of Rx R.
j
_,
~
ill(- - -- r--.' Pl ti, )
t
.....
,,,.. I
I
I
.i
.)
I
i
-'
~
' 0 1 •
2 )
--
,,
(
.
-
In the reference system, the real number a is measured along x-axis, OA = a
units away from the origin along OX (if a > 0) and the real number b along y-axis,
OB= b units away from the origin along OY (if b > 0). From Bon OY, draw the line
parallel to x-axis and from A on OX draw line parallel to y-axis. Both the lines meet
at the point P. Then the point P corresponds to the ordered pair (a, b).
In the graph shown above 2 is the x-coordinate and 3 is the y-coordinate of the
point P which is denoted by P(2, 3).
In this way coordinates of each point in the plane are obtained.
The x-coordinate of the point is called abscissa of the point P(x, y) and the
y-coordinate is called its ordinate.
1. Each point P of the plane can be identified by the coordinates of the pair (x, y)
and is represented by P(x, y) .
'2. All the points of the plane have y-coordinate, y = 0 if they lie on the x-axis.
i.e., P(-2, 0) lies on thex-axis.
3. All the points of the plane have x-coordinate x = 0 if they lie on the y-axis,
i.e., Q(O, 3) lies on the y-axis.
8.1.6 Drawing different Geometrical Shapes in Cartesian Plane
We define first the idea of collinear points before going to form geometrical
shapes.
y (~ ,6)
(a) Line-Segment
[7
Example 1:
/
Let P(2, 2) and Q(6, 6) be two points. /
1. Plot points P and Q. /
2. By joining the points P and Q, we get the line Ir<2. 2)
segment PQ. It is represented by PQ. 0 x
,,
Example 2: y
Plot points P(2, 2) and Q(6, 2). By joining
them, we get a line segment PQ parallel to
x-axis,
where ordinate of both points is equal.
JP<2 2~ 0(6 2~
,_
0
, x
149 Mathematics 9
Example3:
Plot poin~s P(3, 2) and Q(3, 7). By joining y
£V" ,_., '7'\
them, we get a line segment PQ parallel to

'<.
'
y-axis.
In this graph abcissas of both the points are
equal.
'
~,
& ' ' & f
-,
0 x
,'
(b) Triangle
Example 1: y
Plot the points P(3, 2), Q(6, 7) and •l(tl ~ -,
R(9, 3). By joining them, we get a triangle I [\..
PQR. I
r\.
I \
"\
I
P(3 2)
I
-- ~
- lt
(9 3)
0
, x
Example 2: ~ ~
&
For points 0(0, 0), P(3, 0) and R(3, 3), ll(: ,3)
the triangle OPR is constructed as shown by v
the side. v
v -
,
0( 0, t) )(3 0) J
.
~~
-,
(c) Rectangle
Example: .v
Plot the points P(2, 3), Q(2, 0), S(-2, 0) E -~ ,3) P( ~.3
and R(-2, 3). Joining the points P, Q, Sand R, N.s b<> ~
'°~
~
we get a rectangle PQSR. ' t\ J
Along y-axis,
-
J
\ I
J\
-
JC
2 (length of square) = 1 unit I/

' II.
.
J
1,(9 'j> Qi I°~ -

-,.
: ~'~ -, ,0) 0 Q( ~.o )
.~y
8.1.7 Construction of a Table for Pairs of Values satisfying a Linear Equation

in Two Variables.
Let 2x + y = 1 (i)
be a linear equation in two variables x and y.
The ordered pair (x, y) satisfies the equation and by varying x, corresponding y
is obtained.
We express (i) in the form
IY =-2.x + 11 (ii)
The pairs (x, y) which satisfy (ii) are tabulated below.
x y (x, y)
-1 3 (-1, 3) atx = -1, y = (-2)(-1) + 1=2 + 1=3
0 1 (0, 1) at x = 0, y = (-2)(0) + 1 = 0 + 1 = 1
1 -1 (1, -1) atx= 1, y = (-2)(1) + 1=-2+1 =-1
3 -5 (3, -5) at x = 3, y = -6 + 1 = :_5
Similarly all the points can be computed, the ordered pa,irs of which do satisfy
the equation (i).
8.1.8 Plotting the points to get the graph
Now we plot the points obtained in the table. Joining these points we get the
graph of the equation. The graph of y = -2x + 1 is shown on the next page.
151 Mathematics 9
l y
\
L.., ,_ ~ I.. r
~
....
\
f _, r.n\
' ~,
, \
-3 -2 -1
' \(0 11) 2 3
x 0 \ tx
~1 )
\
\
\ (~
-.,- -li\
\
\
IY~ ~
8.1.9 Scale of Graph

To draw the graph of an equation we choose a scale e.g., 1 cm represents 5
meters or 1 small square length represents 10 or ~ meters. It is selected by keeping in
mind the size of the paper. Some times the same scale is used for both x and y
coordinates and some times we use different scales for x and y-coordinate depending
on the values of the coordinates.
8.1.10 Drawing Graphs of the following Equations
(a) y = c, where c is constant.
(b) x = a, where a is constant.
(c) y =mx, where mis constant.
(d) y = mx + c, where m and c both are constants.
By drawing the graph of an equation is meant to plot those points in the plane,
which foriil the graph of the equation (by joining the plotted points).
(a) The equation y = c is formed in the plane by the set,
S = {(x, c): x lies on the x-axis} c RxR.
The procedure is explained with the help of following examples.
Consider the eqqation y =2
The set S is tabulated as;
I ; I ....~.... ~
2
The points of S are plotted in the plane.
-- ~·
.l
l s 14 12 1
-
~
6 R3 1 ~
, -
K' -3 - ~ -1 0 J
-
v'
,
Similarly graph ·of y = -4 is shown as:
..
......_
'
-~
v
A
,
-
-- ... ...
,,
- .' -] 0 '
" 3
-1
"'' _..I
\
-
~
,,, y= -4
-
A
,. r-.
So, the graph of the equation of the type y = c is obtained .is:

(i) the straight line
(ii) the line is parallel to x-axis
(iii) the line is above the x-axis at a distance c units if c > 0
(iv) the line (shown as y =-4) is below the x-axis at the distance c units as c < 0
(v) the line is that of x-axis at the distance c units if c =0
(b) The equation, x = a is drawn in the plane by the points of the set
S = {(a, y): y E R}
The points of S are tabulated as follows:
x
y
153 Mathematics 9
The points of S are plotted in the plane as, ... (a, -2), (a, -1), (a, 0), (a, 1),
(a, 2), ... etc.
The point (a, 0) on the graph of the equation x =a lies on the x-axis while (a, y)
is above the x-axis if y > 0 and below the x-axis if y < 0. By joining the points, we get
the line.
Consider the equation x =2
Table for the points of equation is as under:
x 2 2 2 ... 2 ...
y 0 1 2
Thus, graph of the equation x = 2 is shown as: ~
I
17 -- ~
_,_
! J.
y "I
\_-W
·~
-
i
,_
l
'£ L.
- 0 ·~
-
x
i.)
- Tf
" -
'£'I
-
'J.'
Ii Iv' r
I I
"
Similarly graph for equation x =-2 is shown as:
}~
I
Ir= -2
J
-- {' 0 x
,,.
v!
1•
So, the graph of the equation of the type x =a is obtained as:

-
(ii) the line parallel to the y-axis
(iii) the line is on the right side of y-axis at distance "a" units if a> 0.
(iv) the line x =-2 is on the left side of y-axis at the distance a units as a< 0.
(v) the line is y-axis if a = 0.
(c) The equation y =mx, (for a fixed m E R) is formed by the points of the set
W= {(x,mx): XE R}
i.e., W = {... , (-2, -2m), (-1, -m), (0, 0), (1, m), (2, 2m), ... }.
The points corresponding to the ordered pairs of the set W are tabulated below:
I; I·.::::::: 1-~: I=~ I ~ I~ I2: I:::::::: I

Consider the equation y =x, where m = 1
Table of points for equation is as under:
I ::: I =~ I =: I
x 0 1 2
y 0 1 2
The points are plotted in the plane as follows:
_.}• i.v = l a:
I
...... /
v l.l\· ,"J.
-~
1 /
~
v P(l ,1)
-- .. '- 2 -1 v
/
u z )
--
/
/ R(- 1, 1)
/
¥ s(- 2, - 2) y'
H
By joining the plotted points the graph of the equation of the type y = mx is,
(ii) it passes through the origin 0(0, 0)
(iii) mis the slope of the line
(iv) the graph of line splits the plane into two equal ·parts. If m = 1 then the line
becomes the graph of the equation y = x.
155 Mathematics 9
(v) If m = -1 then line is the graph of the equation y =-x.

(vi) the line meets both the axes at the origin and no other point.
(d) Now we move to a generalized form of the equation, i.e.,
y =mx + c, where m, c:;:. 0.
The points corresponding to the ordered pairs of the set
S = {(x, mx + c): m, c (:t-0) E R} are tabulated below
I ; I ~ Im~c I~+c I 3~+c I:::::: I:+c I:::::::: I

Consider the equation
y =x + 1, where m = 1, c = 1
We get the table
I; I:::~I ~
These points are plotted in plane as below:
2
3
3
4
_.:~ J = rnx- c
J.
lJf
/. ,·r3 1-',. ·)
...~. µ)
I/
P<O 1) v CJ ..... "''
lA .
v
~
0 ·D - ~
"'
'\. r- D
"
v
JI'
1-v'
- •It
We see that
(i) y =mx + c represents the graph of a line.
(ii) It does not pass through the origin 0(0, 0).
(iii) It has intercept c units along the y-axis away from the origin.
(iv) mis the slope of the line whose equation is y =mx + c.
In particular if
(i) c = 0, then y =mx passes through the origin.
(ii) m =0, then the line y =c is parallel to x-axis.
8.1.11 Drawing Graph from a given Table of Discrete Values

If the points are discrete the graph is ... ,.
just the set of points. The points are not
joined.
l,j :J)
For example, the following table of ( 3, 3)
-
~
discrete values is plotted as: :

!
~ I ~31 ~: I =~ I
~
~) ' - 2- 1. 0 1 3
-
.:-
-~
'
I; I -
~
.
So, the dotted square shows the graph H. 3)
~
- °(3 -31
of discrete values.
·' ,,
8.1.12 Solving Real Life Problems ,,.
We often use the graph to solve the real life i
T
problems. With the help of graph, we can

= + 16
determine the relation or trend between the both
?'
quantities.
v
We learn the procedure of drawing graph of ,,.,-
""
/
-
real life problems with the help of following ,0 /
examples. · '>A v
. Example: /
-/
'"
,,.
Equation y =x + 16 shows the relationship betw~en ~
the ages of two persons i.e., if the age of one person ·-"'
"u
I
is x , then the age of other person is y -Draw the g@ph.
.
Solution
We know that y =x + 16
-
~
0 ' : 1~ 16 x --
1•
Table of points for equation is given as:
x 16
y 32
By plotting the points we get the graph of a straight line as shown in the figure.
EXERCISE 8.1
1. Determine the quadrant of the coordinate plane in which the following points
lie: P(-4, 3), Q(-5, -2), R(2, 2) and S(2, -6).
2. Draw the graph of each of the following.
(i) x =2 (ii) x =-3 (iii) y = -1
(iv) y = 3 (v) y = 0 (vi) x = 0
1
(vii) y = 3x (viii) -y = 2x (ix) 2 = x
157 Mathematics 9
(x) 3y 5x= (xi) 2x-y = 0 (xii) 2x - y =2

(xiii) x - 3y + 1 =0 (xiv) 3x-2y + 1 = 0
3. Are the following lines (i) parallel to x-axis (ii) parallel to y-axis?
(i) 2x - 1 = 3 (ii) x + 2 = -1 (iii) 2y + 3 = 2
(iv) x + y = 0 (v) 2x- 2y = 0
4. Find the value of m and c of the following lines by expressing them in the form
y=mx+c.
(a) 2x+3y-1=0 (b) x-2y=-2 (c) 3x+y- l =0
(d) 2x - y =7 (e) 3-2x+y=O (f) 2x=y+3
5. Verify whether the following point lies on the line 2x - y + 1 = 0 or not.
(i) (2, 3) (ii) (0, 0) (iii) (-1, 1)
(iv) (2, 5) (v) (5, 3)
8.2 Conversion Graphs

8.2.1 To Interpret Conversion Graph
In this section we shall consider conversion graph as a linear graph relating to
two quantities which are in direct proportion.
Let y = f(x) be an equation in two variables x and y.
We demonstrate the ordered paits which lie on the graph of the equation
= 3x + 3 and are tabulated belcfW:'' ·
x ... 0 -1 -2 ...
y ... J- 0 -3 ...
(x, y) ... (0, 3) (-1, 0) (-2, -3) ...
By plotting the points in the plane corresponding to the ordered pairs (0, 3),
(-1, 0) and (-2, -3) etc. we form the graph of the equation y = 3x + 3.
""'
-. /.J _·.
ix+ 3
I
"
• lV, P)
..i
-1. ~) !.
- ~I ~ .
~j , -3 -2 -} 0 1 2 3 r~
...
I _,.,--
_1
,_,., ,_~,I
-
~
J A
~ .I
I 1r
8.2.2 Reading a given Graph

From the graph of y = 3x + 3 as shown above:
(i) for a given value of x we can read the corresponding value of y with the help of
equation y =3x + 3, and
(ii) for a given value of y we can read the corresponding value of x, by converting
equation y = 3x + 3 to equation x =~y - 1 and draw the corres~onding
conversion graph.
In the conversion graph we express x in terms of y as explained below.
y = 3x+ 3
:::::} y - 3 =3x + 3 - 3
:::::} y - 3 =3x or 3x =y - 3
1
:::::} x =3 y - 1, where xis expressed in terms of y.
We tabulate the values of the dependent variable x at the values of y.
y ... 3 0 6 ...
x ... 0 -1 1 ...
(y, x) ... (3, 0) (0, -1) (6, 1) ...
The conversion graph of x with respect to y is displayed as below:
_
.n.
..
.
£
3, ~L v
,6, ~L
.......
... x= +. v-1
-
~ vr
~
,~
r' -1 ' 11
.... ......- lU, ,_.l)
v'
,.
8i2.3 Reading the Graphs of Conversion
(a) Example: (Kilometre (Km) and Mile (M) Graphs)
To draw the graph between kilometre (Km) and Mile (M), we use the
following relation:
One kilometre = 0.62 miles, (approximately)
and one mile = 1.6 km (approximately)
159 Mathematics 9
(i) The relation of mile against kilometre is given by the linear equation,
y =0.62x,
If y is a mile and x, a kilometre, then we tabulate the ordered pairs (x, y) as
below;
I; I~ I o.~2 I 1.~4 I ,~6 I 2.:~·:. I

The ordered pairs (x, y) corresponding to y = 0.62x are represented in the
Cartesian plane. By joining them we get the desired following graph of miles against
kilometers.
-
--
J ~
A
T
.., y= =O .6:'x
.J
~
/
.... ~ ,... A~
/< \ .... ... J

.,.
" __,!. v --
. .... _ -- -- .... _ -- -- .c tJ)
---
~ ~ \P,
I
I • v '"C .: 1.2~ f)
·u( ~'\ .l / I
./
' ,
~
I
/
/ (] •c.6:;) I
I t / I I
.'
~
I f I
v 0 •. \7
-- ' -
~
..
~
, -
~,
, .
For each quantity of kilometre x along x-axis there corresponds mile alo~g
y-axis.
(ii) The conversion graph of kilometer against mile is given by
y = l.6x (approximately)
If y represents kilometres and x a mile, then the values x and y ~e tabulated as:
x 0 1 2 3 4 ...
y 0 1.6 3.2 4.8 6.4 ...
We plot the points in the xy-plane corresponding to the ordered pairs.

(0, 0), (1, 1.6), (2, 3.2), (3, 4.8) and (4, 6.4) as shown in figure.
'
y ..
-
I ~= .6;
~
- ) '(4 6.• .)
IU
I/
- I
l..J
J b. 4.m
I~
I/
/
/
-
.J
I
, ,,..
... "'
..J.
·'
•)
t,_ /I
1.£.
/ 1!
1,.1, 1.i.1 ')
IY(J)
11 v
I I
)
11
" v0
I
- II
~ )('
x
~ x-. ' '
'
iv~
',
By joining the points we actually find the conversion graph of kilometres
against miles.
(b) Conversion Graph of Hectares and Acres
(i) The relation between Hectare and Acre is defined as:
·640
Hectare = - - Acres
259
= 2.5 Acres (approximately)
In case when hectare =x and acre= y, then relation between them is given
by the equation, y = 2.5x
If x is represented as hectare along the horizontal axis and y as Acre along y-
axis, the values are tabulated below:
.-;~~l~~--.-1~;-5-.~l~:-.o-----.l~:-5---.l_:_o·-::-,.I
The ordered pairs (0,0), (1, 2.5), (2,5) etc., are plotted as points in the xy-plane
as below and by joining the points the required graph is obtained:
161 Mathematics 9
·Y
£
li"
v
,.
,., /
\,l(t.,
A / )
,.,,., /
JVp~ 1, '. .5
-... v
1
~v
x t •
0 1 2 3 x
y
1
(ii) Now the conversion graph Acre= - - Hectare is simplified as,
2.5
10
Acre = - Hectare
25
= 0.4 Hectare (approximately)
If Acre is measured along x-axis and hectare along y-axis, then
y = 0.4x
The ordered pairs are tabulated in the following table:
I; I~ I
1 2 3
• ' • - i,: • -. -
04
-
I 0s
.
I
,--_ ..
1 2·::
.. ...r "7" - I '
. The corresponding ordered pairs (0, 0), (1, 0.4), (2, 0.8) etc., are plotted in the .
--
xy-plane, join QLwhich
.
\i,1ill form the graph o( (b)·ii
. .. as
.
a conversion graph
.
of (b )-i
wr
'~
...
-" y~{ .4x
1
... ~·-.... _, ·-n' ....... ~ 1 1\
,.,.... .......-
,.,..,,. R( ,0. J)
......
,
~} ' 0 l J
IV~
1r
(c) Conversion Graph of Degrees Celsius and Degrees Fahrenheit

(i) The relation between degree Celsius (C) and degree Fahrenheit (F) is given by
F=2.C+32
5
The value of F at C = 0 is obtained as
F= 2_ x 0 + 32 = 0 + 32 = 32
5
Similarly,
F ~ ~ x 10 + 32 = 18 + 32 =50,
9
F = 5 x 20 + 32 = 36 + 32 = 68,
F = 2.xlOO + 32 = 180 + 32 = 212

5
We tabulate the values of C and F.
c oo 100 20° 50° 100° ...
F 32° 50° 68° 122° 212° ...
The conversion graph of F with respect to C is shown in figure .
- - - .... -~
p! .....
-- . -,_. I
,,v
__ -
II'
,--
,_
v
I
,_
, __ I ~2( '6l)
l! -
·-----
OA /
f\i• 'J '}
; lfo, 32
--
-I~~-' 01 0 • u ~ p ~ P ·o I
-
~
_.
,.,
10° = length of square
Note from the graph that the value of C corresponding to (i) F = 86° is C = 30°
and (ii) F = 104° is C = 40°.
(ii) Now we express C in terms of F for the conversion graph of C with respect to F
as below: -
C = ~ (F-32)
9
The values for F = 68° and F = 176° are
c = 95 (68 - 32) = 95 x 36 = 20°
..
163 Mathematics 9
and C= ~
(176- 32) = ~ (144) = 5 x 16 = 80°
9 ,·· . 9
Find out at what temperature will the two readings be same?
i.e., F = 2 C + 32
5
=> (~-1)c=-32 ·=> ; C=-32 =>
3 5
C= - !x =-40
To verify at C = -40, we have

9
F = -x(-40) + 32 = 9(-8) + 32 = -72 + 32 = -40°
5
(d) Conversion Graph of US$ and Pakistani Currency
The Daily News, on a particular day informed the conversion rate of Pakistani
currency to the US$ currency as,
1 US$ =66.46 Rupees
If the Pakistani currency y is an expression of US$ x, expressed under the rule
y = 66.46 x = 66x (approximately)
then draw the conversion graph.
We tabulate the values as below.
x 1 2 3 4 ... I
y 66 132 198
Plotting the points corresponding to the ordered pairs (x, y) from the above
table and joining them provides the currency linear graph of rupees against dollars as
shown in the figure.
~.' ~
£
l/I
v
~ •ft
- -
/
-- v \~, ~.,..}
/
v
• •ft
i - lj, D'~J
-,_ /l._.l;, u. :)
v
• A
,.,
-
/
1..1, ,00
, ~
•
'
.
I"
1
Conversion graph x = y of y = 66x can be shown by interchanging x-axis to
66
y-axis and vice versa.
EXERCISE 8.2
1. Draw ¢.e conversion graph between litres and gallons using the relation
9 litres = 2 gallons (approximately), and taking litres along horizontal axis and
gallons along vertical axis. From the graph, read
(i) the number of gallons in 18 litres
(ii) the number of litres in 8 gallons. · ,.
2. On 15.03.2008 the exchange rate of Pakistani currency and Saudi Riyal was as
under:
1 S. Riyal= 16.70 Rupees
If Pakistani currency y is an expression of S. Riyal x, expressed under the rule
y = 16.70x, then draw the conversion graph between these two currencies by
taking S. Riyal along x-axis.
3. Sketch the graph of each of the following lines.
(a) x- 3y + 2 = 0 (b) 3x- 2y - 1=0 (c) 2y-x + 2 =0
(d) y-2x=O (e) 3y-1=0 (f) y + 3x = 0
(g) 2x + 6 = 0
4. Draw the graph for following relations.
(i) One mile = 1.6 km (ii) One Acre = 0.4 Hectare
(iii) F = ~ C + 32 (iv) One Rupee= ; 6 $
8.3 Graphical Solution of Linear Equations in two Variables

We solve here simultaneous linear equations in two variables by graphical
method.
Let the system of equations be,
2x-y=3 ...... (i)
x + 3y = 3 ...... (ii)
Table of Values
y=2x-3
165 Mathematics 9
By plotting the poi!lts we get the following graph .

.:·
~
1
y= IJ; Tl 1f2 - =
' ,..... r-- ""-- "
~ p' o. .)/
-- r-- i-..:- ~ // 1.' ,u. IJ)
~c ,' ( ~. 0
~-.!~
~ h
K' .0 I~ -- r---: ~
'...
~
~
...~ I J
(1. ,0
Jr\\' )
£1~rf
.l r
'~
The solution of the system is the point R where the lines R and t meet at, i.e.,
R(l ·7, 0-4) such that x = 1.7 and y =0·4.
Example
Solve graphically, the following linear system of two equations in two variables
x andy;
x+ 2y = 3 ...... (i)
x-y = 2. ...... (ii)
Solution
The equations (i) and (ii) are represented graphically with the help of their
points of intersection with the coordinate axes of the same co-ordinate plane. : •
The points of intersections of the lines representing equation (i) and~i) are
given in the following table: ·
1 3
y=--x+- y=x-2
<
I; I. s I2~ :::I I ; I.::~21 ~ :::
0
The points P(O, 1·5) and Q(3, 0) of equation (i) are plotted in the plane and the
corresponding line R : x + 2y = 3 is traced by joining P and Q.
Similarly, the line .t: x - y = 2 of (ii) is obtained by plotting the points
p'(0, -2) and Q(2, 0) in the plane and joining them to trace the line R.' as below:
Linear Graphs and Their Application · 166
.l
..
r+" 11=B
xe--y =2
f, - ~
_,
1f
...........
r-..... S(2 .3, ~.3 /
P(I 1.~~ .........
"
~
\ v
~
~ D(3 0)
I'
.
~
K' 0 ~ ~ """ ......... K~

:..<.,' ') ,..
~ /.
'l.
r u, :-,t,)
~_,
P'~
v
1v '
-
1
The common point S(2.3, 0.3) on both the lines f. and f.' is the required
solution of the system.
EXERCISE 8.3
Solve the following pair of equations in x and y graphically.
1. x + y = 0 and 2x - y + 3 = 0 2. x - y + 1 =0 and x - 2y :;:: -1
3. 2x + y = 0 and x + 2y = 2 4. x + y - 1 = 0 and x - y + 1 =0
5. 2x + y - 1 = 0 and x =- y
REVIEW EXERCISE 8
(i) If (x .:_ 1, y + 1) = (0, 0), then (x, y ) is
(a) (1, -1) (b) (-1 , 1) (c) (1, 1) (d) (-1, -1 )
(ii) If (x, 0) = (0, y ), then (x , y ) is
(a) (0, 1) (b) (1 , 0) (c) (0, 0) (d) (1 , 1)
(iii) Point (2, -3) lies in quadrant
(a) I (b) II (c) m (d) IV
(iv) Point (-3, -3) lies in quadrant
(a) I (b) II (c) m (d) IV
(v) If y = 2x + 1, x = 2 then y is
(a) 1 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) 5
(vi) Which ordered pair satisfies the equation y = 2x1 '
(a) (1 , 2) (b) (2, 1) (c) (2, 2) (d) (0, 1)
2. Identify the following statements as True or False. -
(i) The point 0(0, 0) is in quadrant II.
(ii) The point P(2, 0) lies on x-axis. ·
167 Mathematics 9
(iii) The graph of x = -2 is a vertical line.

(iv) 3 -y = 0 is a horizontal line.
(v) The point Q(-1, 2) is in quadrant ill.
(vi) The point R(-1, -2) is in quadrant IV.
(vii) y =xis a line on which origin lies.
(viii) The point P(l, 1) lies on the line x + y = 0.
(ix) The point S(l, -3) lies in quadrant ill.
(x) The point R(O, 1) lies on the x-axis.
3. Draw the following points on the graph paper.
(-3, -3), (-6, 4), (4, -5), (5, 3)
4. Draw the graph of the following
(i) x =-6 (ii) y =7
5 9
(iii) x=2 (iv) y=-2
(v) y =4x (vi) y = -2x + 1

5. Draw the following graph.
(i) y =0.62x (ii) y = 2.5x·
6. Solve the following pair of equations graphically.
(I") x-y= 1, x+y=21

(ii) x =3y, 2x-3y =-6
(iii) 1+ (x y) = 2,
1
2<x-y) =-1
SUMMARY
* An ordered pair is a pair of elements in which elements are written in specific
order.
* The plane formed by two straight lines perpendicular to each other is called
cattesian plane and the lines are called coordinate axes.
* The point of intersection of two coordinate axes is called origin.
* There is a one-to-one correspondence between ordered pair and a point in
Cartesian plane and vice versa.
* Cartesian plane is also known as coordinate plane.
* Cartesian plane is divided into four quadrants.
* The x-coordinate of a point is called abcissa and y-coordinate is called ordinate.
* The set of points which lie on the same line are called collinear points.
Unit9
INTRODUCTION.TO
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
Unit Outlines
9.1 Introduction
9.2 The Distance Formula
9.3 Collinear Points
9.4 Mid Point Formula

After studying this unit the students will be able to:
* · define coordinate geometry.
* derive. distance formula to calculate distance between two points given m
Cartesian plane.
* use distance formula to fmd distance between two given points.
* define collinear points. Distinguish between collinear and non-collinear points.
* use distance formula to show that given three (or more) points are collinear . .
* use distance fo~ula to show that the given three non-collinear points form
• an equilateral triangle,
• an isosceles triangle,
• a right angled triangle,
• a scalene triangle.
* use distance formula to show that given four non-collinear points form
• a square,
• a rectangle,
• a parallelogram.
* recognize the formula to find the midpoint of the line joining two given points.
* apply distance and mid-point formulae to solve/verify different standard results
related to geometry.
9.1 Distance Formula

9.1.1 Coordinate Geometry
The study of geometrical shapes in a plane is called plane geometry. Coordinate
geometry is the study of geometrical shapes in the Cartesian plane (coordinate plane).
168
169 Mathematics 9
We know that a plane is divided into four quadrants by two perpendicular lines
called the axes intersecting at origin. We have also seen. that there is one to one
correspondence between the points of the plane and the ordered pairs in R x R.
9.1.2 Finding Distance between two points
y
Let P(xI, YI) and Q(x2, Y2) be two
points in the coordinate plane where d i~
the length of the line segment PQ. i.e., _ _ ____....,.N(x2,Y1)
IPQl=d. lx2-x1I
The line segments MQ and LP
parallel to y-axis meet x-axis at points M
Y1 Y2
and L, respectively with coordin~tes
,M(x2,
-
0) and L(xI, 0). ' > IX2-Xil
X' 0 x
The line-segment
.,
PN is parallel to
x,-. L(x1>0) M(x2,0)
x-axis. \ '
In the right triangle PNQ,
X2 .
INQI = ly2 - YI I and IPNI = lx2-:- xI I .
~ .
Using Pythagoras Theorem
2 2
IPQ1 = IPN1 + IQN1 2
2
~ d = lx2 -x 112 + ly2 -y 112
~ 4=±--.J1x2 -x1l2 + ly2 -y1l2

I Th~s d =>} lx2 - xI 1
2
+ ly2 - YI 12 I , since d > 0 always.
9.1.3 Use of Distance Formula
The use of distance formula is explained in the following examples.
Example 1
Using the distance formula, find the distance between the points.
(i) P(l, 2) and Q(O, 3) (ii) S(-1, 3) and R(3, -2)
(iii) U(O, 2) and V(-3, 0) (iy) P'(l, 1) and Q'(2, 2)
Solutions
· (i) IPQi =: )(o-i) 2
+(3:_z)2 ,
. ~)(-1)2 + (1)1-.::; J1+l ~ J2 .

(ii) . ISRI = )(3-(-1)) .t 2
(- ~- ~ 3)~
' '
~ ~r:-(3_-::f-_,,1)2_+...,,.(~-5_,.f =;: ..j_16+25 = J4i
Introduction to Coordinate Geometry 170
(iii) IUVI = ~(-3-0 )2 + (0- 2)2

= ~(-3)2 +(-2)2 = ../9+4 = m
(iv) IP'Q'I =-J (2 - 2
1) + (2 __:_ 1)
2
=~='12
EXERCISE 9.1
1. Find the distance between the following pairs of points.
(a) A(9, 2), B(7, 2) (b) A(2, -6), B(3, -6)
(c) A(-8, 1), B(6, 1) (d) A(-4, .J2 ), B(-4, -3)
(e) A(3, -11), B(3, -4) (f) A(O, 0), B(O, -5)
2. Let P be the point on x-axis with x-coordiante a and Q be the point on y-axis
with y-coordinate bas given below. Find the distance between P and Q.
(i) a= 9, b = 7 (ii) a= 2, b = 3 (iii) a= -8, b = 6
(iv) a= -2, b = -3 (v) a= .J2, b = 1 (vi) a= -9, b = -4
9 .2 Collinear Points
9.2.1 Collinear or Non-collinear Points in the Plane
Two or more than two points which lie on the same straight line are called
cnllinear points with respect to that line; otherwise they are called non-collinear.
Let m be a line, then all the points on line mare collinear.
In the given figure the points P and Q are collinear with respect to the line m
and the points P and R are not collinear with respect to it.
•
R
----
p ----
Q- - - m
9.2.2 Use of Distance Formula to show the Collinearity of Three or more
Points in the Plane
Let P, Q and R be three points in the plane. They are called collinear
if IPQI + IQRI = IPRI, otherwise they are non-collinear.
Example
Using distance formula show that the points
(i) P(-2, -1), Q(O, 3) and R(l, 5) are collinear.
(ii) The above points P, Q, Rand S(l, -1) are not collinear.
Solution
(i) By using the distance formula, we find
IPQI = -J (0 + 2) 2
+ (3 + 1)2 = '14 + 16 =-{lo= 2--{5
r -
171 Mathematics 9
IQRI ='1 (1 - 2 2
=-{1+4 =-{5
0) + (5 - 3)
2 2
and IPRI = '10 + 2) + (5 + 1) = --.j9 + 36 = --j4s = 3-{5
Since IPQI + IQRI = 2-{5 + -{5 = 3-{5 = IPRI,
therefore, the points P, Q and R are collinear
2 2 2
(ii) IPSI ='1(-2-1) +(-1+1) ='1(-3) + 0 = 3
2 2
Since IQSI ='1(1-0) + (-1-3) =°'11+16 =-f0,
and IPQI + IQSI # IPSI ,
therefore the points P, Q and S are not collinear and hence, the points P, Q, R
and Sare also not collinear.
A closed figure in a plane obtained ·by joining c
~
three n.on-collinear points is called a triangle.
In the triangle ABC the non-collinear points A,
B and C ate the three vertices of the triangle ABC.
The line segments AB, BC and. CA are called sides of A B
the triangle.
9.2.3 Use of Distance Formula to Different Shapes of a Triangle
we expand the idea of a triangle to its different kinds depending on the length
of the three sides of the triangle as:
(i) Equilateral triangle Isosceles triangle
(ii)
(iii) Right angled triangle (iv) Scalene triangle
We discuss the triangles (i) to (iv) in order.
(i) Equilateral Triangl~
If the lengths of all the three sides of a triangle are same, then the triangle is
called an equilateral triangle.
Example
The triangle OPQ is an equilateral triangle. since the points 0(0,0), P ( }i , 0)
and Q( 2}i ,/J2Jare not collinear, where

IOPI = J21
1QOI =
~~~~~~~~-
(o- 21J' +- 2~J' J~+~ =~=JI =

and IPQI = (-21.-2 --}i)' +(2"1-oJ = G1iJ +(2"1r

=Ji+% =~=H
i.e., IOPI =IQOI =IPQI =~ ,a real number and the points 0(0, 0),
Q( 1, 1i) and P ( }i ,0) are not collinear. Hence the triangle OPQ is
2 2
equilateral.
y
(ii) An Isosceles Triangle

Aii isosceles triangle PQR is a triangle which has two of its sides with equal
length while the third side has a different length.
Example
The triangle PQR is an isosceles triangle as for the non-collinear points
P(-1, 0), Q(l, 0) and R (0, 1) shown in the following figure,
y.
RI ). 1)
v
I/
v "!"'- ~
- I/ ~
.. (- , ( )
~
·.1
0 0(1 0) x
:v~ ..
~
173 Mathematics 9
IPQI = ~(1-(-1))2 +(0-0)2 = ~(1+1)2 +O =J4 =2
IQRI = ~(0-1)2 +(1-0)2 = ~(-1) 2 +1 2 =.Ji+l = J2.

IPRI ='1(0-(-1)) +(1-0) 2 =
2
.Ji+1 = J2.
Since IQRI = IPRI = J2. and IPQI = 2-::/:. J2. so the non-collinear points P, Q, R
form an isosceles triangle PQR.
(iii) Right Angle Triangle
A triangle in which one of the angles has measure equal to 90° is called a right
angle triangle. ·
Example
Let 0(0, 0), P(-3, 0) and Q(O, 2) be three non-collinear points. Verify that
triangle OPQ is right-angled.
Visual Proof of Pythagoras' Theorem
IOQI = ~(0-0)2 +(2-0)2 = J2i = 2 In right angle triangleABC,
IABl2 = IBCl 2 + ICAl2
IOPI = '1(-3) + 0 =
2 2
'19 = 3
I IPQI= ~(-3)2+(-2)2 =.J9+4=J13
y:
Sci le: 1.5 : 1
c
ln1
_,./
- '\, '
v"
,.v r
x' P( 3, 0) 0( ),I) x
[Y
Here 1.5 square bl9ck
= 1 unit length
2 2 2
Now IOQl + IOPl = (2) + (3)2 = 13 and IPQ1 2 = 13
2 2
Since IOQ1 + lOPf = IPQ1 , therefore LPOQ = 90°
Hence the given non-collinear points form a right triangle.
(iv) Scalene Triangle
A triangle is called a scalene triangle if measures of all the three sides are
different.
Example
Show that the points P(l, 2), Q(-2, 1) and R(2, 1) in the plane form a scalene
triarigle.
Solution
2 2 2
IPQI ='1(-2-1) + (1- 2) ='1(-3) + (-1) =
2
=ffe '19+1
IQRI = '1(2 + 2) + (1-1) = '14 + 0 = ~ = 4
2 2 2 2
2 2
and IPRI = '1(2- 1) + (1 - 2)2 = '1i2 + (-1) = '1i2 + i2 =-J2
y. ...
2 1>(1 2
~
__... i..--
.._. --1 i..-
I" f".
'll ,l) R~ 7,1
x' -2 -1 0 1 2 x
IV'
~
Hence IPQI = -{16, IQRI = 4 and IPRI = -J2

The points P, Q and Rare non-collinear since, IPQI + IQRI > IPRI
Thus the given points form a scalene triangle .
.9.2.4 Use of distance formula to show that four non-collinear points form a
square, a rectangle and a parallelogram
We recognize these three figures as below.
D C
D ,....--------. C
r--+-i
.A
90°
B
L-d
P QA B
·· Square Rectangle Parallelogram

(a) Using Distance Formula to show that given four Non-collinear Points
form a Square
A square is a closed figure in the plane formed by four non-c~llinear points
such that lengths of all sides are equal and measure of each angle is 90°.
175 Mathematics 9
Example
If A(2, 2), B(2, -2), C(-2, -2) and D(-2, 2) be four non-collinear points in the
plane, then verify that they form a square ABCD.
Solution
2 2 2
Since IABI ='1(2-2) +(-2-2)2='10 +(-4) ='116 =4
2 2 2
IBCI = '1(-2 - 2) +(-2 + 2)2 = '1(-4) + 0 = '116 = 4
2
ICDI = '1(-2- (-2))2 + (2 - (-2))
2 2
='1(-2+2) +(2+2) ='10+ 16 ='116=4
2 2 2
IDAI = '1c2 + 2) + (2- 2) = '1(+4) + 0 = '116 = 4,
y
D -2 2 . A( ~. ~)
/
v"
/
/
/
' i,/
/
/
x ,,"' 0 x
/
//
/
/
/
/
C-2 -,') B( ~. - 2)
~·
hence IABI = IBCI = ICDI = IDAI = 4.

2 2 2
Also IACI = '1c-2- 2) +(-2- 2) = '1C-4) + (-4)2 = '116 + 16 = {32 = 4-{i
2 2 2
Now IABl + IBCl = (4) + (4)2 = 32, and IACl 2 = ( 4-{2 )2 = 32
2 2 2
Since IABl + IBCl = IACl , therefore LABC = 90°
Hence the given four non-collinear points form a square.
(b) Using Distance Formula to show that given four Non-Collinear Points form
a Rectangle
A figure formed in the plane by four non-collinear points is called a rectangle
if,
(i) its opposite sides are equal in length;
(ii) the angle at each vertex is of measure 90°.
Example
Show that the points A(-2, 0), B(-2, 3), C(2, 3) and D(2, 0) form a rectangle.
Solution
Using distance formula,
~------
IABI ='1(-2 + 2)2 + (3-0) =10+9

2
='19 = 3
=10+9 = '19 = 3
2
IDCI = --Jc2- 2)2 + (3-0)
2 2
IADI = --J (2 + 2) + (0 - 0) = '116 + 0 = 4
IBCI = --J (2 + 2)2 + (3 - 3)2 = '116 + 0 = -{16 = 4
y .' '
Rf-' -- 1) r'(".i 1)
_,
~
.;
,(
."' "'.;
, .;
.;
~ . 9o;
- .; -
~
x Ai '-2, ~) 0 D( ~.o) x
--'
I
1
Since IABI = IDCI = 3 and IADI = IBCI = 4,

therefore, opposite sides are equal.
2 2
Also IACI ='1c2 + 2) + (3 -0) ='116 + 9 ='125 = 5
2
Now IADl 2 + IDCl 2 = (4) 2 + (3)2 = 25, and= IACl = (5)2 = 25
2 2 2
Since IADl + ID0 = IACl ,
therefore m LADC = 90°
Hence the given points form a rectangle.
(c) Use of Distance Formula to show that given four Non-Collinear Points
Form a Parallelogram
Definition
A figure formed by four non-collinear points m the plane is called a
parallelogram if
(i) its opposite sides are of equal length
(ii) its opposite sides are parallel
177 Mathematics 9
Example
Show that the points A(-2, 1), B(2, 1), C(3, 3) and D(-1, 3) form a
parallelogram.
Solution
·~
y
D( 1, 3) cc '• 3
j
... ..... .. f--1
I
.... .. .. ~
I
I .. .. ·
j
,
- I
I
A~ .-2, 1) a(: ' 1
-. . ..
~IX' 0 x '-
,__ ,
I
'
By distance formula,
IABI = '1 (2 + 2) 2
+ (1 - 1) =
2
'14 2
+ 0 = 116 = 4
ICDI ='1(3+1) + (3-3)2 =~=116 = 4

2
2 2
IADI = '1(-1+2)2 + (3 - 1)2 = '11 + 2 =-{1+4 = -{5
2 2 2 2
IBCI ='1(3-2) + (3-1) ='11 + 2 =-{5
Since IABI = ICDI = 4 and IADI = IBCI = -{5,
Hence the given points form a parallelogram.
EXERCISE 9.2
1. Show whether the points with vertices (5, -2), (5, 4) and (-4, 1) are vertices of
an equilateral triangle or an isosceles triangle?
2. Show whether or not the points with vertices (-1, 1), (5, 4), (2, -2) and (-4, 1)
form a square?
3. Show whether or not the points with coordinates (1, 3), (4, 2) and (-2, 6) are
vertices of a right triangle?
4. Use the distance formula to prove whether or not the points (1, 1), (-2, -8) and
(4, 10) lie on a straight line?
5. Find k, given that the point (2, k) is equidistant from (3, 7) and (9, 1).
6. Use distance formula to verify that the points A(O, 7), B(3,"-5), C(-2, 15) are
collinear.
7. Verify whether or not the points 0(0, 0), A(-{3, 1), B(-{3, -1) are the vertices
of an equilateral triangle.
8. Show that the points A(-6, -5), B(5, -5), C(5, -8) and D(-6, -8) are vertices of
a rectangle. Find the lengths of its diagonals. Are they equal?
9. Show that the points M(-1, 4), N(-5, 3), P(l - 3) and Q(5, -2) are the vertices
of a parallelogram.
10. Find the length of the diameter of the circle having centre at C(-3, 6) and
passing through P(l, 3).
9.3. Mid-Point Formula y
P1(0, 3)
9.3.1 Recognition of the Mid-Point
Let P(-2, 0) and Q(2, 0) be two
points on the x-axis. Then the origin
1
0(0, 0) is the mid-point of P and Q, since
IOPI = 2 = IOQI and the points P, 0 x'-....---.--1--___,r---_,_-.----r--x
and Qare collinear. P(-2, 0) O 1 Q(2, 0)
Similarly the origin is the mid-point
of the points P1(0, 3) and Q 1(0, -3) since
IOP1I = 3 = IOQ 11 and the
Q1(0, -3)
points Pi. 0 and Q 1 are collinear. I
y
Recognition of the Mid-Point Formula
for any two Points in the Plane
Let P1 (xi. Y1) and P2(x2 , y 2 ) be any two points in the plane and R(x, y) be
mid-point of points P 1 and P2 on the line-segment P 1P2 as shown in the figure below.
179 Mathematics 9
P2(x2,Y2)
Y2 --------------------------
--x-x 1 - - --x2 -x--

y' I.
If line-segment M.N. parallel to x-axis, has its mid-point R(x, y),
then, x 2 - x =x - x I
YI+ Y2
Similarly, y= 2
xl +x2 YI +Y2)
Thus the point R(x, y) =R ( 2
,
2
is the mid-point of the points
PI(xI, YI) and P2(x2, Y2).
9.3.2 Verification of the Mid-Point Formula
(
x I+2 x2 -xi ) 2 + (YI +2 Y2 -yl ) 2
x1 + x2 Yl + Y2) ·
Thus it verifies that R( , is the mid-point of the line segment
2 2
P 1RP2 which lies on the line segment since,
IP1RI + IP2RI = IP1P2I
If P(x 1, y 1) and Q(x2 , y2) are two points in the plane,

then the mid-point R(x, y) of the line segment PQ is
x1+x2 Y1+Y2)
R(x, y) = R( . , 2
2
Example 1
Find the mid-point of the line segment joining A(2, 5) and B(-1, 1).
Solution ·
If R(x, y) is the desired mid-point then,
2-1 1 5+1 6
x=- 2 -=2 and y = - 2 -=2=3
Hence R(x, y) = R ( i ,3 )
Example 2
Let P(2, 3) and Q(x, y) be two points in the plane such that R(l, -1) is the mid-
point of the points P and Q. Find x and y.
Solution
Since R(l, -1) is the mid-point of P(2, 3) and Q(x, y) then,
x+2
l=-2- and -l_y+3
- 2
=> 2=x+2 => -2 = y + 3
=> x=O => y=-5
181 Mathematics 9
Example 3
Let ABC be a triangle as shown below. If Mi, M 2 and M 3 are the middle points
of the line-segments AB, BC and CA respectively, find the coordinates ofM1, M1 and
M3. Also determine the type of the triangle M1M2M3. -1~, ~
Solution
Challenge!
3 5 2 8
Mid-point of AB= M 1(- + , + )= M 1(1, 5) Is.0.M1 MzM3also a right
2 2 ~ angled triangle?
Mid-point of BC= M1(
5
;~, s; 2
)= M 2(5, 5)
-,
B(5, 8)
A(-3, 2) M3 C(5, 2)
and . ofAC = M3 (5-3

Mid-pomt - - ,2+2)
-- = M3(1, 2)
2 2
The triangle M1M2M3 has sides with length,
IM1M2I = ~(5-1)2 +(5-5)2 =~ =4 ...... (i)
IM2M3I = ~(1-.5)2 +(2-5)2 =~(-4)2 +(-3)2

=.J16+9 =.J25=5 ...... (ii)
...... (111)
All the lengths of the three sides are different. Hence the triangle M 1M 2M3 is a
Scalene triangle.
Example4
Let 0(0, 0), A(3, 0) and B(3, 5) be three points in the plane. If M 1 is the
mid-point of AB and M1 of OB, then show that IM 1M 21= _!_ IOAI.
2
Solution
By the distance formula the distance
'1
IOAI = (3 - 0) + (0 - 0)
2 2
=~ = 3
The mid-point of AB is
MI =M 1 (
3
;
3
, ~) =( 3, %)
Now the mid-point of OB is M 2 = M 2 (
3
~ O, 5; O) = ( %, %)
y
B(3,5)
,
x+-~~~-+--------~--~--+x
0(0,0) A(3,0)
,
y
Hence
IM1M2l = G-3)' +(~ -%)' =J(-;)' +O =J~+O =~ =~ IOAI

Let P(x1, Y1) and Q(x2, y 2) be any two points and their midpoint be
M( xi ; x2 , Y1 ; Y2 ) . Then M
(i) is at equal distance from P and Q
i.e., IPMI = IMQI
(ii) is an interior point of the line segment PQ.
(iii) every point R in the plane at equal distance from P and Q is not their mid-point.
For example, the point R(O, 1) is at equal distance from P(-3, 0) and Q(3, 0) but
is not their mid-point
i.e., IRQI ='1r-co---3-)2_+_(l___0_)2 ='1 (-3/ +(1 )2 =-fa+i ={16
IRPI ='1(0 + 3)2 +(1-0)2 ='13 2 + 12 ={16
183 Mathematics 9
and mid-point of P(-3, 0) and Q(3, 0) is

-3+3 O+O
where x = 2 =0 and y =- 2 - = 0.
The point (0, 1) -:t- (0, 0).
(iv) There is a unique midpoint of any two points in the plane.
EXERCISE 9.3
1. Find the mid-point of the line segment joining each of the following pairs of
points
(a) A(9, 2), B(7, 2) (b) A(2, -6), B(3, -6)
(c) A(-8, 1), B(6, 1) (d) A(-4, 9), B(-4, -3),
(e) A(3, -11), B(3, -4) (f) A(O, 0), B(O, -5)
2 The end point P of a line segment PQ is (-3, 6) and its mid-point is (5, 8). Find
the coordinates of the end point Q.
3. Prove that mid-point of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is equidistant from its
three vertices P(-2, 5), Q(l, 3) and R(~l, 0).
4. If 0(0, 0), A(3, 0) and B(3, 5) are three points in the plane, find M 1 and M 2 as
mid-points of the line segments AB and OB respectively. Find IM 1M 2 1.
5. Show that the diagonals of the parallelogram having vertices A(l, 2), B(4, 2),
C(-1, -3) and D(-4, -3) bisect each other.
[Hint: The mid-points of the diagonals coincide]
6. The vertices of a triangle are P(4, 6), Q(-2, -4) and R(-8, 2). Show that the
length of the line segment joining the mid-points of the line segments PR, QR is
1
2PQ.
REVIEW EXERCISE 9
(i) Distance between points (0, 0) and (1, 1) is
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 2 (d) '12
(ii) Distance ~etween the points (1, 0) and (0, 1) is
(a) . 0 (b) 1 (c) '12 (d) 2
(iii) Mid-point of the points (2, 2) and (0, 0) is
(a) (1, 1) (b) (1, 0) (c) 0, 1) (d) (-1, -1)
(iv) Mid-point of the points (2, -2) and (-2, 2) is
(a) (2, 2) (b) (-2, -2) (c) (0, 0) (d) (1, 1)
(v) A triangle having all sides equal is called

(a) Isosceles (b) Scalene
(c) Equilateral (d) None of these
(vi) A triangle having all sides different is called
(a) Isosceles . (b) Scalene
(c) Equilateral (d) None of these
2. Answer the following, which is true and which is false.
(i) A line has two end points.
(ii) A line segment has one end point.
(iii) A triangle is formed by three collinear points.
(iv) Each side of a triangle has two collinear vertices.
(v) The end points of each side of a rectangle are collinear.
(vi) All the points that lie on the x-axis are collinear.
(vii) Origin is the only point collinear with the points of both the axes
separate!y.
3. Find the distance between the following pairs of points.
(i) (6, 3), (3, -3) (ii) (7, 5), (1, -1) (iii) (0, 0), (-4, -3)
4. Find the mid-point between followi!1g pairs of points.
(i) (6, 6), (4, -2) (ii) (-5, -7), (-7, -5) (iii) (8, 0), (0, -12)
5. Define the following
(i) Co-ordinate Geometry (ii) Collinear points
(iii) Non-collinear points (iv) Equilateral Triangle
(v) Scalene Triangle (vi) Isosceles Triangle
(vii) Right Triangle (viii) Square
SUMMARY
* If P(x1, y 1) and Q(x2 , y 2) are two points and dis the distance between them, then
2
d ='11x1 - xi + ly1 - y21
* The concept of non-collinearity supports formation of the three-sided and four-
sid~d shapes of the geometrical figures.
* The points P, Q and R are collinear if IPQI + IQRI =IPRI

* The three points P, Q and R form a triangle if and only if they are non-collinear
i.e., IPQI + IQRI > IPRI
* If IPQI + IQRI < IPRI, then no unique triangle can be formed by the points P, Q
andR.
* Different forms of a triangle i.e., equilateral, isosceles, right angled and scalene
are discussed in this unit.
* Similarly; the four-sided figures, square, rectap.gle and parallelogram are also
discussed.
Unit 10
CONGRUENT TRIANGLES
Unit Outlines
10.1. Congruent Triangles

* prove that in any correspondence of two triangles, if one side and any two
angles of one triangle are congruent to the corresponding side and angles of the
other, then the triangles are congruen~.
* prove that if two angles of a triangle are congruent, then the sides opposite to
them are also congruent.
* prove that in a correspondence of two triangles, if three sides of one triangle are
congruent to the corresponding· three sides of the other, the two triangles are
congruent.
* prove that if in the correspondence of two right-angled triangles, the
hypotenuse and one side of one are congruent to the hypotenuse and the
·corresponding side of the other, then the triangles are congruent:
10.1. Congruent Triangles

Introduction
In this unit before proving the theorems, we will explain what is meant by 1 - 1
correspondence (the symbol used for 1 - 1 correspondence is ~) and congruency
of triangles. We shall also state S.A.S. postulate.
A D
B~CE~F
Let there be two triangles ABC and DEF. Out of the total six (1 -- 1)
correspondences that can be established between MBC and Af)EF, one of the
choices is _explained below.
In the correspondence MBC ~ Af)EF it means
LA ~ LD (LA corresponds to LD)
LB ~ LE (LB corresponds to LE)
LC~ LF (LC corresponds to LF)
185
Congruent Triangles 186
AB~DE (AB corresponds-to DE)

BC~EF (BC corresponds to EF)
CA~FD (CA corresponds to FD)
Congruency of Triangles
Two triangles are said to be congruent written symbolically as,::, if there exists
a correspondence between them such that all the corresponding sides and angles are
congruent i.e.,
- -
{
AB::DE LA::LD
If BC::EF LB::LE
CA::FD LC::LF
then MBC:: Af)EF -
A D
Note:
B~CE~F
(i) These triangles are congruent w.r.t. the above menti1;med choice of the
( 1 - 1) correspondence .
. (ii) MBC :: MBC
(iii) MBC :: ~DEF <=> ~DEF:: ~C
(iv) If MBC:: Af)EF and ~C:: Af>QR, then Af)EF:: Af>QR.
In any correspondence of two triangles, if two sides and their included angle of
one triangle are congruent to the corresponding two sides and their included angle of
the other, then the triangles are congruen~.
In MBC ~ Af)EF, shown in the following figure,
- - A D
if
{
AB::DE ·
LA::LD
AC::DF
then MBC:: mEF
B~CE~F
(S.A.S. Postulate)
187 Mathematics 9
Theorem 10.1.1
In any correspondence of two triangles, if one side and any two angles of
one triangle are congruent to the corresponding side and angles of the other,
then the triangles are congruent. (A.S.A A.S.A.) =
A . D
Given
B
~~ C E F
In ~ABC ~ Af)EF
LB := LE , BC :: EF , LC:= LF.
To Prove
~C:=Af)EF
Construction
Suppose AB :f= DE. Take a point M on DE such that AB =ME . Join M to F
Proof
Statements Reasons
In ~C~-7~F
- -
AB:=ME ...... (i) Construction
- -
BC:=EF ...... (ii) Given
LB:=LE . . ..... (iii) Given
.. ~C=~EF S.A.S. postulate
So, LC:=LMFE (Corresponding angles of congruent
triangles)
But LC:=LDFE Given
.. LDFE:=LMFE Both congruent to LC
This is possible only if D and M are the
same points, and ME= DE
- -
- - AB = ME (construction) and
So, AB::DE ...... (iv)
ME= DE (proved)
Thus from (ii), (iii) and (iv), we have
~C::Af)EF S.A.S. postulate
Corollary
In any correspondence of two triangles, if one side and any two angles of
one triangle are congruent to the corresponding
. side and angles of. the other,
then the triangles are congruent. (S.A.A. S.A.A.) =
Given
In MBC ~ L\DEF
BC:: EF, LA:: LD , LB:: LE
A .D
B E
To Prove
MBC::L\DEF
Proof
Statements Reasons
In MBC~mEF
LB:LE Given
BC::EF Given
LC:LF LA:: LD, LB :: LE, (Given)
.. MBC::Af)EF A.S.A. :: A.S.A.
Example A
If MBC and Af)CB are on the opposite sides
of common base BC such that·
AL 1- BC, DM _l_ BC and
AL= DM, then BC bisects AD.
Given
MBC and Af)CB are on the opposite sides of
- ·- - - D
BC such that AL _l_ BC, DM 1- BC, AL:: DM, and
AD is cut by BC at N.
To Prove
AN::DN
189 Mathematics 9
Proof
Statements Reasons
-
In ~N~LillMN
-
- ,,....- ~
AL=:DM ,Given
LALN=:LDMN :~Each-angle is ri~ht _angl~
LANL=:LDNM I Vertical angles -., ·
.. ~N=:LillMN S. A .A. =: S.A .A .
- - - Corresponding sides of= ~s.
HenceAN=:DN '
EXERCISE 10.1
1. In the given figure, B
- -
AB =:CB, Ll =: L2.
Prove that
MBD=:~CBE.
A C
2. From a point on the bisector of an angle, perpendiculars are drawn to the arms
of the angle. Prove that these perpendiculars are equal in measure.
3. In a triangle ABC, the bisectors of LB and LC meet in a point I. Prove that I is
equidistant from the three sides of MBC.
· Theorem 10.1.2
If two angles of a triangle are congruent, then the sides opposite to them
are also congruent.
A
Given
In MBC, LB=: LC
To Prove
AB=:AC
Construction
Draw the bisector of LA, meeting BC at the point D. B c
•
Proof
Statements Reasons
In MBDf-~MCD
- -
AD:=AD Common
LB:=LC Given
LBAD:=LCAD Construction
.. MBD:=~ACD
·.
S.A.A.:::: S.A.A.
- - (Corresponding sides of congrnent
Hence AB :=AC triangles)
Example 1
H one angle of a right triangled triangle is of 30°, the hypotenuse is twice
as long as the side opposite to the angle.
Given A
In MBC, mLB = 90° and
mLC = 30°
To Prove
mAC=2mAB c
B
Construction
At B, construct LCBD of 30°. Let BD cut AC at the point D.
Proof
Statements Reasons
In MBD, mLA = 60° mLABC = 90°, mLC = 30°
mLABD = mLABC-mLCBD
= 60° mLABC = 90°, mLCBD = 30°
mLADB =60° Sum of measures of Ls of a ~ is 180°
MBD is equilateral Each of its angles is equal to 60°
AB :=BD:=AD Sides of equilateral ~
In ~CD, BD:::: CD LC= LCBD (each of 30°),
Thus mAC =mAD + mCD}

=mAB+mAB AD:=AB andCD:=BD:=AB
=2(mAB)
191 Mathematics 9
Example2 A
If the bisector of an angle of a triangle bisects
the side opposite to it, the triangle is isosceles.
Given
In LiABC, AD bisects LA and BD :: CD
To Prove
B IC
I
AB::AC I
I
Construction I
I
I
Produce AD to E, and take ED =AD I I
I
I I
Joint C to E. I/
,
Proof E
Statements Reasons
J
In MDB ~.iIBDC
- -
AD::ED Construction
LADB::LEDC Vertical angles
-
BD::CD
-
Given
.. MDB::.iIBDC S.A.S. Postulate
- -
.. AB::EC ...... I Corresponding sides of {is =
and LBAD::LE Corresponding angles of L\s =
But LBAD::LCAD Given
... LE::LCAD Each::LBAD
In MCE,AC::EC
- -
.. .. . . II LE :: LCAD (proved) .· .
Hence AB :AC
- -
From I and II
EXERCISE 10.2
I. Prove that any two medians of an equilateral triangle are equal in measure.
2. Prove that a point, which is equidistant from the end points of a line segment, is
on the right bisector of the line segment.
;
Theorem 10.1.3
In a correspondence of two triangles, if three sides of one triangle are
congruent to the corresponding three sides of the other, then the two triangles
=
are congruent. (S.S.S. S.S.S.)
A D
B
~ C
M
Given
rn· MBC f-~ ~DEF
AB :DE "BC ::EF and CA::: FD

To-Prove
MBC::mEF
Construction
Suppose that in mEF the side EF is not smaller than any of the remaining two
=
sides. On EF construct a 8MEF in which, LFEM LB and ME AB . Join D and =
M. As shown in the above figures we label some of the angles as 1, 2, 3 and 4.
Proof
Statements Reasons
BC::EF Given
LB:LFEM Construction
AB::ME Construction
MBC::8MEF S.A.S. postulate
(corresponding sides of congruent
and CA::FM ...... (i)
triangles)
Also CA::FD ...... (ii) Given

{From (i) and (ii)}
193 Mathematics 9
In .1FDM
L2:L4 ...... (iii) FM =FD (proved)

Similarly Ll:: L3 ...... (iv)
.. mL2 + mLl =mL4 + mL3 {from (iii) and (iv)}
.. mLEDF = mLEMF
Now, in .1.DEF f-~ AMEF
FD::FM Proved
and mLEDF:: mLEMF Proved
DE::ME Eachone::AB
Af)EF::M1EF S.A.S. postulate
Also MBC:: AMEF Proved
Hence MBC :: .1.DEF Each d =dMEF (proved)
Corollary
If two isosceles triangles are formed on the same side- of their common
base, the line through their vertices would be the right bisector of their common
base.
A
Given
MBC and .1.DBC are formed on the
same side of BC such that
AB :: AC , DB :: DC , AD m€ets BC at E.
To Prove I
BE :: CE , AE .l BC B E c
Proof
Statements
In MDB~dADC
AB::AC Given
DB::DC Given
AD::AD Common
MDB::dADC S.S.S. :: S.S.S.
Ll::L2 Corresponding angles- of= ds
In MBE~MCE
AB::AC Given
Ll~L2 Proved
AE::AE Common
MBE::.1.ACE S.A.S. postulate
BE::CE Corresponding sides of= .1.s
L3:L4 ...... I Corresponding angles of= .1.s
rnL3 + mL4 = 180° ...... II Supplementary angles Postulate
mL3 =mL4 =90° From I and II
Hence AE .l BC
Corollary: An equilateral triangle is an equiangular triangle.
EXERCISE 10.3
1. In the figure, AB :: DC , AD :: BC.

Prove that LA:: LC, LABC :: LADC.
N p
2. In the figure, LN:: MP, MN:: LP.

Prove that LN:: LP, LNML:: LPLM.
'
L
~ M
3. Prove that the median bisecting the base of an isosceles triangle bisects the
vertex angle and it is perpendicular to the base.
Theorem 10.1.4
~
H in the correspondence of the two right-angled triangles, the hypotenuse
and one side of one triangle are congruent to the hypotenuse and the
corresponding side of the other, then the triangles are congruent. (H.S H.S). =
A D
c
195 Mathematics 9
Given
In MBC ~~ Af)EF
LB:= LE (right angles)
- -
CA:=FD AB:=DE
To Prove
MBC:=Af)EF
Construction
Produce FE to a point M such that EM = BC and join the points D and M.
Proof
Statements Re~sons
rnLDEF + mLDEM = 180° (i) (Supplementary angles)
Now rnLDEF = 90° ...... (ii) (Given)
.. rnLDEM=90° {from (i) and (ii)}
In MBC~~Af)EM
-
BC:=EM
-
(construction)
LABC:=LDEM (each L equal to 90°)
- -
AB:=DE (given)
.. MBC:=Af)EM S.A.S. postulate
and LC:=LM (Corresponding angles of congruent
triangles)
(Corresponding sides of congruent
CA:=MD
triangles) ·
But CA:=FD (given)
MD:=FD each is congruent to CA
In Af)MF
LF:=LM MD= FD (proved)

But LC:=LM (proved)
LC:=LF (each is congruent to LM)
In LlABC ~~ Af)EF
AB :=DE (given)
LABC :=LDEF (given)
LC:=LF (proved)
Hence MBC := Af)EF (S.A.A. := S.A.A)
Example
If perpendiculars from two vertices of a triangle to the opposite sides are
congruent, then the triangle is isosceles. A
Given
In AABC, BD 1- AC , CE l. AB
such that BD =CE
To Prove
AB:::AC
Proof B c
Statements Reasons
In Af3CD f---7 ~CBE
BD l. AC, CE l. AB (given)
LBDC:LBEC
=> each angle = 90° .
- - '
BC:::BC Common hypotenuse
- -
BD:::CE Given
.. Af3CD:::~CBE H.S.:=H.S.
.. LBCD:::LCBE Corresponding angles of= ~s.
Thus LBCA ::: LCBA
- - In AABC, LBCA := LCBA
Hence AB :=AC
p
EXERCISE 10.4
1. In Af> AB of figure, PQ l. AB and PA =PB , prove

that AQ := BQ and LAPQ := LBPQ.
c
2. In the figure, m2c = mLD = 90° and
BC ::: AD. Prove that AC := BD, and
LBAC := LABD. f\.llC-----__;_,---~B
197 ·Mathematics 9
Dr"Tu--------.c
3. In the figure, rnLB =mLD =90° and AD =BC.

Prove that ABCD is a rectangle. A....__ _ _ _ _...._.rB
REVIEW EXERCISE 10
J. Which of the followi_ng stateme~· are true and which are fals~
(i) A ray has two end points.
I
(ii) In a triangle, there can be onl}'.._one ri~pt angle.
(iii) Three points are said to be collinear, if they lie on same line.
(iv) Two parallel lines intersect at a point.
(v) Two lines can intersect only at one point.
(vi) A triangle of congruent sides has non-congruent angles.
2. If MBC =:&MN, then M
(i) rnLM=: ........... .
(ii) rnLN =: .. . ... ..... .
(iii) mLA =: . . . . . . . . . . . . c
B L N
3. If MBC =&MN, then find the unknown x.
c
N
4. Find the value of unknowns for the given

congruent triangles.
B 5m-3 c
5. If L1PQR :::L1 ABC, then find the unknowns
A
Q.
c
SUMMARY
In this unit we stated and proved the following theorems:
* 1In any correspondence of two triangles, if one side and any two angles of one
triangle are congruent to the corresponding side and angles of the other, the two
triangles are congruent. (AS.A. =AS.A.)
* If two angles of a triangle are congruent, then the sides opposite to them are
also congruent.
* In a correspondence of two triangles, if three sides of one triangle are congruent
to the corresponding three sides of the other, then the two triangles are
congruent (S.S.S. = S.S.S.).
* If in the correspondence of the two right-angled triangles, the hypotenuse and
one side of one triangle are congruent to the hypotenuse and the corresponding
=
side of the other, then the triangles are congruent. (H.S. ~.S.).
• Two triangles are said to be congruent, if there exists a correspondence between
them such that all the corresponding sides and angles are congruent.
Unit 11
PARALLELOGRAMS AND TRIANGLES

Unit Outlines.
11.1. (i) Parallelograms and
(ii) Triangles

* prove that in a parallelogram
• the opposite sides are congruent,
• the opposite angles are congruent,
• the diagonals bisect each other.
* prove that if two opposite .sides of a quadrilateral are congruent and parallel, it
is a parallelogram.
* prove that the line segment, joining the midpoints of two sides of a triangle, is
parallel to the third side and is equal to one half of its length.
* prove that the medians of a triangle are concurrent and their point of
concurrency is the point of tris.ection of each median.
* prove that if three or more parallel lines make congruent segments on a
transversal, they also intercept congruent segments on any other line that cuts
them.
Introduction
Before proceeding to prove the theorems in this unit the students are advised to
recall definitions of polygons like parallelogram, rectangle, square, rhombus,
trapezium etc. and in particular triangles and their congruency.
Theorem 11.1.1 c
In a parallelogram
(i) Opposite sides are congruent.
(ii} Opposite angles are congruent.
(iii) The diagonals bisect each other.
Given
In a quadrilateral ABCD, AB II DC, BC II AD and the diagonals AC, BD meet
each other at point 0.
199
Parallelograms and Triangles 200
To Prove
(i) AB :: DC, AD :: BC
(ii) LADC:: LABC, LBAD :: LBCD •.
- - - -
(iii) OA:: OC, OB := OD
Construction
In the figure as shown, we label the angles as Ll, L2, L3, L4, LS and L6.
Proof
Statements Reasons
(i) In ~D f--7 ~CDB
L4:Ll alternate angles
BD::BD Common
L2:L3 alternate angles
~D=~CDB A.S.A.:: A.S.A.
So, AB :DC, AD :=BC
triangles)
and LA:LC (corresponding angles of congruent
triangles)
(ii) Since
Ll :L4 ...... (a) Proved
and L2: L3 ...... (b) Proved
mLl + mL2 = mL4 + mL3 from (a) and (b)
or mLADC = mLABC
or LADC:: LABC
and LBAD :: LBCD Proved in (i)
(iii) 1n ~oc f--7 moA
BC::AD proved in (i)

L5:L6 vertical angles
L3:L2 Proved
~OC:mOA (A.A.S. :: A. A. S.)
Hence OC :: OA, OB :: OD
triangles)
Corollary .
Each diagonal of a parallelogram bisects it into two congruent triangles.
201 Mathematics 9
Example
The bisectors of two angles on the same side of aparallelogram cut each
other at right angles.
Given D c
A parallelogram ABCD, in which
- - - -
AB II DC, AD II BC.
The bisectors of LA and LB cut each
other at E.
To Prove A B
mLE=90°
Construction
Name the angles Ll and L2 as shown in the figure.
Proof
Statements Reasons
rnLl +rnL2 1
1
= 2 (rnLBAD + rnLABC)
{ rnLl =1mLBAD,
1
rnL2=2rnLABC
= ~ (180°)
-
= 90° { Int. angles on the same side of AB

-
which cuts II segments AD and BC
are supplementary.
-
Hence in MEE, mLE = 90° rnLl + mL2 = 90° (proved)

EXERCISE 11.1
1. One angle of a parallelogram is 130°. Find the measures of its remaining
angles.
2. One exterior angle formed on producing one side of a parallelogram is 40°.
Find the measures of its interior angles.
Theorem 11.1.2
H two opposite sides of a quadrilateral l«-r.....,...----+------.C
are congruent and parallel, it is a 1
4 ',
parallelogram. ''
''
Given ''
', 3
In a quadrilateral ABCD, A._----+---=~
2'
AB :DC and AB II DC
To Prove
ABCD is a parallelogram.
Construction
Join the point B to D and in the figure, name the angles as indicated:
Ll , L2, L3 and L4
Proof
Statements Reasons
In ~D~ACDB
-
AB::bC,
-
given
L2::Ll alternate angles
- -
BD::BD common
... ~D::ACDB S.A.S. postulate
Now L4::L3 ...... (i) (corresponding angles of congruent
triangles)
- -
.. ADllBC ...... (ii) from (i)
and
-
AD=BC
-
...... (m) corr~sponding sides of congruent As ,
- -
Also AB llDC ...... (iv) given
Hence ABCD is a parallelogram from (ii) - (iv)
EXERCISE 11.2
1. Prove that a quadrilateral is a parallelogram if its
(a) opposite angles are congruent. (b) diagonals bisect each other.
2. Prove that a quadrilateral is a parallelogram if its opposite sides are congruent.
Theorem 11.1.3
The line segment, joining the mid-points of two sides of a triangle, is
parallel to the third side and is equal to one half of its length.
A
c
203 Mathematics 9
Given
In AABC, the mid-points of AB and AC are Land M respectively . .
To Prove
- - - 1 -
LMllBC and mLM=2mBC
Construction
Join M to L and produce ML to N such that ML LN. =
Join N to Band in the figure, name the angles Ll, L2 and L3 as shown.
Proof
Statements Reasons
BL::AL Given
Ll::L2 vertical angles
NL::ML Construction
Af3LN::MLM S.A.S. postulate
LA::L3 ...... (i) (corresponding angles of congruent
triangles)
and NB::AM ...... (ii)
triangles)
But NB llAM From (i), alternate Ls
Thus NB llMC ...... (m) (M is a point of AC)
MC::AM ...... (iv) Given
NB::MC ...... (v) {from (ii) and (iv)}
BCMN is a ·parallelogram from (iii) and (v)
(opposite sides of a parallelogram
BC II LM oi BC II NL
BCMN)
BC::NM . ...... (vi) (opposite sides of a parallelogram)
- 1 -
mLM=2mNM ...... (vii) Construction
- 1 -
Hence mLM = 2 mBC {from (vi) and (vii)}
Note that instead of producing ML to N, we can take Non LM produced.

Example
The line segments, joining the mid-points of the sides of a quadrilateral,
taken in order, form a parallelogram.
Given
A quadrilateral ABCD, in which P is the
mid-point of AB, Q is the mid-point of
BC, R is the mid-point of CD, S is the
mid-point of DA.
P is joined to Q, Q is joined to R,
R is joined to S and S is joined to P.
To Prove PQRS is a parall_elogram. A p B
Construction Join A to C.
Proof
Statements Reasons
In Af)AC,
- - -
SRllAC
- 1 -
mSR=2mAC
LIB AC,
} S is the mid-point of DA
'
R is the mid-point of CD
-
In
- - -
PQllAC
- 1 -
rnPQ=2mAC } P is the mid-point of AB
Q is the mid-point of BC
-
- - -
SRllPQ Each II AC
- - 1 - -
mSR=rnPQ Each=2mAC
=
- - - -
Thus PQRS is a parallelogram SR II PQ, mSR = mPQ (proved)
)ff
EXERCISE 11.3
1. Prove that the line-segments joining the mi,d-points of the opposite sides of a
quadrilateral bisect each other.
2. Prove that the line-segments joining the mid-points of the opposite sides of a
rectangle are the right-bisectors of each other.
[Hint: Diagonals of a rectangle are congruent.]
3. Prove that the line-segment passing through the mid-point of one side and-
parallel to another side of a triangle also bisects the third side.
205 Mathematics 9
Theorem 11.1.4
The medians of a triangle are concurrent and their point of concurrency is
the point of trisection of each median. A
Given
MBC
To Prove
The medians of the MBC are concurrent B ~-----..,~------',.
--- D).-
and the point of concurrency is the point of - - - _ ~ ..........
trisection of each median. H
Construction
Draw two medians BE and CF of the MBC which intersect each other at point
G. Join A to G and produce it to point H such that AG= GH. Join H to the points B
andC. .
AH intersects BC at the point D.
Proof
Statements Reasons
In AACH,
G and E are mid-points of sides AH and
GEllHC
AC respectively
or BEllHC ...... (i) G is a point of BE
Similarly CF II HB ...... (ii)

BHCG is a parallelogram from (i) and (ii)
- 1 -
and mGD = 2 mGH ...... (iii) (diagonals BC and GH of a
parallelogram BHCG intersect each
BD=:CD other at point D).
AD is a median of AABC
Medians AD, BE and CF pass through (G is the intersecting point of BE and CF

the point G
and AD pass through it.)
Now GH=:AG ...... (iv) construction

- 1 -
.. mGD=2mAG from (iii) and (iv)
and G is the point of trisection of AD

...... (v)
Similarly it can be proved that G is also
the point of trisection of CF and BE
EXERCISE 11.4
1. The distances of the point of concurrency of the medians of a triangle from its
vertices are respectively 1.2 cm, 1.4 cm and 1.6 cm. Find the lengths of its
medians.
2. Prove that the point of concurrency of the medians of a triangle and the triangle
which is made by joining the mid-points of its sides is the same.
Theorem 11.1.5
H three or more parallel lines make congruent segments on a transversal,
they also intercept congruer.t segments on any other line that cuts them.
E F
Given
H H H
AB llCD llEF
H H H H
The transversal LX intersects AB, CD and EF at the points M, N and P
- - H
respectively, such that MN= NP· The transversal QY intersects them at points R, S
and T respectively.
To Prove
RS:=ST
Construction
From R, draw RU II LX, which meets CD at U. From S, draw SV II LX which
meets EF at V. As shown in the figure let the angles be labelled as
Ll, L2, .L3 and L4.
207 Mathematics 9
Proof
Statements Reasons
MNUR is a parallelogram - -
RU II LX (construction)
- -
AB II CD (given)
- -
.. MN:=RU (i) (opposite sides of a parallelogram)
Similarly,
- -
NP:=SV (ii)
- -
But MN:=NP (iii) Given
- -
.. RU:=SV {from (i), (ii) and (iii)}
- - H
Also RUllSV each is II LX (construction)
.. Ll :=L2 Corresponding angles
and L3:=L4 Corresponding angles
In ~us~~SVT,
- -
RU:=SV Proved
Ll :=L2 Proved
L3:=L4 Proved
.. ~US:=~SVT S.A.A. := S.A.A.
-
Hence RS:= ST
- (corresponding sides of congruent
triangles)
Note: This theorem helps us in dividing line segment into parts of equal lengths. It is
also used in the division of a line segment into proportional parts.
Corollaries
. (i) A line, through the mid-point of one side, parallel to another side of a
triangle, bisects the third side.
Given
In MBC, Dis the mid-point of AB.
- -- -
DE II BC which cuts AC at E.
To Prove
AE::EC
Construction
H -
B c
Through A, draw LM 11 BC. '
Proof
Statements Reasons
H - - H -
Intercepts cut by LM, DE , BC on AC
are congruent.
- -
{ Intercepts cut by parallels LM, DE,
- -
BC on AB are congruent (given)
i.e., AE:::EC.
(ii) The parallel line from the mid-point of one non-parallel side of a trapezium to
the parallel sides bisects the other non-parallel side.
(iii) If one side of a triangle is divided into congruent segments, the line drawn from
the point of division parallel to the other side will make congruent segments on
third side.
EXERCISE 11.5
1. In the given figure, A
H H H H H
AXllBYllCZllDUllEV
and AB :::BC:::CD:::DE.
If mMN = 1 cm, then find the length of
LNandLQ.
2. Take a line segment of length 5.5 cm and
divide it into five congruent parts.
[Hint: Draw an acute angle LBAX. On AX take AP
- - - -
::: PQ::: QR::: RS::: ST.
Join T to B. Draw lines parallel to TB from the points
P, Q, Rand S.] D E F B
REVIEW EXERCISE 11
1. Fill in the blanks.
(i) In a parallelogram opposite sides are .. : ......... .
(ii) In a parallelogram opposite angles are ............ .
(iii) Diagonals of a parallelogram .. : ......... each other at a point.
(iv) Medians of a triangle are ............ .
(v) Diagonal of a parallelogram divides the parallelogram into two ...... . .... .
triangles. ~A~B
2. In parallelogram ABCD 1
(i) mAB ...... mDC (ii) mBC ...... mAD ~ _ .

(iii) rnLl =...... (iv) rnL2 =...... _
D
4
C
209 Mathematics 9
3. Find the unknowns in the given figure.
4. If the given figure ABCD is a

parallelogram, then find x, m.
A.._..._~~~~~--~
5. The given figure LMNP is a parallelogram.

Find the value of m, n. 4mi . ;:·P
~ 8m-4n M
8 N
6. In the question 5, sum of the opposite angles of the parallelogram is 110°, find
the remaining angles.
SUMMARY
In this unit we discussed the following theorems and used them to solve some
exercises. They are supplemented by unsolved exercises to enhance applicative skills
. of the students.
* In a parallelogram
(i) Opposite sides are congruent.
(ii) Opposite angles are congruent.
(iii) The diagonals bisect each other.
* If two opposite sides of a quadrilateral are congruent and parallel, it is a
parallelogram.
* The line segment, joining the mid-points of two sides of a triangle, is parallel to
the third side and is equal to one half of its length.
* The medians of a triangle are concurrent and their point of concurrency is the
point of trisection of each median. ·
* If three or more parallel lines make congruent segments on a transversal, they
also intercept congruent segments on any other line that cuts them.
Unit 12
LINE BISECTORS AND ANGLE BISECTORS

Unit Outlines
12.1. (i) Bisector of a Line Segment
(ii) Bisector of an Angle
* prove that any point on the right bisector of a line segment is equidistant from
its end points.
* prove that any point equidistant from the ·end points of a line segment is on the
right bisector of it.
* prove that the right bisectors of the sides of a triangle are concurrent.
* prove that any point on the bisector of an angle is equidistant from its arms.
* prove that any point inside an angle, equidistant from its arms, is on the bisector
of it.
* prove that the bisectors of the angles of a triangle are concurrent.
Introduction
In this unit we will prove theorems and their converses, if any, about right
bisector of a line segment and bisector of an angle. But before that it will be useful to
recall the following definitions:
Right Bisector of a Line Segment
A line is called a right bisector of a line segment if it is perpendicular to the
line segment and passes through its mid-point.
Bisector of an Angle L
A ray is called a bisector of line segment if it divid~s the angle into - , , P

two equal parts. A ray BP is called the bisector of LABC if p is a / '
point in the interior 0f the angle and rnLABP = mLPBC. / \
Theorem 12.1.1 / \
Any point on the right bisector of a line segment is / '
I \
equidistant from its end points. A'---+----'-+-<---+--~ B
Given
A line LM intersects the line segment AB at the point
H H
C such that LM ..L AB and AC =BC . P is a point on LM.
210
211 Mathematics 9
To Prove
PA:::PB
Construction
Join P to the points A and B.
Proof
- Statements Reasons
In MCP t--t aBCP
- -
AC:::BC given
- -
LACP=:LBCP given PC ..L AB , so that each L at· C
=90°
-
PC:::PC common
.. MCP::LIBCP S.A.S. postulate
- - (corresponding sides of congruent
Hence PA ::: PB
triangles)
Theorem 12.1.2
{Converse of Theorem 12.1.1}
Any point equidistant from the ~nd points of a line segment is on the right
bisector of it.
p
Given
AB is a line segment. Point P is such that PA =PB •
To Prove
The point P is on the right bisector of AB .
Construction
Joint P to C, the mid-point of AB .
Proof
Statements Reasons
In MCP ~-7 Af3CP
PA:::PB given
PC::PC common
AC:::BC construction
MCP::Af3CP S.S.S. ::: S.S.S.
Line Bisectors and Angle Bisectors 212
LACP=:LBCP ...... (i) (corresponding angles of congruent

triangles)
But mLACP + mLBCP = 180° ..... (ii) Supplementary angles
.. mLACP = mLBCP = 90° from (i) and (ii)
i.e., PC .l_ AB ...... (iii) mLACP = 90° (proved)
Also CA=:CB ...... (iv) construction
:. PC is a right bisector of AB from (iii) and (iv)

i.e., the point P is on the right bisector of
AB.
EXERCISE 12.1
1. ', Prove that the centre of a circle is on the right bisectors of each of its chords.
2. Where will be the centre of a circle passing through three non-collinear points?
And why?
3. Three villages P, Q and Rare not on the same line. The people of these villages
want to make a Children Park at such a place which is equidistant from these
three villages. After fixing the place of Children Park, prove that the Park is
equidistant from the three villages.
Theorem 12.1.3
The right bisectors of the sides of a triangle are concurrent.
Given A
L1ABC
To Prove
The right bisectors of AB , BC and CA are
concurrent.
Construction
Draw the right bisectors of AB and BC which meet each other at the point 0.
Join 0 to A, B and C. ·
------------------------------~~~-1
213 Mathematics 9
Proof
Statements Reasons
(Each point on right bisector of a
OA=:OB ...... (i)
segment is equidistant from its end
points)
OB=:OC ...... (ii) as in (i)
OA=:OC ...... (iii) from (i) and (ii)

Point 0 is on the right bisector of
CA. ...... (iv) (0 is equidistant from A and C)
But point 0 is on the right bisector
of AB and of BC ... (v) construction
Hence the right bisectors of the three
{from (iv) and (v)}
sides of a triangle are concurrent at 0 .
Observe that
(a) The right bisectors of the sides of an acute triangle intersect
each other inside the triangle.
(b) The right bisectors of the sides of a right triangle intersect
each other on the·hypotenuse.
(c) The right bisectors of the sides of an obtuse triangle intersect
each other outside the triangle.
Theorem 12.1.4
Any point on the bisector of an angle is equidistant from its arms.
Given
-t
A point P is on OM , the bisector of LAOB.
To Prove
-t -t
PQ =PR i.e., P is equidistant from OA and OB .
Construction
0 Q
-t -t B
Draw PR ..L OA and PQ ..L OB
·(
Proof
Statements Reasons
In Af>OQ f-~ Af>OR
OP:::OP common
LPQO=:LPRO construction
LPOQ=:LPOR given
Af>OQ ::: Af>OR S.A.A. ::: S.A.A.
Hence PQ:::PR
triangles)
Theorem 12.1.5 (Converse of Theorem 12.1.4)
Any point inside an angle, equidistant from its arms, is on the bisector of it.
Given A
Any point P lies inside LAOB such that
~ ~
PQ ::: PR , where PQ .l OB and PR .l OA .
To Prove
Point Pis on the bisector of LAOB.
Construction 0 Q B
Join P to 0.
Proof
Statements Reasons
In Af>OQ f-~ Af>OR
LPQO=:LPRO given (right angles)
PO:::PO common
PQ:::PR given
~POQ:::Af>OR H.S. :::H.S.
Hence LPOQ::: LPOR (corresponding angels of congruent
triangles)
i.e., P is on the bisector of LAOB.
EXERCSISE 12.2
1. In a quadrilateral ABCD, AB= BC and the right bisectors of AD, CD meet
each other at point N. Prove that BN is a bisector of LABC.
2. The bisectors of LA, LB and LC of a quadrilateral ABCP meet each other at
point O. Prove that the bisector of LP will also pass through the point O.
215 Mathematics 9
3. Prove that the right bisectors of congruent sides of an isoscles triangle and its
altitude are concurrent.
4. Prove that the altitudes of a triangle are ·concurrent.
Theorem 12.1.6
The bisectors of the angles of a triangle are concurrent.
A
Given
~c
I
To Prove ............!,.'
,,,,,, ""r ...........
The bisectors of LA, LB and LC are concurrent. .,,,"" I -
I
Construction
Draw the bisectors of LB and LC which
intersect at point I. From I, draw IF 1- AB , ID 1- BC and IE 1- CA .
Proof
Statements Reasons
-ID: -IF (Any point on bisector of an angle is
, equidistant from its arms)
Similarly,
-ID::IE
-
-IE::IF
-
=-ID, proved ..
I
.. ~ach
So, the point I is on the bisector of LA
.. . ... (i)
Also the point I is on the bisectors of
.LABC and LBCA ...... (ii) Construction
Thus the bisectors of LA, LB and LC
are concurrent at I. {from (i) and (ii)}
Note: In practical geometry also, by constructing angle bisectors of a triangle, we
shall verify that they are concurrent.
EXERCISE 12.3
1. Prove that the bisectors of the angles of base of an isoscles triangle intersect
each other on its altitude.
2. Prove that the bisectors of two exterior and third interior angle of a triangle are
concurrent.
REVIEW EXERCISE 12
1. Which of the following are true and which are false?
(i) Bisection means to divide into two equal parts.
(ii) Right bisection of line segment.means to draw perpendicular which
passes through the mid-point of line segment.
(iii) Any point on the right bisector of a line segment is not equidistant from
its end points.
(iv) Any point equidistant from the end points of a line segment is on the right
bisector of it.
(v) The right bisectors of the sides of a triangle are not concurrent.
(vi) The bisectors of the angles of a triangle are concurrent.
(vii) Any point on the bisector of an angle is not equidistant from its arms ...... .
(viii) Any point inside an angle, equidistant from its arms, is on the bisector
of it.
f-~ c
2. If CD is right bisector of line segment AB , then
(i) mOA= ........ .
(ii) mAQ = ........ . Q

3. Define the following D
(i) Bisector of a line segment
(ii) Bisector of an angle A
<\t-. . . ,If the given triangle ABC is equilateral triangle and AD is

0
bisector of angle A, then find the values of unknowns x ,
y and z
0 0
•
B c
L
5. In the given congruent triangles LMO and LNO,

find the unknowns x and m.
M m N
0 12
c
6. CD is right bisector of the line segment AB.
- - L
(i) If mAB =6 cm, then find the mAL and mLB . A I'
B
- I'
(ii) If mBD =4 cm, then find mAD . I'
I'
I'
D
217 Mathematics 9
SUMMARY
In this unit we stated and proved the following theorems:
* Any point on the right bisector of a line segment is equidistant from its end points.
* Any point equidistant from the end points of a line segment is on the right
bisector of it.
* The right bisectors of the sides of a triangle are concurrent.
* Any point on the bisector of an angle is equidistant from its arms.
* Any point inside an angle, equidistant from its arms, is on the bisector of it.
* The bisectors of the angles of a triangle are concurrent.
• Right bisection of a line segment means to draw a perpendicular at the mid-point
of line segment.
• Bisection of an angle means to draw a ray to divide the given angle into two equal
parts.
Unit 13
SIDES AND ANGLES OF A TRIANGLE

Unit Outlines
13.l'. (i) Sides of a Triangle
(ii) Angles of a Triangle

* prove that if two sides of a triangle are unequal in length, the longer side has an
angle of greater measure opposite to it. [
* prove that if two angles of a triangle are unequal in measure, the side opposite
to the greater angle is longer than the side opposite to the smaller angle.
* prove that the sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle is greater than
the length of the third side.
* prove that from a point~ out-side a line,' the perpendicular is the shortest
distance ffom the point ~ the line.
Introduction
Recall that if two sides of a triangle are equal, then the angles apposite to them
are also equal and vice-versa. But in this unit we shall study some interesting
inequality relations among sides and angles of a triangle.
Theorem 13.1.1
If two sides of a triangle are unequal in length, the longer side has an angle
of greater measure opposite to it. A
Given
In MBC, mAC > mAB
To Prove
mLABC > mLACB
B 1....
Construction
c
On AC take a point D such that AD= AB. Join B to D so that MDB is an

isosceles triangle. Label Ll and L2 as shown in the given figure.
218
219 Mathematics 9
Proof
Statements Reasons
I
In MBD
rnLl =rnL2 ...... (i) Angles opposite to congruent sides,
(construction)
In Af3CD, rnLACB < mL2
i.e., mL2>mLACB ...... (ii) (An exterior angle of a triangle is greater
than a non-adjacent interior angle)
... rnLl >rnLACB ...... (m) By (i) and (ii)
But
mLABC = rnLl + mLDBC Postulate of addition of angles.
.. rnLABC>rnLl ...... (iv)
.. mLABC > rnLl >rnLACB By (iii) and (iv)
Hence rnLABC > mLACB (Transitive property of inequality of real
numbers)
Example 1
Prove that in a scalene triangle, the angle opposite to the largest side is of
measure greater than 60° (i.e., two-third of a right-angle)
r
A
Given
I
~h MBC, AC > AB > BC
To Prove
mLB >60°.
Proof
Statements Reasons
In MBC
- -
mLB>mLC rnAC > rnAB (given)
mLB>mLA
- -
rnAC > rnBC (given)
But mLA + rnLB + mLC = 180° LA, LB, LC are the angles of MBC
.. mLB + mLB + mLB > 180° mLB > mLC, mLB > mLA (proved)
Hence rnLB > 60° 180°/3 = 60°
Sides and Angles of Triangle 220
Example2
In a quadrilateral ABCD, AB is the longest side and CD is the shortest
side. Prove that mLBCD > mLBAD. A
Given
In quad. ABCD, AB is the longest side and
CD is the shortest side.

To Prove
mLBCD > mLBAD
Construction
Joint A to C. c B
Name the angles Ll, L2, L3 and L4 as shown in the figure.
Proof
Statements Reasons
In ~C, mL4 > L2 ...... I mAB > mBC (given)
In MCD, rnL3 > rnLl ...... II mAD > mCD (given)

mL4 + mL3 > mL2 + rnLl From I and II
Hence rnLBCD > mLBAD .. { rnL4 + mL3 = mLBCD

. mL2 + rnLl = mLBAD
Theorem 13.1.2
(Converse of Theorem 13.1.l)
If two angles of a triangle are unequal in measure, the side opposite to the
greater angle is longer than the side opposite to the smaller angle.
C~B
Given
In LlABC, mLA > mLB
To Prove
mBC>mAC ·
Proof
Statements Reasons
If mBC ::I> mAC , then
either (i)mBC
or
= mAC
(ii) mBC < mAC
} (Trichotomy property of real numbers)
221 Mathematics 9
From (i) if mBC =mAC , then

mLA=mLB (Angles opposite to congruent sides are
congruent)
which is not possible. Contrary to the given.
From (ii) if mBC < mAC , then

mLA<mL~ (The angle opposite to longer side is
greater than angle opposite to smaller
side)
This is also not possible. Contrary to the given.
mBC::tmAC
and mBC<mAC
Thus mBC > mAC Trichotomy property of real numbers.
Corollaries
(i) The hypotenuse of a right angled triangle is longer than each of the other two
sides.
(ii) In an obtuse angled triangle, the side opposite to the obtuse angle is longer than
each of the other two sides.
Example
- ~
ABC is an isosceles triangle with base BC • On BC a point D is taken away
from C. A line segment through D cuts AC at L and AB at M. Prove that
A
mAL >mAM.
Given
In MBC, AB :: AC
~
D is a point on BC away from C.
A line segment through D cuts AC
at Land AB at M.
To Prove
mAL>mAM B c D
Proof
... Statements Reasons
In ~c
- -
LB=:L2 ...... I AB =:AC (given)
In M1BD
mLI >mLB ...... II (Ll is an ext.Land LB is its internal
opposite L)
.. mLI >mL2 ...... III From I and II
In &CD,
mL2>mL3 .. .... IV (L2 is an ext. L and L3 is its internal
opposite L)
.. mLl > mL3 ...... v From III and IV
But L3=:L4 ...... VI Vertical angles
.. mLI >mL4 From Vand VI
- -
Hence mAL > mAM In ~M. mLl > mL4 (proved)
Theorem 13.1.3
The sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle is greater than the
length of the third side. D
Given ;-.,
~c
'V,
\ Y/.._
To Prove ' ', A

\
\
(i) mAB + mAC > mBC \
\
\
(ii) mAB + mBC > mAC \
(iii) mBC + mCA > mAB \I

\
Construction c
~
Take a point D on CA such that AD =AB. Join B to D and name the angles.
LI, L2 as shown in the given figure.
Proof
Statements Reasons
InMBD,
- -
LI =:L2 ...... (i) AD=:AB (construction)
mLDBC>mLl ...... (ii) mLDBC = mLl + mLABC
.. mLDBC>mL2 ...... (iii) From (i) and (ii)
223 Mathematics 9
In Ii DBC,
mCD>mBC By (iii)
i.e., mAD + mAC > mBC mCD = mAD + mAC
Hence mAB + mAC > mBC mAD = mAB (construction)

Similarly,
mAB + mBC > mAC
and mBC + mCA > mAB

Example 1
Which of the following sets of lengths can be the lengths of the sides of a
triangle?
(a) 2 cm, 3 cm, 5 cm (b) 3 cm, 4 cm, 5 cm, (c) 2 cm, 4 cm, 7 cm,
(a) 2+3=5
.. This set of lengths cannot be those of the sides of a triangle .
(b) 3 + 4 > 5, 3 + 5 > 4, 4 + 5 > 3
.. This set can form a triangle .
(c) 2+4<7
... This set of lengths cannot be the sides of a triangle .
Example 2
Prove that the sum of the measures of two sides of a triangle is greater than
twice the measure of the median which bisects the third side.
Given A
In A.ABC, .
median AD bisects side BC at D.
To Prove
mAB + mAC > 2mAD. r
I
\ I
Construction \ I
\ I
-7 - - \ I
\ I
On AD, take a point E, such that DE= AD. \ I
Join C to E. Name the ·angles LI, L2 as shown
in the figure. '
"E
Proof
Statements . Reasons
In ~D~L\ECD
BD:=CD Given
Ll :=L2 Vertical angles
AD:=ED Construction
~D:=L\ECD S.A.S. Postulate
AB=:EC ...... I Corresponding sides of = ~s
mAC + mEC > mAE ...... II ACE is a triangle
mAC + mAB > mAE From I and II
Hence mAC + mAB> 2m AD mAE =2mAD (construction)

Example3
Prove that the difference of measures of two sides of a triangle is les8 than
the measure of the third side.
A
Given
To Prove
mAC - mAB < mBC
mBC - mAB < mAC
B c
mBC - mAC < mAB
· Proof
Statements Reasons
mAB + mBC> mAC ABC is a triangle
(mAB + mBC - mAB) Subtracting mAB from both sides

>(mAC-mAB)
mBC > (mAC - mAB)
or mAC - mAB < mBC ...... 1 a>b ~ b<a

Similarly
rnBC - mAB < mAC }

Reason similar to I
mBC - mAC < mAB
225 Mathematics 9
EXERCISE 13.1
1. Two sides of a triangle measure 10 cm and 15 cm. Which of the following
measure is possible for the third side?
(a) 5 cm (b) 20 cm (c) 25 cm (d) 30 cm
2. 0 is an interior point of the MBC. Show that
---1---
mOA+mOB +m0C>2 (mAB +mBC+mCA)
3. In the MBC, rnLB = 70° and mLC = 45°. Which of the sides of the triangle is
longest and which is the shortest?
4. Prove that in a right-angled triangle, the
A
hypotenuse is longer than each of the
other two sides.
5. In the triangular figure, mAB > mAC. BD
and CD are the bisectors of LB and LC

respectively. Prove that mBD > mDC .
Theorem 13.1.4
From a point, outside a line, the perpendicular is the shortest distance
from the point to the line. c
Given
A line AB and a point C (not lying on
H H H
AB ) and a point D on AB such that CD 1- AB .
To Prove
mCD is the shortest distance form the A E D B
, H
point C to AB.
l
Construction
H
Take a pint Eon AB. Join C and E to form a L1CDE.
Proof
Statements Reasons
In L1CDE
mLCDB > mLCED (An exterior angle of a triangle is greater
than non adjacent interior angle).
But mLCDB = rnLCDE Supplement of right angle.
.. mLCDE > mLCED
or rnLCED < rnLCDE a>b::::}b<a
or mCD<mCE H Side opposite to greater angle is greater.

But E is any point on AB
Hence mCD is the shortest distance from

H
CtoAB.
Note:
(i) The distance between a line and a point not on it, is the length of the
perpendicular line segment from the point to the line.
(ii) The distance between a line and a point lying on it is zero.
EXERCISE 13.2
1. In the figure, P is any point and AB is a line. Which of the following is the
shortest distance between the point P and the line AB?
p
A
L
(a) rnPL (b) rnPM (c) rnPN (d) mPO

p
2. In the figure, P is any point lying away from the line
AB. Then rnPL will be the shortest distance if
(a) mLPLA = 80° (b) mL~B = 100°
.
(c) mLPLA =90° A L B
3. In the figure, PL is perpendicular

to the line AB and mLN > mLM .
Prove that rnPN > rnPM .

A L M N B
227 Mathematics 9
REVIEW EXERCISE, 13
Which of tiie-rdn~~ing are true and which are false?
(i) The angle opposite to the longer side of a triangle is greater.
(ii) In a right-angled triangle greater angle is of 60°.
an
(iii) In isosceles right-angled triangle, angles other than right angle are
each of 45°.
(iv) A triangl~ having two congruent sides is called equilateral trian~le.
(v) A perpendicular from a point to a line is shortest distance.
(vi) Perpendicular to line fonn an angle of 90°.
(vii) A point out side the line is collinear with it. _ :L ..
I - '
(viii) Sum oftwo sides ·{)ftriangle )is greater than the third. _]....
(ix) The distance between ·a 'line and a point on it is zero.
(x) Triangle can be formed of lengths 2 cm, 3 cm and 5 cm.
2. What will be angle for shortest distance from an outside point to the line?
'
3. If 13 cm, 12 cm, and 5 cm are . t!ie lengths of a triangle, then verify that
difference of measures of any two sides-o~ a triangle is less than the measure of
the third side. .
4. -.- If 10 cm, 6 cm and 8 cin are th~ lengths of a triangle, then verify that sum of
measures of two sides of a triangle is greater than the third side.
5. 3 cm, 4 cm and 7 cm are not the lengths of the triangle. Givethe reason.
6. If 3 cm and 4 cm are lengths of two sides of a right angle triangle, then what
should be the third length of the triangle.
SUMMARY
In this unit we stated and proved the following ·theorems:
* If two sides of a triangle are unequal ·in length, the longer side has an angl~ of
greater measure opposite to it.
* If two angles of a triangle ·are unequal in measure,. the side opposite to the
greater angle is longer than the side opposite to the smaller angle.
* The sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle is greater than the length
of the third side.
* From a point, outside a line, the perpendicular is the shortest distance from the
point to the line.
Unit 14
RA TIO AND PROPORTION

Unit Outlines
14.1 Ratio and Proportion

* prove that a line parallel to one side of a triangle, intersecting the other two
sides, divides them proportionally.
* prove that if a line segment intersects the two sides of a triangle in the same
ratio, then it is parallel to the third side.
* prove that the internal bisector of an angle of a triangle divides the side
opposite to it in the ratio of the lengths of the sides containing the angle.
* provtt~hat if two triangles are similar, the measures of their corresponding sides
are proportional.
Introdu0~tion
In this unit we will prove some theorems and corollaries involving ratio and
proportions of sides of triangle and similarity of triangles. A knowledge of ratio and
proportion is necessary requirement of many occupations like food service
occupation, medications in health, preparing maps for land survey and construction
works, profit to cost ratios etc.
Recall that we defined ratio a : b =~ as the comparison of two alike quantities a
and b, called the elements (terms) of a ratio. (Elements must be expressed in the same
units). Equality of two ratios was defined as proportion.
That is, if a: b = c: d, then a, b, c and dare said to be in proportion.
Similar Triangles
Equally important are the similar shapes. In particular the similar triangles that
have many practical applications. For example, we know that a photographer can
develop prints of different sizes from the same negative. In spite of the difference in
sizes, these pici:ures look like each other. One photograph is simply an enlargement of
another. They are said to be similar in shape. Geometrical figures can also be similar.
e.g., If
In ~C~LIDEF
228
229 Mathematics 9
LA:LD, LB:LE, LC:LF, and

mAB =mBC =mCA
- - -
mDE mEF mFD
D
then MBC and WEF are called similar triangles which is symbolically written as
MBC-WEF.
It means that corresponding angles of similar triangles are equal and measures
of their corresponding sides are proportional.
=
Af>QR &MN means that in ·
Af>QR f---7 &MN
LP:LL, LQ:LM,
LR:LN, PQ::LM,
-
QR::MN,
- RP:NL
p L
Now as mPQ = mQR =mRP = 1
mLM mMN mNL
Af>QR-&MN
In other words, two congruent triangles are similar also. But two similar triangles are
not necessarily congruent, as congruence of their corresponding sides is not
necessary.
A
Theorem 14.1.1
A line parallel to one side of a
triangle and intersecting the other two
sides divides them proportionally.
c
Ratio and Proportion 230
Given
In Li.ABC, the line l is intersecting the sides AC and AB at points E and D
respectively such that ED II CB.

To Prove
mAD : mDB = mAE : mEC
Construction
Join B to E. and C to D. From D draw DM J_ AC and from E draw EL J_ AB.
Proof
Statements Reasons
In triangles BED and AED, EL is the

common perpendicular.
. . Area of ~ED = 2 x mBD x mEL ...... (i) Area of a~=! (base)(height)
1 - -
. 1 - -
and .Area of ~AED = 2x mAD xmEL ...... (ii)
Area of ~ED
mDB ...... (iii) Dividing (i) by (ii)
Thus Areaof~D-
--
-
mAD
Similarly
Area of ~CDE mEC

Areaof ~E- -
...... (1.v) ~. ~
IIiAE
But ~ED:: ~CDE (Areas of triangles with common
base and same altitudes are equal.
Given that ED II CB , so altitudes
are equal.
.. From (iii) and (iv), we hav~
mDB mEC mAD mAE Taking reciprocal of both sides.

--=--or--=--
-
mAD mAE mDB mEC
-
Hence mAD : mDB = mAE : mEC
Observe that
From the above.theorem we also have
mBD mCE mAD mAE
--=--and-----
mAB mAC mAB mAC \ ,
231 Mathematics 9
Corollaries
mAD mAE - - mAB mAC - -
(a) If-=-=-=-, then DE II BC (b) I f - - = - - , then DE II BC
- -
mAB mAC mDB mEC
Points to be noted
(i) Two points determine a line and three non-collinear points determine a plane.
(ii) A line segment has exactly one midpoint.
(iii) If two intersecting lines form equal adjacent angles, the lines are perpendicular.
Theorem 14.1.2
(Converse of Theorem 14.1.1)
If a line segment intersects the two sides of a triangle in the same ratio ,
then it is parallel to the third side. A
Given
In MBC, ED intersects AB and AC such
that mAD : mDB = mAE : mEC
To Prove
EDllCB
C . _ _ - - - - - -- =-B
Construction ' __ -
I ---
- - I ------
If ED J(CB , then draw BF II DE to meet F .. -
AC produced at F.
Proof
Statements Reasons
In MBF
DEllBF Construction
mAD mAE (A line par~llel to one side of a triangle
...... (i) divides the other two sides
mDB mEF proportionally. Theorem 14.1.1)
mAD mAE
But - ---- ...... (ii) Given
mDB mEC
mAE mAE
.... - ---- From (i) and (ii)
mEF mEC
or mEF=mEC,
which is possible only if point F is
(Property of real numbers.)
coincident with C.
Our supposition is wrong.
Hence ED II CB
EXERCISE 14.1
A
l. In MBC, DE II BC .
(i) If mAD = 1.5 cm, mBD = 3 cm, mAE = 1.3 cm,
then find mCE.
(ii) If mAD = 2.4 cm,,mAE = 3.2 cm, mEC = 4.8 cm,
find ·mAR"
(iif) If mAD = %and ~AC = 4.8 cm, find mAE.

mDB
(iv) If mAD = 2.4 cm, mAE = 3.2 cm, mDE = 2 cm, mBC = 5 cm, find mAB,
mDB, mAC, mCE. •
(v) If AD= 4x- 3, AE = 8x- 7, BD = 3x- 1, and CE= 5x - 3, find the value
' of x.
A
2. If MBC is an isosceles triangle, LA is vertex angle and
DE intersects the sides AB and AC as shown in the

figure so that
mAD: mDB =mAE: mEC.
Prove that MDE is also an isosceles triangle.
A
3. In an equilateral triangle ABC shown in the figure,
mAE : mAC = mAD : mAB
Find all the three angles of MDE and name it also.
4. Prove that the line segment drawn through the mid-point of one side of a
triangle and parallel to another side bisects the third side.
5. Prove that the line segment joining the mid-points of any two sides of a, triangle
is parallel to the third side.
233 Mathematics 9
Theorem 14.1.3
The internal bisector of an angle of a triangle divides the side opposite to it
in the ratio of the lengths of the sides containing the angle.
,..1E
........2~
.; I
.; .; I
,.."' I
A ,.. I
J.
I
Given
In MBC internal angle bisector of LA meets CB at the point D.
To Prove
mBD : mDC =mAB : mAC
Construction
Draw a line segment BE II DA to meet CA produced at E.
Proof
Statements Reasons
AD II EB and EC intersects them, Construction

mLl = mL2 ...... (i) Corresponding angles
Again AD II EB
and AB intersects them,

.. mL3.=mL4 ...... (ii) Alternate angles
But mLl =mL3 Given
mL2=mL4 From (i) and (ii)
In a 11, the sides opposite to congruent
and AB :: AE or AE::: AB
angles are also congruent.
Now ADllEB Construction
mBD mEA
by Theorem 14.1.1
mDC mAC
mBD mAB
or --=-- mEA = mAB (proved)
mDC rnAC
. I
Thus mBD : mDC =mAB : mAC
Theorem 14.1.4
If two triangles are similar, then the measures of their corresponding sides
are proportional. A D
Given
MBC-L\DEF
i.e., LA:: LD, LB :: LE and LC:: LF
To Prove
mAB rnAC mBC
-
- ---
- --
mDE mDF mEF
Construction
(I) Suppose that mAB > mDE
- -
(II) mAB ~ mDE
On AB take a point L such that rnAL = mDE .
On AC take a point M such that mAM = mDF . Join L and M by the line
segmentLM.
Proof
Statements ReasQns
(I) In MLM ~-7 L\DEF
LA:=LD Given
AL::DE Construction
AM::DF Construction .-.

Thus MLM:: L\DEF S.A.S. Postulate
235 Mathematics 9
and LL:::LE, LM:LF (Corresponding angles of congruent

triangles)
Now LE:::LB andLF:=LC Given,.
.. LL:::LB ,LM:LC Transitivity of congruence
Thus LMllBC Corresponding angles are equal.
mAL mAM
Hence--=-- by Theorem 14.1.1
- -
mAB mAC
mDE mDF
or - --- · · · · · · (i) mAL = mDE and mAM = mDF
mAB mAC (construction)
Similarly by intercepting segments on
BA and BC , we can prove that
mDE mEF
...... (ii)
mAB mBC
mDE mDF mEF

Thus--=--=-- by (i) and (ii)
- - -
mAB mAC mBC
mAB mAC mBC

or --------
- - by talcing reciprocals
mDE mDF mEF
<m <
If mAB mDE , it can similarly
be proved by taldng intercepts on the
sides of IDEF.
If mAB =mDE
'. ' .
then in MBC f-~ IDEF
LA:LD Given
LB:LE .. Given
and AB:::DE
so L\ABC ::: IDEF A.S.A. ::: A.S.A
mAB mAC mBC
Thus - = - = - - = 1
AC:::DF , BC::: ·EF
Ii mDE mDF mEF
Hence the result is true for all the cases.
II
EXERCISE 14.2
A
-7
1. In ~C as shown in the figure, CD bisects LC
and meets AB at D. mBD is equal to
(a) 5 (b) 16 (c) 10 (d) 18
-7
c
2. In ~C shown in the figure, CD
bisects LC. If mAC = 3, mCB =6

and mAB = 7, then find mAD and
mDB.
3. Show that in any correspondence of two triangles, if two angles of one triangle
are congruent to the corresponding angles of the other, then the triangles are
similar.
4. If line segments AB and CD are intersecting at point X and -=- =-=-,

mAX
mXB
mCX
mXD
then show that ~AXC and ~XD are similar.
REVIEW EXERCISE 14
1. Which of the following are true ~d which are false?
(i) Congruent triangles are of same size and shape.
(ii) Similar triangles are of same shape but different sizes.
(iii) Symbol used for congruent is '::'.
(iv) Symbol used for similarity is '-'.
(v) Congruent triangles are similar.
(vi).Similar triangles are congruent.
(yii) A line segment has only one mid-point.
(viii) One and only one line can be drawn through two pomts.
(ix) Proportion is non-equality of two ratios.
(x) Ratio has no unit.
2. Define the following:
(i) Ratio (ii) Proportion
(iii) Congruent TriaI).gles (iv) Similar Triangles
'
237 Mathematics 9
3. In &MN shown in the figure, MN II PQ L

- --
(i) If mLM = 5 cm, mLP = 2.5 cm, mLQ = 2.3 cm,
then find mLN .
(ii) If mLM = 6 cm, mLQ = 2.5 cm, mQN = 5 cm,
then find mLP . M N
p
4. In the shown figure, let mPA = 8x - 7, mPB = 4x - 3,
mAQ = 5x - 3, mBR = 3x - 1. Find the value of x if

Q R
ABllQR.
L
~
5. In &MN shown in the figure, LA bisects
LL. If mLN = 4 mLM = 6, mMN = 8, then M N

find mMA and mAN . p
6. In Isosceles Af>QR shown in the figure, find the value

ofxandy.
SUMMARY
In this unit we stated and proved the following theorems and gave some necessary
definitions:
* A line parallel to one side of a triangle and intersecting the other two sides
divides them proportionally.
* If a line segment intersects the two sides of a triangle in the same ratio, then it is
parallel to the third side.
* The internal bisector of an angle of a triangle divides the side opposite to it in
the ratio of the lengths of the sides containing the angle.
* If two triangles are similar, then the measures of their corresponding sides are
proportional.
• The ratio between two alike quantities is defined as a : b =~ , where a and b are
the elements of the ratio.
• Proportion is defined as the equality of two ratios i.e., a : b = c : d
• T~o_lri~gles are said to be similar if they are equiangular and coi:responding
sides are ·proportional.
-
Unit 15
PYTHAGORAS' THEOREM
Unit Outlines
15.1. Pythagoras' Theorem

* prove that in a right-angled triangle, the square of the length of hypotenuse is
equal to the sum of the squares of the lengths of the other two sides.
(Pythagoras' theorem).
* prove that if the square of one side of a triangle is equal to the sum of the
squares of the other two sides, then the triangle is a right angled triangle
(converse to Pythagoras' theorem).
Introduction
Pythagoras, a Greek philosopher and mathematician, discovered the simple but
important relationship between the sides of a right-angled triangle. He formulated this
relationship in the form of a theorem called Pythagoras' Theorem after his naine.
There are various methods of proving this theorem. We shall prove it by using·similar
triangles. We shall state and prove its converse also and then apply it to solve -
different problems.
Pythagoras Theorem 15.1.1
In a right angled triangle, the square of the length of hypotenuse is equal to
the sum of the squares of the lengths of the other two sides.
B ~ ..........
.....
Y n'', c
',c.....
..... .....
..........
,"~
a .....
..........
.....
--~
c b A x A D • h C
(i) (ii)-a (ii)-b
Given
MCB is a right angled triangle in which rnLC =90° and mBC =a, mAC = b
andmAB =c.
238
239 Mathematics 9
To Prove
c2 =a2+ b2
Construction
Draw CD perpendicular from C on AB .
Let mCD = h, mAD = x and mBD = y. Line segment CD splits dABC into two
~s ADC and BDC which are separately shown in the figures (ii)-a and (ii)-b
respectively.
Proof (Using similar As)
Statements Reasons
In ~C~~MCB Refer to figure (ii)-a and (i)
LA::LA common - self congruent
LADC::LACB Construction - given, each angle = 90°
LC::LB LC and LB, complements of LA.
.. ~C-MCB Congruency of three angles
x b (Measures of corresponding sides of
.. ---
b-c similar triangles are proportional)
b2
or x=- ...... (I)
c
Again in LIBDC ~~ LIBCA Refer to figure (ii)-b and (i)
LB::LB Common-self congruent
LBDC::LBCA Construction - given, each angle= 90°
LC::LA LC and LA, complements of LB
.. LIBDC - LIBCA Congruency of three angles.
... l_~
a c
(Corresponding sides of similar triangles
are proportional).
2
a
or y=- · ...... (II)
c
But y+x=c Supposition.
2
a b2
.. -+-=c
c c
By (I) and (II)
'
2 2 2
or a +b =c Multiplying both sides by c.
i.e., c2 =a2 + b2
Pythagoras' Theorem 240
Corollary
In a right angled MBC, right angle at A,
-2 -2 -2
(i) mAB = mBC - mCA
-2 -2 -2
(ii) mAC = mBC - mAB
Remark
Pythagoras' Theorem has many proofs. The one we have given is based on the
proportionality of the sides of two similar triangles. For convenience ~s ADC and
CDB have been shown separately. Otherwise, the theorem is usually proved using
figure (i) only.
Theorem 15.1.2 [Converse of Pythagoras' Theorem 15.1.1]
If the square of one side of a triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of
the other two sides, then the triangle is a right angled triangle.
B
Given
- - - 2 2 2
In a MBC, mAB = c, mBC = a and mAC = b such that a + b = c .
To Prove
MCB is a right angled triangle.
Construction
Draw CD perpendicular to BC such that CD= CA. Join the points Band D.
Proof
Statements Reasons
mCB is a right-angled triangle. Construction
2 2 2
.. (mBD ) = a + b Pythagoras theorem
2 2 2
But a + b = c Given
2
(mBD )2 = c
or mBD=c Taking square root of both sides.

Now in
~DCB~~MCB
·.
241 Mathematics 9
- r
I
CD:CA Construction
I
BC:BC Common
DB:AB Each side = c.

Af)CB:::MCB s.s.s. =s.s.s.
LDCB:=LACB (Corresponding angles of congruent
triangles)
But mLDCB = 90° Construction
mLACB =90°
Hence the MCB is a right-angled
triangle.
Corollary: Let c be the longest of the sides a, b and c of a triangle.
* 2
If a + b
2
=c2, then the triangle is right.
2 2 2
* If a + b > c , then the triangle is acute.
2 2 2
* If a + b < c , then the triangle is obtuse.
EXERCISE 15
1. Verify that the As having the following measures of sides are right-angled.
(i) a= 5 cm, b = 12 cm, c = 13 cm
(ii) a= 1.5 cm, b=2cm, c=2.5 cm 'I
(iii) a = 9 cm, b = 12 cm, c = 15 cm
(iv) a= 16 cm, b= 30 cm, c = 34 cm
2 2 2 2
2. Verify that a + b , a - b and 2ab are the measures of the sides of a right
angled triangle where a and bare any two real numbers (a> b).
3. The three sides of a triangle are of measure 8, x and 17 respectively. For what
value of x will it become base of a right angled triangle? I
I
4. In an isosceles A, the base rnBC = 28 cm, and mAB = mAC = 50 cm.
If AD ..L BC , then find
!
I
(i) length of AD · (ii) area of AABC

I
5. In a quadrilateral ABCD, the diagonals AC and BD are perpendicular to each
~2 ~2 ~2 ~2
other. Prove that mAB + mCD =mAD + mBC .
I
_Pyt_ha_g_o_ra_s'_T._n_eo_m_m
_________ 2_~_2 ______________ --
~
6. (i) In the MBC as shown in the figure, mLACB
·= 90° and CD J_ AB. Find the lengths a, hand
b if mBD = 5 units and mAD = 7 units.
(ii) Find the value of.x in the shown figure.

BL-------""----~
x D 5cm
Plane
A
7. A plane is at a height of 300 m and is
500 m away from the airport as shown in
300m
the figure. How much distance will it
travel to land at the airpqrt?
B."-------....__.
Airport 500 m
8. A ladder 17 m long rests against a vertical wall. The foot of the ladder is 8 m
away from the base of the wall. How high up the wall will the ladder reach?
School
D
9. A student travels to his school by the route 3km

Bus Stop
as shown in the figure. Find mAD, the direct B 6km
distance from his house to school. ---------~-4 c
2km
A
• House
REVIEW EXERCISE 15
(i) In a right angled triangle greater angle is of 90°.
(ii) In a right angled triangle right angle is of 60°.
(iii) In a right triangle hypotenuse is a side opposite to right angle.
(iv) If a, b, care sides of right angled triangle with c as longer side, then
c2 =a2 + b2
. .....
243 Mathematics 9
(v) If 3 cm and 4 cm are two sides of a right angled triangle, then hypotenuse is
5cm.
(vi) If hypotenuse of an isosceles right triangle is --J2 cm, then each of other side_
is of length 2 cm.
2. Find the unknown value in each of the following figures.
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
·=~
x
6cm
3cm x 5cm
SUMMARY
In this unit we learned to state and prove Pythagoras' Theorem and its converse with
corollaries.
In a right angled triangle, the square of the length of hypotenuse is equal to the
sum of the squares of the lengths of the ·other two sides.
* If the square of o~e side of a triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of the
· other two sides then the triangle is a right angled triangle.
Moreover, these theorems were applied to solve some questions of practical
use.
Unit 16
THEOREMS RELATED WITH AREA

Unit Outlines
16.1 Theorems related with area

* prove that parallelograms on the same base and lying between the same parallel
lines (or of the same altitude) are equal in area.
* prove that parallelograms on equal bases and having the same altitude are equal
in area.
* prove that triangles on the same base and of the same altitude are equal in area.
* prove that triangles on equal bases and of the same altitu1le are equal in area.
Introduction
In this unit we will state and prove some important theorems related with area
of parallelograms and triangles along with corollaries. We shall apply them to solve
appropriate problems and to prove some useful results.
Some Preliminaries
Area of a Figure
The region enclosed by the bounding lines of a closed figure is called the area
of the figure.
The area of a closed region is expressed m square units (say, sq. m or m2) i.e., a
positive real number.
Triangular Region A
The interior of a triangle is the part of the
plane enclosed by the triangle.
A triangular region is the union of a triangle
and its interior i.e., the three line segments forming
the triangle and its interior.
By area of a triangle, we mean the area of its B c
triangular region.
Congruent Area Axiom
If MSC =AflQR, then area of (region MSC) = area of (region AflQR)
244
245 Mathematics 9
Rectangular Region
The interior of a rectangle is the part of the
D c
plane enclosed by the rectangle.
A rectangular region is the union of a
rectangle and its interior. .
A rectangular region can be divided into two B
or more than two triangular regions in many ways.
Recall that if the length and width of a rectangle are a units and b units
respectively, then the area of the rectangle is equal to ax b square units.
If a is the side of a square, its area =a 2 square units.
Between the same Parallels
Two parallelograms are said to be between the A D E H
same parallels, when their bases are in the same
straight lin'b and their sides opposite to these bases are
also in a straight line; as the parallelograms ABCD,
EFGH in the given figure.
\\ IZ
B c F G
Two triangles are said to be between the same A D

parallels, when their bases are in the same straight line
and the line joining their vertices is parallel to their
bases; as the ~s ABC, DEF in the given figure.
/\ 21
B C E F
A triangle and a parallelogram are said to be
between the same parallels, when their bases are in A D G
/\ 77
the same straight line, and the side of the
parallelogram opposite the base, produced if
necessary, passes through the vertex of the triangle
as are the ~C and the parallelogram DEFG in B C E F
the given figure.
Definition
If one side of a parallelogram is taken as its base, the perpendicular distance
between that side and the side parallel to it, is called the Altitude or Height of the
parallelogram.
Definition
If one side of a triangle is taken as its base, the perpendicular to that side, from
the opposite vertex is called the Altitude or Height of the triangle .
•
Theorem Related with Area 246
Useful Result A D
Triangles or parallelograms placed between the same or
equal parallels will have the same or equal altitudes or heights.
Place the triangles ABC, DEF so that their bases BC , EF B L C E M F

are in the same straight line and the vertices on the same
side of it, and suppose AL , DM are the equal altitudes. We have to show that AD is
parallel to BCEF.
Proof
AL and DM are parallel, for they are both perpendicular to BF. Also
mAL =mDM . (given)
AD is parallel to LM.
A similar proof may be given in the case of parallelograms.
Useful Result
A diagonal of a parallelogram divides it into two congruent triangles (S.S. S.)
and hence of equal area.
Theorem 16.1.1
Parallelograms on the same base and between the same parallel lines (or of
the same altitude) are equal in area.
Given
Two parallelograms ABCD and ABEF having·the same base AB and between
the same pa:allel lines AB and DE.
p_ _ _D
To Prove
area of parallelogram ABCD = area of parallelogram ABEF
247 Mathematics 9
Proof
Statements Reasons
area of (parallelogram ABCD)
=area of (quad. ABED)+ area of (i\CBE) .. . (1) [Area addition axiom]
area of (parallelogram ABEF)
=area of (quad. ABED)+ area of (L\DAF) .. . (2) [Area addition axiom]
In i\s CBE and DAF
[opposite sides of a
mCB =mDA parallelogram]
[opposite sides of a
mBE =mAF parallelogram]
mLCBE = m LDAF
- - - -
[·: BCllAD, BEllAF]
i\CBE ::L\DAF) [S.A.S. cong. axiom]
.. area of (i\CBE) =area of (L\DAF) ...... (3) [cong. area axiom]
Hence area of (parallelogram ABCD)
=area of (parallelogram ABEF) from (1), (2) and (3)
Corollary
(i) The area of a parallelogram is equal to that of a rectangle on the same base and
having the same altitude.
(ii) Hence area of parallelogram = base x altitude
Proof
Let ABCD be a parallelogram. AL is an altitude corresponding to side AB.
(i) Since parallelogram ABCD and rectangle ALMB are on the same base AB and
between the same parallels,
:. by above theorem it follows that L D M C
(ii)
area of (parallelogram ABCD) =area of (rect. ALMB)
But area of (rect. ALMB) = AB x AL l......_______.~V
Hence area of (parallelogram ABCD) =AB x AL.
A B
Theorem 16.1.2
Parallelograms on equal bases and having the same (or equal) altitride are
equal in area. A D E H
Given
Parallelograms ABCD, EFGH are on
equal bases BC, FG, having equal altitudes.
B C F G
To Prove
area of (parallelogram ABCD) =area of (parallelogram EFGH)
Construction
Place the parallelograms ABCD and EFGH so that their equal bases BC, FG are
in the straight line BCFG. Join BE and CH.
Proof
Statements Reasons I
The given llgms ABCD and EFGH are between

the· same parallels Their altitudes are equal (given)
Hence ADEH is a straight line II BC
mBC=mFG Given
=mEH EFGH is a parallelogram

--
Now mBC = mEH and they are II
BE and CH are both equal and II

Hence EBCH is a parallelogram A quadrilateral with two opposite
sides congruent and parallel is a
parallelogram
Now Area of llgm ABCD =Area of llgm EBCH (i) Being on the same base BC and ,__
between the same parallels
But Area of llgm EBCH = Area of llgm EFGH (ii) Being on the same base EH and,
between the same parallels
_}Ience area (llgm ABCD) =area (llgm EFGH) From (i) and (ii)
.. ~ j
EXERCISE 16.1
1. Show that the line segment joining the mid-points of opposite sides of a
parallelogram, divides it into two equal parallelograms.
2. In a parallelogram ABCD, mAB = 10 cm. The altitudes corresponding to sides
AB and AD are respectively 7 cm and 8 cm. Find AD.
3. If two parallelograms of equal areas have the same or equal bases, their
altitudes are equal.
249 Mathematics 9
Theorem 16.1.3
Triangles on the same base and of the same (i.e., equal) altitudes are equal
in area. M A D N
Given
8s ABC, DBC on the same base BC, and
having equal altitudes.
To Prove
~ea of (8ABC) = area of (8DBC)
vv B c
Construction
Draw BM II to CA, CN II to BD meeting AD produced in M, N.
Proof
I Statements
I
- Reasons
I
..
L\ ABC and A DBC are·between the same 11 5 , Their altitudes are equal
I
-
Hence MADN is parallel to BC
I
.. Area (llgm BCAM) =Area (llgm BCND) These ugms are on the same base
..... (i)
BC and-between the same 11 5
But Area of 8ABC = ~ (Area of llgm BCAM) (ii) Each diagonal of a llgm bisects it
/ into two congruent triangles
·~d Area of 8DBC = ~ CArea of llgm BCND)
J
(iii)
I
Hence Area (A ABC) =Area (A DB€) - - From (i), (ii) and (iii)
Theorem 16.1.4
Triangles on equal bases and of equal aititudes are equal in area.
x A D y
\ I
\ I
\
It
\
\
\
\
B c E
*
I
I
I
F
Given
As ABC, DEF on equal bases BC, EF and having altitudes equal.

To prove
Area (A ABC) = Area (A DEF)
Construction
Place the ~s ABC and DEF so that their equal bases BC and EF are in the same
straight line BCEF and their vertices on the same side of it. Draw BX II CA and
FY II ED meeting AD produced in X, Y respectively.
Proof
Statements Reasons
~ABC,~ DEF are between the same parallels Their altitudes are equal (given)
.. XADY is II to BCEF
.. area (llgm BCAX) = area (llgm EFYD) These llgms are on equal bases and
...... (i) between the same parallels
But Area of (~C) = l(Area of llgm BCAX) (ii) Diagonal of a llgm bisects it
and Area of (WEF) = l(Area of llgm EFYD)(iii)
.. area (~C) = area (WEF) From (i), (ii) and (iii)

-'
Corollaries
1. Triangles on equal bases and between the same parallels are equal in area.
2. Triangles having a common vertex and equal bases in the same straight line, are
equal in area.
EXERCISE 16.2
1. Show that a median of a triangle divides it into two triangles of equal area.
2. Prove that a parallelogram is divided by its diagonals into four triangles of
equal area.
A
3. Divide a triangle into six equal triangular

parts. B """'-i--+---..,.,_+--+~
REVIEW EXERCISE 16
(i) Area of a figure means region enclosed by bounding lines of closed figure. -
(ii) Similar figures have same area.
(iii) Congruent figures have same area.
------------------------~~~~-
251 Mathematics 9
- ~
(iv) A diagonal of a parallelogram divides it into two non-congruent triangles.
(v) Altitude of a triangle means perpendicular from vertex to the opposite side
(base).
(vi) Area of a parallelogram is equal to the product of base and height.
2. Find the area of the following.
(i) (ii)
D3cm
6cm
n
4cm
(iii) (iv)
8cm
3.
/k= I
Define the following
(i) Area of a figure (ii) Triangular Region
(iii) Rectangular Region (iv) Altitude or Height of a triangle
SUMMARY
..
In this unit we mentioned sme necessary preliminaries, stated and proved the
following theorems alonkwith corollaries, if any.
• Area of a figure means region enclosed by the boundary lines of a closed figure.
• A triangular region means the union of triangle and its interior.
• By area of a triangle means the area of its triangular region.
• Altitude or height of a triangle means perpendicular distance to base from its
opposite vertex.
* Parallelograms on the same base and between the same parallel lines (or of the
same altitude) are equal in area.
* Parallelograms on equal bases and having the same (or equal) altitude are equal
m area.
"* Triangles on the same base and of the same (i.e., equal) altitudes are equal in
area.
* Triangles on equal bases and of equal .altitudes are equal in area.
Unit 17
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY
-TRIANGLES
Unit Outlines
17.1 Construction of Triangles
17.2 Figures with Equal Areas

* Construct a triangle having given: two sides and the included angle, one side
and two of the angles, two of its sides and the angle opposite to one of them
(with all the three possibilities).
* Draw: angle bisectors, altitudes, perpendicular bisectors, medians, of a given
triangle and verify their concurrency.
* Construct a triangle equal in area to a given quadrilateral. Construct a rectangle
equal in area to a given triangle. Construct a square equal in area to a given
rectangle. Construct a triangle of equivalent area on a base of given length.
Introduction
In this unit we shall learn to construct different triangles, rectangles, squares
etc. The knowledge of these basic constructions is very useful in every day life,
especially in the occupations of wood-working, graphic art and metal trade etc.
Intermixing of geometrical figures is used to create artistic look. The geometrical
constructions are usually made with the help of a pair of compasses, set squares,
divider and a straight edge.
Observe that
If the given line segments are too big or too small , a suitable scale may be
taken for constructing the figure.
252
253 Mathematics 9
17.1 Construction of Triangles

(a) To construct a triangle, having given two sides and the included angle.
4.6cm B
Given
Two sides, say
mAB =4.6 cm and mAC =4 cm and the included angle, rnLA =60°.
Required
To construct the ~C using given information of sides and the included angle
=L60°
Construction
(i) Draw a line segment mAB =4.6 cm
(ii) At point A construct mLBA C = 60°.
(iii) Cut off mAC = 4 cm from the terminal side of L60°.
(iv) Join BC
(v) Hence, ABC is the required Li.
(b) To construct a triangle, having given one side and two of the angles.
A 5cm B
Practical Geometry- Triangles 254
Given
The side rnAB = 5 cm, say and two of the angles, say
mLA =60° and mLB =60°.
Required
To construct a MBC using given data.
Construction
(i) Draw the line segment rnAB= 5 cm
(ii) At point A construct mLBAC = 60°.
(iii) At point B construct mLBAC = 60°.
(iv) The terminal sides of these two angles meet at C.
(v) Hence, ABC is the required~.
Observe that
When two angles of a triangle are given, the third angle can be found from tlie.
fact that the sum of three angles of triangle is 180°. Thus two angles "being known, all
the three are known.
(c) Ambiguous Case

To construct a triangle having given two of its sides and the angle opposite
to one of them.
B B
D
c c
a
a
Figure (a) Figure (b)
Given
Two sides a, c and in LA = a opposite to one of them, say' a.
Required
To construct a triangle having the given parts.
Construction
(i) Draw a line segment AD of any length
(ii) .AtpointAdraw m.LDAB = mLA = .g
Practical Geometry - Triangles 256
3. Construct a right-angled Li m~asure of whose hypotenuse is 5 cm and one side

is 3.2 cm. (Hint: Angle in a semi-circle is a right angle).
4. Construct a right-angled isosceles triangle whose hypotenuse is
(i) 5.2 cm long
[Hint: A point on the right bisector of a line segment is equidistant from its
end points.]
(ii) 4.8 cm (iii) 6.2 cm (iv) 5.4 cm
5. (Ambiguous Case) Construct a MBC in which
(i) mAC = 4.2 cm, mAB = 5.2cm, mLB = 45° (two Lis)
(ii) mBC = 2.5 cm, mAB =5.0cm, mLA = 30° (one Li)
(iii) mBC = 5 cm, mAC = 3.5 cm, mLB =60°
Definitions
Three or more than three lines are said to be concurrent, if they all pass through
the same point. The common point is called the point of concurrency of the lines. The
point of concurrency has its own importance in geometry. They are given special
names.
(i) The internal bisectors of the angles of a triangle meet at a point called the
incentre of the triangle. ·
(ii) The point of concurrency of the three perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a /:!,.
is called the circumcentre o( the A
(iii) The point of concurrency of the three altitudes of a Li is called its orthocentre.
(iv) The point where the three medians of a Li meet is called the centroid of the
triangle.
17 .1.1 Drawing angle bisectors, altitudes etc.
(a) Draw angle bisectors of a given triangle and verify their concurrency.
Example
(i) Construct a MBC having given
mAB = 4.6 cm, mBC .= 5 cm ~d
mCA=5.1 cm.
(ii) Draw its angle bisectors and verify that they
are concurrent.
Given
The side mAB = 4.6 cm, mBC = 5 cm and
mCA = 5.1 cm of a MBC.
Required B 5cm c
(i) To construct MBC.
(ii) To draw its angle bisectors and verify their concurrency.
257 Mathematics 9
Construction
(i) Take mBC = 5 cm.
(ii) With B as centre and radius mBA = 4.6 cm draw an arc.
(iii) With C as centre and radius mCA = 5.1 cm draw another arc which intersects
the first arc at A.
(iv) Join BA and CA to complete the MBC.
(v) Draw bisectors of LB and LC meeting each other in the point I.
(vi) Now draw bisector of the third LA.
(vii) We observe that the third angle bisector also passes through the point I.
(viii) Hence the ru;igle bisectors of the MBC are concurrent at I, which lies within
the L\.
Note: Recall that the point of concurrency of bisectors of the angles of triangle is
called its incentre.
(b) Draw altitudes of a given triangle and verify their concurrency.
Example /f
(i) Construct a triangle ABC in which
mBC = 5.9 cm, rnLB = 56° and /
/
+
/
/
Q
mLC=44°.
(ii) Draw the altitudes of the triangle and
verify that they are concurrent.
Given
The side mBC = 5.9 cm and
mLB = 56°, mLC = 44°.
B 1p 5.9 cm c
Required I
(i) To construct the L\ABC.

(ii) To draw its altitudes and verify their concurrency.
Construction
'*•
(i) Take mBC = 5.9 cm.
(ii) Using protractor draw rnLCBA = 56° and niLBCA = 44° to complete the
MBC.
(iii) From the vertex A drop AP ..l BC.
(iv) From the vertex B drop BQ ..l CA. These two altitudes meef in the point 0
inside the MBC. •
(v) Now from the third vertex C, qrop CR ..l AB.
(vi) We observe that this third altitude also passes through the point of intersection
0 of the first two altitudes.
(vii) Hence the three altitudes of MBC are concurrent at 0.
Note: Recall that the point of concurrency of the three altitudes of a triangle is called
its orthocentre. '
(c) Draw perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a given triangle and verify their
concurrency.
Example
(i) Construct a MBC having given mAB = 4 cm, mBC = 4.8 cm and
mAC=3.6cm.
(ii) Draw perpendicular bisectors of its sides and verify that they are concurrent.
Given
Three sides mAB = 4 cm, mBC = 4.8 cm and mAC = 3.6 cm of a MBC.
Required ·
(i) To construct the MBC.
(ii) To draw perpendicular bisectors of its sides and to verify that they are
concurrent.
Construction
(i) Take mBC = 4.8 cm.
(ii) With B as centre and radius mBA = 4 cm draw an arc.
(iii) . With C as centre and radius mCA = 3.6 cm draw another arc that intersects the
first arc at A. ·
(iv) Join BA and CA to complete the MBC.
259 Mathematics 9
(v) Draw perpendicular bisectors of BC and CA meeting each ofuer·at the point 0.
(vi) Now draw the perpendicular bisector of third side AB.
(vii) We observe that it also passes through 0, the point of intersection of first two
perpendicular bisectors.
(viii) Hence the three perpendicular bisectors of sides of ~Care concurrent at 0.
Note: Recall that the point of concurrency of the perpendicular bisectors of the sides
of a triangle is called its circ1Imcentre.
(d) Draw medians of a given triangle and verify their concurrency
Example
(i) Construct a ~C in which mAB =4.8 cm, mBC =3.5 cm and mAC =4 cm.
(ii) Draw medians of MBC and verify that they are concurrent at a point within
the triangle. By measurement·show that the medians divide each other in the
ratio 2: 1.
Given
Three sides mAB =4.8 cm, mBC =3.5 cm and mAC =4 cm of a MBC.
Required
(i) Construct the MBC.
(ii) Draw its medians and verify their concurrency.
*' ''
'
' ' ', R
~'
I>< Ci
A ~........ 4.8qm1P1 B
_, \ I I
~ \I I
\I/
t
/I'
+
Construction
(i) Take mAB =4.8 cm.
(ii) With A as centre and mAC =4 cm as radius draw an arc.
(iii) With B as centre and radius mBC = 3.5 cm draw another arc which intersects
the first arc at C.
(iv) Join AC and BC to get the L1ABC.
(v) Draw perpendicular bisectors of the sides AB, BC and CA of the ~C and
mark their mid-points P, Q and R re.spectively.
(vi) Join A to the mid-point Q to get the median AQ.

(vii) Join B to the mid-point R to have the median BR.
(viii) The medians AQ and BR meet in the point G.
(ix) :Now draw the third median CP.
(x) We observe that the third median also passes through the point of intersection
G of the first two medians.
(xi) Hence the three medians of the L1ABC pass through the same point G. That is,
- -
they are concurrent at G. By measuring, AG: GQ = 2: 1 etc.
Note: Recall that the point of concurrency of the three medians of a triangle is called
the centroid of the ~C.
EXERCISE 17.2
1. Construct the following !:l's ABC. Draw the bisectors of their angles and verify
their concurrency.
(i) mAB =4.5 cm, mBC=3.l cm and mCA=5.2cm
(ii) mAB = 4.2 cm, mBC=6cm and mCA=5.2cm
-
(iii) mAB = 3.6 cm, mBC=4.2cm and mLB = 75°.
2. Construct the following !:!.' s PQR. Draw their altitudes and show that they are
concurrent.
(i) mPQ = 6 cm, mQR = 4.5 cm and mPR = 5.5 cm
(ii) mPQ = 4.5 cm, mQR = 3.9 cm and mLR = 45°
(iii) rnRP = 3r6 cm, mLQ = 30° and mLP = 105°.
3. Construct the following triangles ABC. Draw the perpendicular bisectors of
their sides and verify their concurrency. Do they meet inside the triangle?
(i) mAB = 5.3 cm, mLA = 45°, mLB = 30°
(ii) mBC = 2.9 cm, mLA = 30°, mLB = 60°
(iii) mAB = 2.4 cm, mAC = 3.2 cm, mLA = 120°
261 Mathematics 9
4. Construct the following ~s XYZ. Draw their three medians and show that they
are concurrent.
(i) mYZ=4.1 cm, mLY=60° and mLX=75°
-
(ii) mXY = 4.5 cm, mYZ= 3.4cm, and mZX=5.6cm
(iii) mZX = 4.3 cm, mLX = 75°, and mLY=45°
17.2. Figures with Equal Areas
(i) Construct a triangle equal in area to a given quadrilateral.
D c
Given
A quadrilateral ABCD.
Required
To construct a ~ equal in area to
quadrilateral ABCD.
p A B
Construction
(i) Join AC.
(ii) Through D draw DP II CA, meeting BA produced at P.
(iii) Join PC.
(iv) · Hence, PBC is the _required triangle.
Observe that
~s APC, ADC stand on _
the same base AC and between the same parallels AC
and PD.
Hence MPC = ~C
~C + ~c = ~c + ~C or MBC =quadrilateral ABCD.
EXERCISE 17.3
1. (i) Construct a quadrilateral ABCD, having mAB = mAC = 5.3 cm,
- -- --
mBC = mCD = 3.8 cm and rnAD = 2.8 cm.
(ii) On the side BC construct a~ equal in area to the quadrilateral ABCD.
2. Construct a~ equal in area to the quadrilateral PQRS, having mQR = 7 cm, .

- --
rnRS = 6 cm, mSP = 2.75 cm. rnLQRS = 60°, and rnLRSP = 90°.
[Hint: 2.75 = ~ x 5.5]
3. Construct a~ equal in area to the quadrµateral ABCD, having mAB = 6 cm,

rnBC = 4 cm, mAC = 7.2 cm, mLBAD = 105°, and mBD = 8 cm.
4. Construct a right-angled triangle equal in area to a

given square.
A
(ii) Construct a rectangle equal in area to a given triangle.
Given
~ABC
Required
To construct a rectangle equal in area
toMBC.
Construction
(i) Take a MBC.
f--~
(ii) Draw DP, the perpendicular bisector
of BC.
(iii) Through the vertex A of MBC draw
f--7 - f--~
PAQ II BC intersecting PD at P.
(iv) Take mPQ =mDC.
(v) Join Q and C.
(vi) Hence, CDPQ is the required rectangle.
Example
Construct a parallelogram equal in area to a given triangle having one angle
equal to a given angle.
Given
MBCandLa
Required
To construct a parallelogram equal in
area to MBC and having one angle = La
B c
Construction
(i) Bisect BC at D.
(ii) Draw DE making LCDE = La
~ -
(iii) Draw AEF II to BC cutting DE at E.
- -
(iv) Cut off EF =DC. Join C and F.
Hence, CDEF \s the required parallelogram.
263 Mathematics S
EXERCISE 17.4
1. Construct a !J.. with sides 4 cm, 5 cm and 6 cm and construct a rectangle having
its area equal to that of the !J... Measure its diagonals. Are they equal?
2. Transform an isosceles !J.. into a rectangle.
3 Construct a !J..ABC such that mAB = 3 cm, mBC = 3.8 cm, mAC = 4.8 cm.
Construct a rectangle equal in area to the !J..ABC, and measure its sides.
(iii) Construct a square equal in area to a given rectangle.
Given
A rectangle ABCD. L
Required
To construct a square equal in area to
rectangle ABCD.
Construction
(i) Produce AD to E making mDE =mCD.
(ii) Bisect AE at 0. B
" c
(iii) With centre 0 and radius OA describe a
semi-circle.
(iv) Produce CD to meet the semi-circle in M.
(v) On DM as a side construct a square DFLM.
This shall be the required square.
Example
Construct a square equal in area to a given triangle .
•
I
...........,
N
''
'
\
\
\
I
E 01 F .G R
I
B I
I
Given
!J..ABC.
*
Required
To construct a square equal in area to dABC.
Construction
f--7 -
(i) Draw PAQ II BC.
f--7
(ii) Draw perpendicular bisector of BC, bisecting it at D and meeting PAQ at P.
- -
(iii) Draw CQ l_ PQ meeting it in Q.
(iv) Take a line EFG and cut off EF =DP and FG =DC.
(v) Bisect EG at 0.
(vi) With 0 as centre and radius= OE draw a semi-circle.
(vii) At F draw FM l_ EG meeting the semi-circle at M.
(viii) With MF as a side, complete the required square FMNR.
(iv) Construct a triangle of equivalent area on a base of given length.
,
Given
AABC
Required
To construct a triangle with base x and having area equivalent to area AABC.
Construction
(i) Construct the given AABC.
f--+ -
(ii) Draw AD II BC.
. dr f-~
(iii) With B as centre and radrns = x, aw an arc cutting AD in M.
- -
(iv) Join BM and CM.
(v) Hence, BCM is the required triangle with base BM = x and area equivalent to (
areaAABC. ·
265 Mathematics 9
EXERCISE 17.5
1. Construct a rectangle whose adjacent sides are 2.5 cm and 5 cm respectively.
Construct a square having area equal to the given rectangle.
2. Construct a square equal in area to a rectangle whose adjacent sides are 4.5 cm
and 2.2 cm respectively. Measure the sides of the square and find its. area and
compare with the area of the rectangle.
3. In Q.2 above verify by measurement that the perimeter of.the square is less than
that of the rectangle.
4. Construct a square equal in area to the sum of two squares having sides 3 cm
and 4 cm respectively.
5. Construct a Ii having base 3.5 cm and other two sides equal to 3.4 cm and
3.8 cm respectively. Transform it into a square of equal area.
6. Construct a Ii having base 5 cm and other sides equal to 5 cm and 6 cm.
Construct a square equal in area to given Ii.
REVIEW EXERCISE 17
1. Fill in the following blanks to make the statement true:
(i) The side of a right angled triangle opposite to 90° is called ..... .
(ii) The line segment joining a vertex of a triangle to the mid-point of its opposite
side is called a ..... .
(iii) A line drawn from a vertex of a triangle which is ...... to its opposite side is
called an altitude of the triangle. ·
(iv) The bisectors of the three angles of a triangle are ..... .
(v) The point of concurrency of the.right bisectors of the three sides of the triangle
is ...... from its vertices.
(vi) Two or more triangles are said to be similar if they are equiangular and
measures of their corresponding sides are ...... .
(vii) The altitudes of a right triangle are concurrent at the ...... of the right angle.
(i) A triangle having two sides congruent is called ..... .
(a) scalene (b) right angled
(c) equilateral (d) isosceles
(ii) . A quadrilateral having each angle equal ot 90° is called ..... .
(a) parallelogram (b) rectangle
(c) trapezium (d) rhombus
(iii) The right bisectors of the three sides of a triangle are ..... .
(a) congruent (b) collinear
(c) concurrent (d) parallel
(iv) The ...... altitudes of an isosceles triangle are congruent.

(a) two (b) three
(c) four (d) none
(v) A point equidistant from the end points of a line-segment is on its ..... .
(a) bisector (b) right-bisector
(c) perpendicular (d) median
(vi) ...... congruent triangles can be made by joining the mid-points of the sides of
a triangle.
(a) three (b) four
(c) five (d) two
(vii) The diagonals of a parallelogram ...... each other.
(a) bisect (b) trisect
(c) bisect at right angle (d) none of these
(viii) The medians of a triangle cut each other in the-ratio ..... .
(a) 4: 1 (b) 3: 1
(c) 2 : 1 (d) 1 : 1
(ix) One angle on the base of an isosceles triangle is 30°. What is the measure of its
vertical angle. . .....
(a) 30° (b) 60°
(c) 90° (d) 120°
(x) If the three altitudes of a triangle are congruent, then the triangle is .._. ...
(a) equilateral (b) right angled
(c) isosceles (d) acute angled
(xi) It two medians of a triangle are congruent then the triangle will be ..... .
(a) isosceles (b) equilateral
(c) right angled (d) acute angled
3. Define the following
(i) Incentre (ii) Circumcentre
(iii) Orthocentre (iv) Centroid
(v) Point of concurrency
SUMMARY
In this unit we learnt the construction of following figures and relevant concepts:
* To construct a triangle, having given two sides and the included angle.
* To construct a triangle, having given one side and two of the angles.
* To construct a triangle having given two of its sides and the angle opposite to
one of them.
267 Mathematics 9
* Draw angle bisectors of a given triangle and verify their concurrency.

* Draw altitudes of a given triangle and verify their concurrency.
* Draw perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a given triangle and verify their
concurrency.
* Draw medians of a given triangle and verify their concurrency.
* Construct a triangle equal in area to a given quadrilateral.
* Construct a rectangle equal in area _to a given triangle.
* Construct a square equal in area to a given rectangle.
*· . Construct a triangle of equivalent area on a base of given length.
• Three or more than three lines are said to be concurrent if these pass through
the same point and that point is called the point of concurrency.
• The point where the internal bisectors of the angles of a triangle meet is called
incentre of a triangle.
• Circumscentre of a triangle means the point of concurrency of the three
perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a triangle. ...
• Median of a triangle means a line segment Joining a vertex of a triangle to the
midpoint of the opposite side.
• Orthocentre of a triangle means the point of concurrency of three altitudes of a
triangle.
ANSWERS
EXERCISE 1.1
1. Order of A is 2-by-2, Order of B is 2-by-2, Order of C is l-by-2,
Order of Dis 3-by-1, Order of Eis 3-by-2, Order ofF is l-by-1,
Order of G .is 3-by-3, Order of His 2-by-3
2. A = C, B = I, E = H = J, F = G
3. a= -4,
b = -1.5, c = 4 and d = 3
EXERCISE 1.2
1. A null matrix B row matrix c column matrix
D unit matrix E null matrix F column matrix
2. (a) (iii) (iv) (viii) (b) (i) (ii) (v) (vi) (vii) (ix)
(c) (vi) (d) (ii) (vii) (e) (iv) . (f) (ix)
3. Scalar matrices: A, E
Unit matrices = C
Diagonal matrices: A, B, C, D, E
4.
[-1]~ ,l-2 _J l-3 -2 l·[
-3 1 -2 -6 3 -2
4 _sJ. l-2 -3 l
-1 5
5. A'= [0 I -2], B' = u], C' = [;

2
-1
3] t
0 'D =
[ 2
3 ~]'
t [2 -4] t [1 3]
E= 3 5 'F= 2 4
EXERCISE 1.3
1. A and E, B and D, C and F.
2. [ -2
2
-4]
-1 '
[-1 _;] '
-2
0
1 [ ~ ], [-!
3
0 ]
2 '
'- 3 2 -1 -2 -1
[-~ -~]' [-r -1 ]

-'12
3. (i) [~ ; ] (ii) [-21] (iii) [ -1 0 5]
(iv) [i
3
0 ~] (v) [ -2
4 ~] (vi) [-_i]
268
269 Mathematics 9
(vii) [ -2 2 -4 ] (viii) [ _~ 6
0
9]
6
(ix) [ 3 -3 6l
4. (i) [~ i] (ii) [~ ! ] (iii) [ 1 1 1l
6.
(iv)
(i)
[!
[is
3 4]
1 1
4 5
~OJ
(v)
(ii) [ :25 15 ]
-16
un 2
2
3
.
.7. a=2,b=3
(vi)
13
[~ ~ ]
2
EXERCISE 1.4
1. (i), (ii), (iv), (v) 2. . AB= [ 18 ]

(1)
[-~ -3 l
4
3. (i) [4] (ii) [-3] (iii) [-12] (iv) [24] (v) -15
r.
24 34
4. (a) p -6
-2]
-1
0
-
(b) [ 1~ 13
34 t
(c)
[ 1:
12
15 ]
26 33
3 3
(d) [~ ~] (e) [ ~ ~J
EXERCISE 1.5
1. (i) -2 (ii) -8 (iii) 0 (iv) 10
2. (i) singular (ii) non-singular (iii) non-singular (iv) singular
3.
.
(1) A
-I
=[ 0
1/3
1/2 ]
1/6 (ii) B-1 =[ -i -; ]
. (iii) c- 1 does not exist (iv) n- 1 = [ _! -g ]
5. (i) inverses (ii) inverses
EXERCISE 1.6
7 3 14
1. (.)
1 X =2, y =o c·11·)· X =l' y =-4 c·111··) X =S, y = s:- c·IV) X =- 2, y =o
(v) no solution (vi) x =4, y =-7 (vii) x = 2, y =0 (viii) x = 4, y = 2.
2. 15, 60 3. 18.5 cm, 15 cm 4. 49°, 49°, 82° 5. 26°, 64°
6. 50 km/h, 56 km/h
REVIEW EXERCISE 1
1. (i) b (ii) c. (iii) a (iv) b (v) a (vi) c (vii) a (viii) d
Answers 270
2. . nu11 (11)
(1) .. umt
. (m···) [ -01 21 J (iv) "# (v) same (vi) square
3. a =-6, b = 3. 22
4. .
(1)
[ 19 -6]
-4 -3 (ii) [ _~ -~; J (iii) [ -396 1i J (iv) [ ~~- 122]
3
5. [-42 -3]
1 .
EXERCISE 2.1
1. Rational Numbers: (ii), (iv), (v), Irrational Numbers: (i), (iii), (vi).
2. (i) 0.68 (ii) 4.75 (iii) 7.125
(iv) 11.3889 (v) 0.625 (vi) 0.65789
3. (i) F (ii) T (iii) F (iv) T (v) F
2/3
4. (i) • I I I I I I I I "'
-3 -2 -1 0 p1 2 3 4
P(-4/5)
(ii) • I I I I I 11 I I I •
-3 -2 -1 . 0 1 3 4
(iii) • I I I I "'
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 P2 3 4
-22.
8
(iv) • I 111111111 I . "'
-4 -3 p -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
214
(v) • I I I I I I II II I •
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 P3 4
(vi) • I I I "'
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2p 3
47 ") 5 ("") 13
5. 72 6. (l 9 11 99
EXERCISE 2.2
1. (i) Commutative w.r.t. addition. (ii) Associative w.r.t. multiplication.
(iii) Multiplicative Identity (iv) Trichotomy
(v) Commulative w.r.t. multiplication. (vi) Cancellation property of addition.
272
.) 5 14 ..) x=-,y=
~ 1 0 ... ) x=- 7 ,y=-24
(m
7. (I X= 13,y=13 3
REVIEW EXERCISE 2
1. (i) a (ii) c (iii) a (iv) c (v) b (vi) c (vii) c (viii) d
(ix) b (x) a (xi) a (xii) c (xiii) b (xiv) a (xv) c
2. @TOOF~T~FMT~F~F~T~T
3 42 6 1
3. c··> c···> c· >
(I.> x2y3 n s~s.. y• m xyz iv 5x5315" x4y2 4 . 5 5. 5 6• 1
2
1• 1
EXERCISE 3.1
1. (i) 5.7 x u>3 (ii) 4.98 x 10
7
(iii) 9.6 x 10
7
3
(iv) 4.169 x
7
ur
(v) 8.3 x ut (vi) 6.43 x 10-3 (vii) 7.4 x 10- (viii) 6 x 10
2 75
(ix) 3.95 x 10-9 ( ) · x lu53
x 2.5x10-
2. (i) 0.0006 (ii) 50,600,000,000 (iii) 0.000009018 (iv) 786,500,000
EXERCISE 3.2
1. (i) 2:3672 (ii) 1.4673 (iii) 4.5051 (iv) T.5059
2. (i) 0.4926 (ii) 2.4926 (iii) 3.4926 (iv) T.4926

3. (i) 3649 (ii) 0.5530
4. (i) 4 (ii) 36 (iii) 25 (iv) 1.ti021 5. (i) -7 (ii) 6
6. (i) 32 (ii) ~ (iii) 1 (iv) 8 (v) 81
EXERCISE 3.3
1. (i) log A+ log B (ii) log 15.2 - log 30.5 (iii) log 21 + log 5 - log 8
(iv) i [log 7 - log 15] (v) j log 22 - 3 log 5 (vi) log 25 +log 47 - log 29
(x+ lf
2. 1og x(x-1)
3. (i) log 21 x' 2,

") logj!
(11 (ill) log~ ' ) log_,-
(IV 'x6
4. (i) 4 (ii) 2
'· (i) t.'°'o (ii) 1.3801 (iii) 0.261' (iv) 0.42'9 (v) 1.4771
273
EXERCISE3A
1. (i) 11.15 (ii) 2.302 (iii) 261 (iv) 1.258
(v) 0.0895 (vi) 0.6229 (vii) 0.9811 (viii) 0.0008778
2. 329.2 3. lOunits 4. 707.1 5. 27.50
REVIEW EXERCISE 3
1. (i) c (ii) b (iii) d (iv) a (v) b (vi) a (vii) d (viii) e (ix) b (x) c
2. (i) 10 (ii) cbaracteristic (iii) mantissa (iv) antilogarithm (v) one (vi) 2
3. (i) 243 (ii) 4 (iii) 1 (iv)

1~.
4. (i) 284.6 (ii) 1.521 (iii) 1.010 (iv) 0.04206
5. (i) 1.6532 (ii) 0.0279 (iii) 2.6811
6. (i) 2.942 (ii) 3.213 (iii) 4529
EXERCISE 4.1
1. (i) No (ii) No (iii) Yes (iv) No
2. (i) No (ii) Yes (iii) Yes (iv) No
(ii) ~ (iii) 1 (iv) (x-y)2
4lz3 (v) x- l x- 2
3. (i)
x x-1 x-2 (vi) 2(x+2)
(vii) 4x(x- 1) (viii) x2 + 3x-4
4. (a) (i) 1c; = ~ (ii) -~ (b) -14
2
5. (i) 19 (ii) 8x (iii) x + 5 (iv) .x- y (v) x - 15x + 6 (vi) 0
2x- 3y 1 - 4x2 x2 - 36 x +Y 2(x - 3) (x + 3)2
6. (i) (~ - 7) (5x + 2) (ii) -
2
3 -x
(iii) 1 (iv) -(x +{) (v) x~x -i~
x+ yx-
EXERCISE 4.2
2 2
1. (i) a + b = 68 (ii) ab =2
2. -22 3. 46 4. ± 14 5. xy+yz+zx=40 6. 91
7. -3421 8. 316 9. 9217 ' 10. 18 11. 364 12. 110
13. 234
14, o> ex - y) c; +xy +I - o (ii) ( 2x :- iy) [4; +~ +b]

15. (i) I+ y6 (ii) } -y (iii) x12 -y12 (iv) 64x 12 - 1
EXERCISE 4.3
1. (i) 6\/5 (ii) 27~ (iii) 3~ (iv) 2xy~
Answers 274
2. (i) '13 (ii) '13 (iii) 3xy z

2 3
(iv) 4 (v) 21
3. (i) "15 (ii) 18'13 (iii) 15 (iv) 6\/5
4 4
4. (i) 6 (ii) 8 + 2-115 (iii) 2 (iv) 5/3 (v) x -y
EXERCISE 4.4
1. (i) '13t4 (ii) -{2 (iii) ~/6 (iv) - \ (3 - 2-{S)
1
(v) '1Ji + 4 (vi) -{5 + '13 (vii) 2 -'13 (viii) 4 +-{ls
2. (i) 3--{7 (ii) 4 + "15 (iii) 2-'13 (iv) 2--{S
(v) 5--{7 (vi) 4 +-115 (vii) 7 +~ (viii) 9-{2
3. (i) 2 + '13 (ii)-4--{0 (iii) 4
4. (i) "15 -'16 (ii) 2-{S (iii) 0
C) 14 178 2366 6. a= 4, b = 0
5. (i) 2'13. 12 ll 3 , 9 , 27
REVIEW EXERCISE 4
1. (i) a (ii) d (iii) b (iv) a (v) b (vi) b (vii) d (viii) c
2 2 2
2. (i) 4 (ii) (x - 2) (x + 2) (iii) x - 1 + l/x (iv) (a+ b)2 +(a - b)
(v) x 2 + \-2 (vi) 3 (vii) 2

x
+'13
3. (i) 7 (ii) 47 4. (i) 6 (ii) 34 5. 65,4
6. (i) 4 (ii) 2'13 (iii) 14 (iv) s'13
7. (i) 2-{S (ii) 4 (iii) 18 (iv) s-{S 8.(i) a2 + r=4 (ii)

2
'1 ~- X
2
EXERCISE 5.1
1. (i) 2ab(c - 2x + d) (ii) 3y(3x - 4x2 + 6y)
(iii) -3x(xy + 1 - 3y 2
) (iv) 5abc(bc 2 - 2ab2 - 4a2c)
(v) x2y(x- 3y) (3x - 7y) (vi) 2xy2(x2 + 5) (y + 4)
2. (i) (a - b) (5x - 3y) (ii) (y- 4)(3x + 2)
(iii) (x - 2y) (x2 + 3y2) (iv) (x - z) (xz + y2)
3. (i) (12a + 1)2 (n

. ) (ab-ab)2
(iii) (x + y - 7z) 2 (iv) 3(2x- 3)2
4. (i) 3(x - 5y) (x + 5y) (ii) (x-y)(x+y-1)
(iii) 2a(8m - 1 ln) (Sm+ l ln) (iv) 3x(l - 9x) (1 + 9x)
275 Mathematics 9
5. (i) (x + y + 3) (x - y - 3) (ii) (x - a+ l)(x +a - 1)

(iii)(2x + y + 1)(2.x- y - 1) (iv) (x + y - 1) (x - y - 3)
(v) (5x - 1 + 6z)(5x - 1 - 6z) (vi)(x + y - 2z) (x - y - 2z)
EXERCISE 5.2
1. (i) ( x2 - ~ + 1) ( x2 - ~- 1) (ii) 3(x2 + 2xy + 2y

2
) (x2 - 2xy + 2y2)
(iii) (a 2 + 2b 2 +ab) (a 2 + 2b2 - ab) (iv) (2x2 + 6x + .9) (2x2- 6x + 9)

2 2
(v) (x + 3x + 5) (x - 3x + 5) (vi)
2
(x + 2x + 4) (x2 - 2x + 4)
2. (i) (x + 8) (x + 6) (ii) (x - 12) (x - 9)
(iii) (x - 14) (x + 3) (iv) (x - 11) (x + 12)
3. (i) (2.x + 5)(2.x + 1) (ii) (5x - 3) (6x + 5)
(iii) (8x - 3) (3x - 7) (iv) (5x - 21) (x + 1)
(v) (4x - y) (x - 4y) (vi) (x - 13y) (3x + y)
(vii)(5x - 2y) (x + 7y) (viii) ( 5x - ~ + 2) (5x - ~ + 2)

4. (i) (x2 + 5x + 7)(x2 + 5x + 3) (ii) (x - 5) (x + 1) (x - 2)2
(iii) (x2 + 7x + 15) (x2 + 7x + 7) (iv) (x- 8)(x + 7)(x- 3) (x + 2)
2
(v) (x + 8x+6)(x2 + 4x+ 1 6)
5. (i) (x - 4) 3 (ii) (2.x + s>3 (iii) (x- 6) 3 (iv) (2.x- 5y) 3
6. (i) (3 + 2x) (9 - 6x + 4x2) (ii) (5x - 6y) (25x2 + 30.xy + 36y2)
(iii) (4x + 3y) (16x2- 12.xy + 9y2) (iv) (2.x +Sy) (4x2- 10.xy + 25y2)
EXERCISE 5.3
1. (i) 4 (ii) ~ (iii) 84 (iv) -12 (v) -42
2. (i) 3, -1 (ii) 6
3. (i) (x - 2) is a factor, (x - 3) is not a factor
(ii) (x - 2), (x + 3) are factors, but (x - 4) is not a factor
4. m=-24 5. k=-1. 6. a=-2,b=2.
7. l=2,m=-2. 8. l=-1,m=2 9. a=2,b=7
EXERCISE 5.4
1. (x-1) (x+ 1) (x-2) 2. (x - 2)(x - 4) (x + 5)
3. (x + l)(x - 2)(x- 5) 4. (x - 1) (x - 2) (x + 4)
5. (x - l)(x- 3) (x + 2) 6. (x- 2) (x + 3) (x + 4)
278
7. (x - 2) (x + 2) (3x - 1) 8. (x-1) (x+ 1) (2x+ 1)

REVIEW EXERCISES
1. (i) b (ii) c (iii) d (iv) b (v) c (vi) c _ (vii) c (viii) a
2. (i) (x + 2)(x + 3) ~ii)
2
4(a - 2) (a+ 2) (iii) b
2
(iv) (~ - ~ J (v) x 3 + y3
(vi) (x- 2) (x + 2) (x + 4) (vii) -3
3. (i)_ (x + 2y + 4) (x - 2y + 4) (ii) 4(x - 2y) (x + 2y) (iii) (3x + 8) (3x + 1)
(iv) (1 - 4z) (1 + 4z + 16z2> (v) (ix-J,) (4x + ~ + ~2 ) 2
(vi) (y + 3) (2y- 1) (vii) (x- 2)(x + 2) (x +1)

2
(viii) (5mn + 1) (ix) (1-6pq)2
EXERCISE 6.1
1. (i) H.C.F. = 13x5y3z (ii) H.C.F. = 17xyz
2. (i) HCF=x+2 (ii) HCF=x-3 (iii) HCF=x-1
(iv) HCF = 6(x- 1) (v) HCF= 18x(3x-1)
(i) x ~ 3x+ 2
2
3. (ii) x
2
+x - 3 (iii) x2 + x = x(x + 1)
4. (i) L.C.M. = 273x7y6z7 (ii) L.C.M. = 5<?10.x2y2z2
5. (i) LCM = (x - 5) (x - 20) (x + 4) (ii) LCM= (x + 2)2 (x- 2) (2x- 3)
4
(iii) LCM = 6(x + 2y) (x - y4 ) (iv) LCM= 12(x-1) (x4 -1)
6. k=5 7. k=-2, 1=6
. 4
8. q(x) = 2(x -1) 9. l0x(x-I)2(x-2)(f-9)
10. k= 8 11. 16 children
EXERCISE 6.2
2(x+4) 2 12x 3x+ 10 -1
1. 3. 0 4 5
x+3 .
x- 1
4 · x-3 · 2(3-2x)
4a x+2 (x-2)2
6. a2- l 7. 0 8·x+3
9_- (x-3)2
2
(x+4) (x + 2x+4)
12. y+ 4
~ xy
lO. (x-1)2 11. 1 13. 2 2

y-4 x +y
EXERCISE 6.3
1. (i) (2x-3y) . ") x - 1
(ll - (". x --
111") ( - y)
2.x 4 6 (iv) (5b-a)
(v) (~ :!~:) (vi) [( x- ~ )-2] (vii) [( x

2
+ ~} 2]
(viii) (x + 1) (x + 2) (x + 3) (ix) (x + 1) (x + 7) (2x- 3)
277
2. (i) (2x + 3y + 4) (ii) (f - 5x + 6) (iii) (3x2 - x + 1)

2
(iv) (4x -3x+ 2) (v) (~-5 +~)
3. (i) k = 49 (ii) k = 12 4. (i) l = 24. m = 36 (ii) I= --60, m = -36
5. (i) x-3 (ii) -x+3 (iii) x=3
REVIEW EXERCISE 6
J. (i) b (ii) a (iii) c (iv) b (v) a (vi) a (vii) a (viii) b
~cOOc~c~a~a~d~b~c~b
2. 4(x - 2) 3. y + 3 4. 3(2x + 5)(3x + 1)(2x- 5)2
5. 2 4 3 2 6
(x - 2x + 8)(x + 2x - 4x - x + 28) 6. (i) _ x4 (ii) lla
1
7. ±[( x+~)+5] 8. ±(~ +5- ~)
EXERCISE 7.1
L (i) { -~} (ii) {6} (iii) { is} (iv) { -j} (v) {-63}
(vi) {-12} (vii) { ~} (viii) No.solution (ix) {2} (x) {5}
2. (i) {O} (ii) {6} .. (iii) {52} (i~) ·{ ~}. .
(v) {-5} · (vi) {10} ·.(vii) .4> (viii) { - ~} .
EXERCISE 7.2. ..
1. (i) T_ (ii) F (iii) T (iv) T (v) F
2. (i) {:L j} (ii) {;8, - 32

3
} (iii) {-8, 3} (iv)
5
{2 .. T}
1
(v.) {2, -6} (vi) 4> (vii) {-~, ~} (viii) {1 , ~}

EXERCISE 7.3
1. (i) {xlx>5/2} (ii) x;::.: - o.5 . (iii) x$ 4J4 (iv) x$-6.5
. . 3 7
... ) 1
(vi) x > 13 (vii) x > - 4 ( vm .t>26
2 . 14
2. (i) -3<x<1 (ii) 3<x $3 (iii) -22 < x < 26
(iv) 1$x$5 (v) 2<x$5 (vi) -16<x<19
(vii)-4 < x ~ 4 (viii) -8 <x< 3
Answers 278
REVIEW EXERCISE 7
1. (il d .' (ii) c {iii) c (iv) b (v) c (vi) d
2. (i) T (ii) T (iii) F (iv) T (v) T (vi) T (vii) F (viii) T (ix) T
4. (i) (ii) {3} 5. (i) {6} (ii) {-12,0} 6. (i) x;?: 12 (ii) 8>x>-2
EXERCISE 8.1
1. Pin II-Q, Qin ID-Q, R in 1-Q, Sin IV-Q.
J._ ii.,,
i ~
I'
'"
2. (i) ~
(ii) .
~
0 0
' -
- ,__ I,...._
•ii •ii
1x= 2 ix= -3
J"', , r ..
~ ~
y= 3
-
-
(iii) IC
(iv) .-
0 . Iv= -1 0
~
·I', 'rv
i
}'FU
(v) (vi) -.
~
~
~
0 ' 0
--
x FO
2t9 Mathematics 9
...
' ·- .. I
/j =3x '~-
..
\
i(l 3) \
I -1 2 \
'.,--
I
(vii) 0 ,.,'- (viii) ' \0

I
(- 1, 3)1 ' i\( ~.- 2)
1r
I '
_,, ~?
,.' ~ '~-
. 1'
~
,, ~ /
I
/(1 P)
(ix) (x)
v -
,i,.'
0 '•' ) 0
(i-1 -1 7 /
I/
" J
*=x
- 3v= x
ot
11
''v
I
J
''v
I
j (3 4) "
j 1, 2) j 2, ~)
(xi) j
I
0
-
,v-· (xii) 0
I
j (1, ~)
--
/ v
j -1 ,- ) J 0, -2D
I I
I
Ox tr- 0 ~x y= 2
"'
, r_.
.. 'r.,. .L
J
-
,
I
~ ...... '¥
J (1 2)
(xiii) ~
-1 0) - L.--"-
- 0
2 1)
-- (xiv) (-1,- l)V
II'
0 ' ,
x 3) + ~=~ /
J
v
I
•:r- 12~ + ~=~ •
3. (i) parallel to y-axis (ii) parallel to y-axis (iii) paraJlel to x-axis
280 -
(iv) neither (v) neither
2 1 1
4. (a) m=-3, c=3 (b)m=2,c=l (c) m=-3, c= I
(d) m=2,c=-7 (e) m=2, c=-3 (t) m=2,c=-3
5. (i) No (ii) No (iii) No (iv) Yes (v) No
EXERCISE 8.2
l. (i) 4 gallons (ii) 36 litres
' ,..
~
' ' ...
J
3. (a) -~ (1 1)
"'-- r<- 2.0 0
--
l :
..... f
,
-
r"
I-
'"
(b)
(-~. 2) /
ru
/(1 1)
v
J
, --
/
. "
3x 21- =(J
I
•...
a
i
~'
a j •
I
(c)
0 ............. -- (d)
I
I (l 2)
--
..... I' 2, I>) r J u '
~>-2 -~ ...... v (0 -1 (- 1, 2) I
....... j
•y" ~ I
~ I
y- f2x F=O
j~--
a .,. j • ...
a
1-l 3)
3y -1 ~ \
~
--
(e)
.;
0 t- (f) '
o, -
\
' (1 ,-')
\
... , +3 -='
3 (length of square)= I unit

Answers 282
2. (i) F (ii) F (iii) F (iv) T (v) T (vi) T (vii) T

3. (i) '145 (ii) m[2 (iii) 5 4. (i) (5, 2) (ii) (-6, -6) (iii) (4, -6)
REVIEW EXERCISE 10
1. (i) F (ii) T (iii) T (iv) F (v) T (vi) F
2. (i) rnLB (ii) rnLC (iii) rnLL
3. x = 60° 4. x = 10°, m = 3 5. x = 3 cm, y = 6 cm, z = 4 cm
EXERCISE 11.1
1. 130°' 50°' 50° 2. 140°' 140°' 40°' 40°
EXERCISE 11.4
1. 1.8 cm, 2.1 cm, 2.4 cm
EXERCISE 11.5
1. LN = 2cm, LQ = 4 cm
REVIEW EXERCISE 11
1. (i) parallel/congruent (ii) equal/congruent (iii) intersect (iv) concurrent
(v) congruent
2. (i) = (ii) = (iii) rnL3 (iv) rnL4 3. n°=y0 =75°, x 0 =m 0 =105°
4. x=5°, m=23° 5. m=n =2 6. LM = 125° = LP
REVIEW EXERCISE 12
1. (i) T (ii) T (iii) F (iv) T (v) F (vi) T (vii) F (viii) T
2. (i) mOB (ii) mBQ 4. x 0 = y 0 = 30°, z0 = 60° 5. m = 12, x = 6
6. mAL=mLB = 3 cm, mAD=4 cm

EXERCISE 13.1
1. (b) 20 cm 3. AC (longest), AB (shortest)
REVIEW EXERCISE 13
1. (i)_T (ii) F (iii) T (iv) F (v) T (vi) T (vii) F (viii) T (ix) T (x) F
2. 90° 5. 3 + 4 ). 7
EXERCISE 14.1
1. (i) 2.6 cm (ii) 6 cm (iii) 1.8 cm (iv) 6cm, 3.6 cm, 8 cm, 4.8 cm (v) x = 1
.............. ------------------------------~~~~~~~~-~
283 Mathematics 9
EXERCISE 14.2
- 7 - 14
1. (a) 5 2. mAD =3, mDB =3
REVIEW EXERCISE 14
1. (i) T (ii) T (iii) F (iv) F (v) T (vi) F (vii) T (viii) T (ix) F (x) T
3. (i) 4.6 cm (ii) 2 cm 4. x = 1 5. mMA =4.8, mAN = 3.2

6. x = 10 cm, y =6 cm
EXERCISE 15.1
2
3. 15 4. (i) 48 cm (ii) 672 cm
6. (i) a =2{15 , h ='135 , b =2-jii. (ii) 9 cm
7. 1oo..j34.m 8. 15m 9. mAD=ffe"km

REVIEW EXERCISE 15
1. (i) T (ii) F (iii) T (iv) T (v) T (vi) F
2. (i) 5m (ii) 8 cm (iii) 12 cm (iv) 1 cm
EXERCISE 16.1 .
- 35
2. mAD=4cm
REVIEW EXERCISE 16
1. (i) T (ii) F (iii) T (iv) F · (v) T (vi) T
2 2 2 2
2. (i) 18 cm (ii) 16 cm (iii) 32 cm (iv) 80 cm
REVIEW EXERCISE 17
1. (i) hypotenuse (ii) median (iii) perpendicular (iv) concurrent
(v) equidistant (vi) proportional (vii) vertex
2. (i) (d) (ii) (b) (iii) (c) (iv) (a) (v) (b) (vi) (b)
(vii) (a) (viii) (c) (ix) (d) (x) (a) (xi) (a)
GLOSSARY
Matrix
A rectangular layout or a formation of a collection of real numbers, say 0, 1, 2,
3, 4 and 7, such as;
] 3 4and then encJosed by brackets 6[ ]' . said. to_form a matnx. (17 23 04]
ts
7 2 0
Red:angular Matrix
A matrix M is called rectangular if, the number of rows of M :t: the number of
columns of M.
Square Matrix
A matrix M is called a square matrix if, the number of rows of M = the
number of columns of M.
Row Matrix
A matrix Mis called a row matrix if M has only one row.
Column Matrix
A matrix Mis called a oolmnn matrix if M has only one column.
Null or Zero Matrix
A matrix M is called a null or uro matrix if each of its entries is 0.
Transpose of a Matrix
Let A be a matrix. The matrix At is a new matrix which is called transpose of
matrix A and is obtained by interchanging rows of A into its respective columns (or
columns into respective rows).
Symmetric Matrix
1
A square matrix M is called symmetric if M = M.
Negadve of a Matrix
Let A be a matrix. Then its negative, -A is obtained by changing the signs of all
the entries of A.
Skew Symmetric Matrix
=
A 8quate matrix M is &aid to be 1kew 8)'1111Detrle if M' -M.
285 Mathemalics 9
:
Diagonal Matrix
A square matrix M of the type r~ ~J is called a diagonal matrix of order

0 0 c
3-by-3, where all the three entries a, b, care not zero i.e. atleast one entry is non zero.
Sellar Matrix
A diagonal matrix M is Called a sc:dar matrix if all of its entries in the diagonal
:::~,.~ r: ; :J
0 0 k
where the scalar k * 0.
Identity Matrix
A scalar matrix of the type
1 0 OJ
A= 0 I 0 is called a 3-by-3 identity matrix.
[
0 0 1
Additive Identity or a Matrix
Let A = [ad b
e I
c] be a matrix of order 2-by-3. Then a matrix B is said to
be an additive identity of matrix A, if,

B+A=A=A+B
Additive Inverse or a Matrix
Let A be a matrix of order 3-by-3. A matrix Bis defined as an additive inverse
of Aif B +A=[~ ~ ~l =A+B

0 0 ~J
Multiplicative Identity of a Matrix
Let A be a matrix. Another matrix B is called the identity matrix of A under
multiplication if BA= A= AB.
Determinant of a Z.by-.2 Matrix
Let M [ ~ ~ ] be a 2-by-2 matrix. A real number Ais called determinant of
M, denoted by det M such that
Glossary 286
detM = det [ ~ !] = a'v?'b

c~d
=ad-be= A
Singular Matrix
A square matrix M is called singular if the determinant of M is equal to zero.
Non-Singular Matrix
A square matrix M is called non-singular if the determinant of M is not equal to
zero (i.e., M is not singular).
Adjoint of a Matrix
Given a matrix M = [ ~ ! ], adjoint of Mis defined by Adj M = [ ..::: --: ]

Inverse of a Matrix
Let M be a squ:;tre matrix [ ~ !].

(1) Write adjoint of matrix M
(2) Multiply by de~ to the Adjoint (M)

The desired inverse of M is obtained as
1
11 1 = [ d -bJ , where det M = ad - be -:/:. 0
ad-be -e a -
The Set of Real Numbers

R = union of two disjoint sets (the set of rational numbers Q and the set of
irrational numbers Q'),
i.e., R = Q u Q'
nth Root of "a"
If n is a positive integer greater than 1 and a is a real number, then any real
number x such that xn = a is called the nth root of a, and in symbols is written as
x=Ta, ...... (radical form)

l/n
or x = ( a) , ...... (exponential form)
In the radical Ta ,
the symbol ~ is called the radical sign, is called the n
index of the radical and the real number a under the radical sign is called the
radicand or base.
287 Mathematics 9
Complex Number
A number of the form z =a + bi where a and b are recil numbers and i =~, is .
called a complex number.
Complex Conjugate
The numbers a + bi and a - bi are conjugate of each other.
Scientific Notation
A number written in the form ax lOn, where 1 ~a< 10 and n is an integer, is
called the scientific notation.
Logarithm of a Number
If tr =y then x is called the logarithm of y to the base 'a' and is written as
logaY =x, where a > 0, a *1 and y > 0
Common Logarithm or Brigg's Logarithm
If the base of logarithm is taken as 10 then logarithm is called Common
Logarithm or Brigg's Logarithm.
Natural Logarithm
Logarithm having base e is called Napier Logarithm or Natural Logarithm.
Characteristic
The integral part of the logarithm of any number is called the characteristic.
Mantissa
The ·decimal part of the logarithm of a number is called the mantissa and is
always positive.
Rational Expression
The quotient p((x)) of two polynomials p(x) and q(x), where q(x) is a non-zero
. qx
polynomial: is called a rational expression.
Surd
An irrational radical with rational radicand is called a surd.
Remainder Theorem
"If a polynomialj(x) is divided by a linear divisor (x - a), then the remainder is
j{a)". .
Glossary 288
Factor Theorem
"The polynomial (x - a) is a factor of the polynomial fix) if and only if
fia) = O".
Linear Equation in One Variable

A linear equation in one variable x (occurring to the first degree) is an
equation of the form
ax + b = 0, where a, b E R and a 'i' 0.
Types of Equations ·
(i) An identity is an equation that is satisfied by every number for which both
sides are defined .e.g., x + 3 = 3 + x.
(ii) A conditional equation is an equation that is satisfied by at least one number
·but is not an identity. e.g., 2x + 1 = 9.
(iii) An inconsistent equation is an equation whose solution set is the empty set.
e.g., x =x + 5, because no value of x satisfies it.
Radical Equation
When the variable in an equation occurs under a radical sign, the equation is
called a radical equation.
Absolute Value of Real Number
The absolute value of a real number 'a' denoted by lal, is defined as
a, if a~ 0
lal =
{
-a, if a<O
. I
Linear Inequality in One Variable
A linear inequality in one variable x is an inequality in which the variable x
occurs only to the first power and is of the form
ax + b < 0, a :F- 0
where a and bare real numbers. We may replace the symbol< by>,~ or~.
Line Segment
A part of a line l distinguished or separated by distinct points P and Q of l is
said to form a line-segment of land is denoted by PQ or QP.

p
+-~~~~--~~~~---~~~~~[
Q
289 Mathematics 9
Coordinates of a Point
The real numbers x, y of the ordered pair (x, y) are called coordinates of a
point P(x, y) in a plane. The first number x is called x-coordinate (or obscissa) and
the second number yin (x, y) is called y-coordinate (or ordinate) of the point P(x, y).
Distance formula
The distance between two points P(.r 1• y 1) and QCr2• y 2 ) in the coordinate plane
is d =..J1x2 - x 1i2 + ly 2 - y 112 , where d;:::: 0

Collinear or Non-collinear Points
Whenever two or more than two points happen to lie on the same straight line
in the plane, they are called collinear points with respect to that line; otherwise they
are called non-collinear.
Equilateral Triangle
If the lengths of all the three sides of a triangle are same, then the triangle is
called an equilateral triangle.
Isosceles Triangle
Isosceles triangle PQR is a triangle which has two of its sides of equal length
while the third side has a different length.
Right Triangle
A right triangle is that in which one of the angles has measure equal to 90°.
Pythagoras' Theorem
In a right angle triangle ABC,
IABl
2
=IBCl2 + ICAl2, where LACB = 90°
Scalene Triangle
A triangle is called a scalene triangle if measures of all the three sides are
different.
Square
A square is a closed figure in the plane formed by four non-collinear points
such that lengths of all sides are equal and measure of each angle is 90°.
Rectangle
A figure formed in the plane by four non-collinear points is called a rectangle
if,
(i) its opposite sides are of equal measure.
(ii) its opposite sides are parallel to each other
Glossary 290
(iii) the angle at each vertex is of measure of 90°.

'
,..
Parallelogram
· A figure formed by four · non-collinear points in the plane is called a
parallelogram if
.. (i) its opposite sides are of equal measure •
'.
(ii) its opposite sides are parallel
Congruent Triangles .
Two triangles are said to be congruent (symbol ::), if there exists a
correspondence between them such that all the corresponding sides and angles are
congruent i.e.,
AB::DE LA::LD
If BC::EF and LB::LE
CA::FD LC::LF
then MBC:: M)EF
A D
B~CE~F
S.A.S. Postulate
In any correspondence of two triangles, if two sides and their included angle of
one triangle are congruent to the corresponding two sides and their included angle of
the other, then the triangles are congruent. ·
Right B~tor of a Line. Segment
A line l is called a right bisector of a line segment if l is perpendicular to the
line segment and passes through its mid-point.
Angle Bisector
Angle bisector is the ray which divides an angle into two equal parts.
291 Mathematics 9
Ratio and Prop0rtion

We define ratio a : b = ~ as the comparison of two alike quantities a and b
called the terms of a ratic>. (Terms must be expressed in the same units).
Equality of two ratios is defined as proportion. i.e., if a : b =c : d, then a, b, c
and d are said to be in proportion.
Similar Triangles
Two (or more) tri~gles are called similar (symbol -) if they are equiangular
and measures of their corresponding sides are proportional.
Concurrent Lines,
Three or more than three lines are said to be concurrent, if they all pass
through the same point. The conimon poiilt is called the point of concurrency of the
lines.
/
Incentre of a Triangle
The internal bisectors · of the angles of a triangle meet at a point called the
Incentre of the triangle.
Circumcentre of a Triangle ·
The point of concurrency of the threC perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a
triangle is called the circunicentre of the triangle.
Median of a Triangle
A line segment joining a vertex· of a triangle to the mid-point of th,e opposite
side -is called a median of the triangle.
Altitude of a Triangle
A line segment from a vertex of a triangle, perpendicular to the line containing
the opposite side, is called an altitude of the triangle.
Orthocentre of a Triangle
The point of concurrency of the three altitudes of a ~ is called its orthocentre.
Mathematica/ Symbols 292
MATHEMATICAL SYMBOLS
= is equal to 0 degree
is not equal to therefore
for all
since
implies that
J_ is perpendicular to
if and only if
II is parallel to
such that
correspondence
is greater than
is less than is approximately equal to
is not greater than is congruent to
is not less than is similar to
is greater than or equal to line AB
~ is less than or equal to
AB line segment AB
E belongs to
IABI distance between A and B
'\} nonnegative square root
% percent AB ray AB
7t pi MBC triangle ABC
1
A transpose of matrix A LABC angle ABC
A-I inverse of matrix A mAB measure of line segment AB
det A or IAI determinant of A mLABC measure of angle ABC
Adj A adjoint of matrix A
SOME ALGEBRAIC FORMULAS

* (x + y )2 = .x2 + 2xy + y2 * (x - y)2 = .x2 - 2xy + y2
(x + y ) =x3 + 3x y + 3xy + y3 * (x - y) 3 =x3 - 3.x2y + 3xy2 - y3
3 2 2
*
* x2 - y2 = (x + y) (x - y) * (x + y ) 2 - (x - y ) 2 =4.xy
*
3
x - y3 = (x - y) (.x2 + xy + y2) * x 3 + y 3 = (x + y) (.x2 - xy + y2)
2 2
* (x + y + z) = x + y2 + z2 + 2xy + 2yz + 2zx
* x3 + y3 + z3 - 3.xyz = (x + y + z) (x2 + y2 + z2 - xy - yz - zx)
* L.C.M. x H.C.F. =p(x) x q(x)
LAWS OF LOGARITHM
* * log0 ( ~) = log m -
0 log 0 n
* * log0 n =logbn X log b 0

293 Mathematics 9
TABLE OF LOGARITHMS
Mean Differences Columns
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0000 0043 0086 0128 0170 4 9 13 17 21 26 30 34 38
10 0212 0253 0294 0334 0374 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
0414 0453 0492 0531 0569 4 8 12 15 19 23 27 31 35
11 0607 0645 0682 0719 0755 4 7 11 15 19 22 26 30 33
0792 0828 0864 0899 0934 3 7 11 14 18 21 25 28 32
12 0969 1004 1038 1072 1106 3 i1 10 14 17 20 24 27 31
1139 1173 1206 1239 1271 3 7 10 13 16 20 23 26 30
13 1303 1335 1367 1399 1430 3 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 29
1461 1492 1523 1553 1584 3 6 9 12 15 19 22 25 28
14 1614 1644 1673 1703 1732 3 6 9 12 15 17 20 23 26
1761 1790 1818 1847 1875 3 6 9 11 14 16 20 23 26
15 1903 1931 1959 1987 2014 3 6 8 11 14 17 19 22 24
2041 2068 2095 2122 2148 3 5 8 11 14 17 19 22 24
16 2175 2201 2227 2253 2279 3 5 8 10 13 16 18 21 23
2304 2330 2355 2380 2405 3 5 8 10 13 15 18 20 23
17 2430 2455 2480 2504 2529 2 5 7 10 12 15 17 20 22
2553 2577 2601 2625 2648 2 5 7 9 12 14 16 19 21
18 2672 2695 2718 2742 2765 2 5 7 9 11 14 16 18 21
2788 2810 2833 2856 2878 2 4 7 9 11 13 16 18 20
19 2900 2923 2945 2967 2989 2 4 6 8 11 13 15 17 19
20 3010 3032 3054 3075 3096 3118 3139 3160 3181 3201 2 4 6 8 11 13 15 17 19
21 3222 3243 3263 3284 3304 3324 3345 3365 3385 3404 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
22 3424 3444 3464 3483 3502 3522 3541 3560 3579 3598 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 15 17
23 3617 3636 3655 3674 3692 3711 3729 3747 3766 3784 2 4 6 7 9 11 13 15 17
24 3802 3820 3838 3856 3874 3892 3909 3927 3945 3962 2 4 5 7 9 11 12 14 16
25 3979 3997 4014 4031 4048 4065 4082 4099 4116 4133 2 3 5 7 9 10 12 14 15
26 4150 4166 4183 4200 4216 4232 4249 4265 4281 4298 2 3 5 7 8 10 11 13 15
27 4314 4330 4346 4362 4378 4393 4409 4425 4440 4456 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 13 14
28 4472 4487 4502 4518 4533 4548 4564 4579 4594 4609 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 12 14
29 4624 4639 4654 4669 4683 4698 4713 4728 4742 4757 1 3 4 6 7 9 10 12 13
30 4771 4786 4800 4814 4829 4843 4857 4871 4886 4900 1 3 4 6 7 9 10 11 13
31 4914 4928 4942 4955 4969 4983 4997 5011 5024 5038 1 3 4 6 7 8 10 11 12
32 5051 5065 5079 5092 5105 5119 5132 5145 5159 5172 1 3 4 5 7 8 9 11 12
33 5185 5198 5211 5224 5237 5250 5263 5276 5289 5302 1 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 12
34 5315 5328 5340 5353 5366 5378 5391 5403 5416 5428 1 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 11
35 5441 5453 5465 5478 5490 5502 5514 5527 5539 5551 1 2 4 5 6 7 9 10 11
36 5563 5575 5587 5599 5611 5623 5635 5647 5658 5670 1 2 4. 5 6 7 8 10 11
37 5682 5694 5705 5717 5729 5740 5752 5763 5775 5786 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10
38 5798 5809 5821 5832 5843 5855 5866 5877 5888 5899 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10
39 5911 5922 5933 5944 5955 5966 5977 5988 5999 6010 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 10
40 6021 6031 6042 6053 6064 6075 6085 6096 6107 6117 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 10
41 6128 6138 6149 6160 6170 6180 6191 6201 6212 6222 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
42 6232 6243 6253 6263 6274 6284 6294 6304 6314 6325 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
43 6335 6345 6355 6365 6375 6385 6395 6405 6415 6425 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
44 6435 6444 6454 6464 6474 6484 6493 6503 6513 6522 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
45 6532 6542 6551 6561 6571 6580 6590 6599 6609 6618 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
46 6628 6637 6646 6656 6665 6675 6684 6693 6702 6712 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 7' 8
47 6721 6730 6739 6749 6758 6767 6776 6785 6794 6803 1 2 3 4 5 5 6 7 8
48 6812 6821 6830 6839 6848 6857 6866 6875 6884 6893 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7 8
49 6902 6911 6920 6928 6937 6946 6955 6964 6972 6981 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7 8
Table of Logarithms 294
TABLE OF LOGARITHMS
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
50 6990 6998 7007 7016 7024 7033 7042 7050 7059 704l7 1 2 3 3 4 5 tS 7 8
51 7076 7084 7093 7101 7110 7118 7126 7135 7143 7152 1. 2 .3 3 4 5 6 7 8
52 7160 7168 7177 7185 7193 7202 7210 7218 7226 7235 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 7 7
53 7243 7251 7259 7267 7275 7284 7292 7300 7308 7316 .1. 2 2 3 4 5 6 6 7
54 7324 7332 7340 7348 7356 7364 7372 7380 7388 7396 1 2 2 3 4' 5 6 6 7
55 7404 7412 7419 7427 7435 7443 7451. 7459 7466 7474 1 2 2 3 ~ 5 5 I 7
56 7482 7490 7497 7505 7513 7520 7528 7536 7543 7551 1 2 2 3 4 5 --5 6 7
57 7559 7566 7574 7582 7589 7597 7604 7612 7619 7627 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7
58 7634 7642 7649 7657 7664 7672 7679 7686 7694 7701 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7
59 7709 7716 7723 7731 7738 7745 7752 7760 7767 7774 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7
60
61
7782
7853
7789
7860
7796
7868
7803
7875
7810
7882
7818
7889
7125
7896
7832
7903
7839
7910
7846
7917
1
1
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
I
6 •
6
62 7924 7931 7938 7945 7952 7959 7966 7973 7980 7987 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 6
63 7993 8000 8007 8014 8021 8028 8035 8041 8048 8055 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
64 8062 8069 8075 8082 8089 8096 8102 8109 8116 8122 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
65 8129 8136 8142 8149 8156 8162 8169 8176 8182 8189 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 6
66 8195 8202 8209 8215 8222 8228 8235 8241 8248 8254 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 6
67 8261 8267 8274 8280 8287 8293 8299 8306 8312 8319 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 6
68 8325 8331 8339 8344 8351 8357 8363 8370 8376 8382 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
69 8388 8395 8401 8407 8414 8420 6426 8432 8439 8445 1 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6
70 8451 8457 8463 8470 8476 8482 8488 8494 8500 8506 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 6
71 8513 8519 8525 8531 8537 8543 8549 8555 8561 8567 .1 1 2 2 3 ·4 4 5 5
72 8573 8579 8585 8591 8597 8603 8609 8615 8621 8627 1 1 2 2. 3 4 4 5 5
73 8633 8639 8645 8651 8657 8663 8669 8675 8681 8696 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5
74 8692 8698 8704 8710 8716 8722 8727 8733 8730 8745 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5
75 8751 8756 8762 8768 8774 8779 8785 8791 8797 8802 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 5 5
76 8808 8814 8820 8825 8831 8837 8842 8848 8854 8859 1 1 2 2 3 .3 4 5 5
77 8865 8871 8876 8882 8887 8893 8899 8904 8910 8915 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
78 8921 8927 8932 8938 8943 8949 8954 8960 8965 8971 1 1 2 2· 3 3 4 4 5
79 8976 8982 8987 8993 8998 9004 9009 9015 9020 9025 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 ·s
80 9031 9036 9042 9049 9053 9058 9063 9069 9074 9079 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
81 9085 9090 9096 9101 9106 9112 9117 9122 9128 9133 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
82 9138 9143 9149 9154 9159 9165 9170 9175 9180 9186 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
83 9191 9196 9201 9206 9212 9217 9222 9227 9232 9238 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 ·4 5
84 9243 9248 9253 9258 9263 9269 9274 9279 9284 9289 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
85 9294 9299 9204 9309 9315 9320 9325 9330 9335 9340 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
86 9345 9350 9355 9360 9365 9370 9375 9380 9385 9390 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
87 9395 9400 9405 9410 9415 9420 9425 9430 9435 9440 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 ·4
88 9445 9450 9455 9460 9465 9469 9474 9479 9484 9489 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
89 9494 9499 9504 9509 9513 9518 9523 9528 9533 9538 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
90 9542 9547 9552 9557 9562 9566 9571 9576 9581 9586 0 1 2 2 3 3 4
91
92
9590
9638
9595
9643
9600
9647
9605
9652
9609
9657
9614
9661
9619
9666
9624
9671
9628
9675
9633
9680
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
4
4
'4
4
93 9685 9689 9694 9699 9603 9708 9713 9717 9722 9727 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 .
94 9731 9736 9741 9745 9750 9754 9759 9763 8768 9773 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
95 9777 9782 9786 9791 9795 9800 9805 9809 9814 9818 0 1 1 2 2 3
96
97
9823
9868
9827
9872
9832
9877
9836
9881
9841
9886
9845
9890
9850
9894
9854
9899
9859
9903
9863
9908
0
.o 1
1 1
1
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
' '
4
4
4
4
98 9912 9917 9921 9926 9930 9934 9939 9943 9948 9952 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
·99 9956 9961 9965 9969 9974 9978 9983 9987 9991 9996 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 4
295 Mathematics 9
TABLE .OF ANTILOGARITHMS

0 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9
.00 1000 10021005 1007

"'
1oot 1012 1014 1011 1011 1021 0 0 1
"'
1 1 1 2 2 2
1027 1o33 1035 1038 1040 1042 1045 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
.01 1023 1026 1030
10501052 1054 1057 1059 1062 1064 1067 1069 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
.02 1047
1076
1074 1079 1081 1084 1086 1089 1091 1094 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
.03 1072 2·
1102 1107 1109 1112 1114 1117 1119 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
.04 1096 1099 1104
1131 1140 1143 1143 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
.05 1122 1127
1125 1130 1132 1135
1 1 2 2 2 2
.06 · 1148 11511153 1156 1159 1161 1184 1167 1169 1172 0 1 1
1178 11il8 1189 1191 1194 1197 1199 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
.07 1175 1180 1183
1205 1211 1213 1218 1219 1222 1225 1227 ·o 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3
.08 1202 1208
12331236 1239 1242 .1245 1247 1250 1253 1256 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3
.09 1230
.10 1251 1212
12'5 12" 1271 1274 1271 1279 1212 1215 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3
1303 1306 1309 1312 1315 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3
.11 1288 12911294 1297 1300
1330 1334 1337 1340 1343 1348 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3
.12 1318 13211324 1327
.13 1349 13521355 1358 1381 1365 1368 1371 1374 13n 0 1 .1 1 2 2 2 3 3
.14 1380 1387 1390 1393 1398 1400 1403 1406 1409 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3
1384
.15 1413 14181411 1422 1421 -1421 1432 1435 1431 1442 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3
1462 1486 1469 14r2 1476 0 1 1 1 2 2 ·2 3 3
.16 1445 14491452 1455 1459
1483 149<1 1500 1503 1507 1510 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3
.17 1479 1488 1489 1493
.18 1514 15171521 1524 1528 1531 ·1535 1538 1542 1545 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3
.19 1549 1552 1580 1563 1567 1570 1574 1578 1581 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 .
1556
.20 1515 1581.
1582 15" 1IOO 1IOS 1907 1111 1114 1111 0 1 1 1 2 2 3 3 3
.21 1622 1826
1629 1633 1837 1641 1644 1648 1852 1852 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3
.22 · 1680 1667
1683 1871 1875 1879 1683 1687 1690 1690 0 1 1 2 2 2 3. 3 3
.23 1698 17021706 1710 1714 1718 1722 1726 1730 1730 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 4
.24 1738 17421748 1750 1754 1758 1762 1788 1no 1no 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 4
.25 1771 171217M 1711 1715 1711 1803 1807 1811 1811 0 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 4
·1828
1824 1832 1837 1841 1845 1849 1854 1858 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 4
.26 1820
.27 1862 18661871 1875 1879 1884 1888 1892 1897 1901 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 4
.28 1905 1914
1910 1919 1923 1928 1932 1936 1941 1944 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 4
.29 1950 1954
1959 1983 1988 1972 19n 1982 1986 1991 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 4
.30 1195 2000 2004 2tOt 2014 2011 2023 2028 2032 2037 o· 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 4
2056 2081 2085 2070 2075 2080 2084 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 . 3 4
.31 2042 ~ 2051
.32 2089 2094 2099 2104 2109 2113 2118 2123 2128 2133 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 4
.33 2138 2143 2148 2153 2158. 2183 2168 2173 2178 2183 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 4
.34 2188 2193 2198 2103 2208 2213 2218 2223 2228 2234 1 1 1 2 3 3 3 3 5
.35 2231 2244 2241 2214 mi 22'5 2270 2275 2280 2288 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
.36 2291 2298 2301 2307 2312 2317 2323 2328 2333 2339 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
.37 2344 2350 2355 2380 2388 2371 23n 2382 2388 2393 1 1 2. 2 3 3 4 4 5
.38 2399 2404 2410 2415 2421 2427 2432 2438 2443 2449 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5
.39 2455 2480 2488 2472 24n 2483 2489 2495 2500. 2506 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 5 5
.40 2512 2518 2523 2129 2535 2541 2547 2553 2551 2514 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5
.41 2570 2576 2582 2588 2594 2600 2606 2612 2618 2624 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5
.42 2630 2636 2642 2849 2855 2661 2667 2673 2679 2685 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 6
.43 2692 2698 2704 2710 2718 2723 2729 2735 2742 2748 1 1 2 3 3 4 4 5 6
.44 2754 2781 2787 2m 2780 2786 2793 2799 2805 2812 1 1 . 2 3 3 4 4 5 6
•45
.48
2818 2825 2831
2884 2891 2897
2138 2144 2851
2904 2911 2917
2814
2931
2851
2924
2171 2877
2938 2944
1
1
1
1
2
2
3
3
3
3
4
4
5
5
5
5
•
6
.47 2951 2958 2985 2972 2979 2985 2992 2999 3006 3013 . 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
.48 3020 3027 3034 3041 3048 3055 3062 3069 3076 3083 1 1 ~ 3 4 4 5 6 6
.49 3090 3097 3105 3112 3119 3126 3133 3141 3148 3155 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 6
Table of Logarithms 296
TABLE OF ANTILOGARITHMS
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
.50 3162 3170 3177 3184 3192 3199 3206 3214 3221 3228 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7
.51 3236 3243 3251 3258 3266 3273 3281 3289 3296 3304 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7
.52 3311 3319 3327 3334 3342 3350 3357 3365 3373 3381 1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7
.53 3388 3396 3404 3412 3420 3428 3436 3443 3451 3459 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 6 7
.54 3467 3475 3483 3491 3499 3508 3516 3524 3532 3540 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 6 7
.55 3548 3556 3565 3573 3581 3589 3597 3606 3614 3622 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 7 7
.56 3631 3639 3648 3656 3664 3673 3681 3690 3698 3707 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8
.57 3715 3724 3733 3741 3750 3758 3767 3776 3784 3793 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8
.58 3802 3811 3819 3828 3837 3846 3855 3864 3873 3882 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7 8
.59 3890 3899 3908 3917 3926 3936 3945 3954 3963 3972 1 2 3 4 5 5 6 7 8
.60 3981 3990 3999 4009 4018 4027 4036 4046 4055 4064 1 2 3 4 5 6 6 7 8
.61 4074 4083 4093 4102 4111 4121 4130 4140 4150 4159 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
.62 4169 4178 4188 4198 4207 4217 4227 4236 4246 4256 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
.63 4266 4276 4285 4295 4305 4315 4325 4335 4345 4355 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
.64 4365 4375 4385 4395 4406 4416 4426 4436 4446 4457 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
.65 4467 4477 4487 4498 4508 4519 4529 4539 4550 4560 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
.66 4571 4581 4592 4603 4613 4624 4634 4645 4656 4667 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 10
.67 4677 4688 4699 4710 4721 4732 4742 4753 4764 4775 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 10
.68 4768 4797 4808 4819 4831 4842 4853 4864 4875 4887 1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 10
.69 4898 4909 4920 4932 4943 4955 4966 4977 4989 5000 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10
.70 5012 5023 5035 5047 5058 5070 5082 5093 5105 5117 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 9 11
.71 5129 5140 5152 5164 5176 5188 5200 5212 5224 5236 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 10 11
.72 5248 5260 5272 5284 5297 5309 5321 5333 5346 5358 1 2 4 5 6 7 9 10 11
.73 5370 5383 5395 5408 5420 5433 5445 5458 5470 5483 1 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 11
.74 5495 5508 5521 5534 5546 5559 5572 5585 5598 5610 1 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 12
.75 5623 5636 5649 5662 5675 5689 5702 5715 5728 5741 1 3 4 5 7 8 9 10 12
.76 5754 5768 5781 5794 5808 5821 5834 5848 5861 5875 1 3 4 5 7 8 9 11 12
.77 5888 5902 5916 5929 5943 5957 5970 5984 5998 6012 1 3 4 5 7 8 10 11 12
.78 6026 6039 6053 6067 6081 6095 6109 6124 6138 6152 1 3 4 6 7 8 10 11 13
.79 6166 6180 6194 6209 6223 6237 6252 6266 6281 6295 1 3 4 6 7 9 10 11 13
.80 6310 6324 6339 6353 6368 6383 6397 6412 6427 6442 1 3 4 6 7 9 10 12 13
.81 6457 6471 6486 6501 6516 6531 6546 6561 6577 6592 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 12 14
.82 6607 6622 66J7 6653 6668 6683 6699 6714 6730 6745 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 12 14
.83 6761 6776 6792 6808 6823 6839 6855 6871 6887 6902 2 3 5 6 8 9 11 13 14
.84 6918 6934 6950 6966 6982 6998 7015 7031 7047 7063 2 3 5 6 8 10 11 13 15
.85 7079 7096 7112 7129 7145 7161 7178 7194 7211 7228 2 3 5 7 8 10 12 13 15
.86 7244 7261 7287 7295 7311 7328 7345 7362 7379 17396 2 3 5 7 8 10 12 13 15
.87 7413 7430 7447 7464 7482 7499 7516 7534 7551 17568 2 3 5 7 9 10 12 14 16
.88 7586 7603 7621 7638 7656 7674 7691 7709 7727 17745 2 4 5 7 9 11 12 14 16
.89 7762 7780 7798 7816 7834 7852 7870 7889 7907 17925 2 4 5 7 9 11 13 14 16
.90 7943 7962 7980 7998 8017 8035 8054 8072 8091 8110 2 4 6 7 9 11 13 15 17
.91 8128 8147 8166 8185 8204 8222 8241 18260 8279 8299 2 4 6 8 9 11 13 15 17
.92 8318 8337 8356 8375 8395 8414 8433 8453 8472 8492 2 4 6 8~ 10 12 14 15 17
.93 8511 8531 8551 8570 8590 8610 8630 8650 8670 8690 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
.94 8710 8730 8750 8770 8790 8810 8831 8851 8872 18892 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
.95 8913 8933 8954 8974 8995 9016 9036 9057 9078 9099 2 4 6 8 10 12 15 17 19
.96 9120 9141 9162 9183 9204 9226 9247 9268 9290 9311 2 4 6 8 11 13 15 17 19
.97 9333 9354 9376 9397 9419 9441 9462 9484 9506 9528 2 4 7 9 11 13 15 17 20
.98 9550 9572 9594 9616 9638 9661 9683 9705 9727 9750 2 4 7 9 11 13 16 18 20
.99 9772 9795 9817 9840 9863 9886 9908 9931 9954 9977 2 5 7 9 11 14 16 18 20
INDEX
Axis (axes)
A
of a coordinate system, 147
Abscissa, 148, 167
Absolute value, 136 B
equations containing, 136 Base(s), 43, 45
of real numbers, 136 ofacommonlogarithm,59
properties of, 136 of a logarithm, 59, 65
Acre, 160 of a natural logarithm, 65
Addition
of complex numbers, 49 c
of matrices, 09 Closure property
of pure imaginary numbers, 49 for real numbers, 40
of rational expressions, 79 Coefficient matrix, 32
of surds, 89 Common logarithm(s),
of real numbers, 39 characteristic, 60, 61, 64
Addition property mantissa, 60, 62
for equations, 39 table of, 293
for inequalities, 139 Commutative property for real numbers
Additive identity under addition, 39
of matrices, 12 under multiplication, 40
of real numbers, 39 Complex number(s), 47
Additive inverse addition of, 49
for matrices, 13 conjugates, 48
for real numbers, 40 division of, 50
Algebraic expression, 76 equality of, 48
Angle(s), 186, 210 multiplication of, 49
Antilogarithm, 64, 66 standard form (def.), 51
Area subtraction of, 50
of rectangle, 245 Congruent, 244
of square, 245 angles, 186, 187, 209
of triangle, 244 triangles, 185, 186
Associative property Conjugate of a complex number, 48
for real numbers, 39 of a surd, 91
Axiom, (congruent area), 244 Continued product, 83
Converse, 211, 214, 220, 231, 240
297
Index 298
Coordinate(s), Exponent(s) and radicals, 43, 44

of a point, 148 properties. of, 44
of points in two space, 146, 147, 148 rational, 37
Coordinate plane, 168 Exponential equation, 45, 46
Cramer's Rule, 25
F
D Factor(s)
Decimal(s), 35 common monomial, 98, 99
nonterminating, 25, 36 greatest common, 114, 117
·· recurring, 36 Factor Theorem, 106- 108
repeating, 36, 37 Factori~tion, 9 7- 105
terminating, 36 by grouping, 98, 99
Degree common monomials, 98, 99
of a polynomial, 77, 110 difference of two cubes, 105
Determinant 2-by-2, 21, 285 difference of two squares, 99, 100
Distance between two points, 169 cubic polynomials, 110
Distance Formula, 168, 169 quadratic trinomials, 100-102
Distributive property sum of two cubes, 105
for real numbers, 41 .Formula(s),
Division distance, 169
of complex numbers, .50 midpoint, 178
of polynomials, 115, 124
of radicals, 56 G
of rational expressions, 77 Gallon, 164
ofsurds,88,89,90 Graph(s)
Double inequality, 140 conversion, 157
of linear equations, 151
E
of linear inequalities, 138
Equality of complex numbers, 48
of linear systems, 164
Equation(s),
of a number,35, 37
addition properties of, 78
equivalent, 136 H
exponential, 45, 46 Hectare, 160
multiplication properties of, 91
. I
radical, 44
Identity element,
Equivalent equations, 130, 136
Evaluating for addition of real numbers, 40
algebraic expressions, 81
299 Mathematics 9 ·
for multiplication of real additive identity, 12

• numbers, 40 . '· additive inverse, 13
Identity matrix, 07 adjoint, 21, 22
Imaginary unit, 47 column, 4, 5
Inequalities, 138 eqµal, 3
equivalent, 139 . method for solving system of
linear, 138 equations, 24
properties of, 139 multiplication of, 15
Integer(s), 34 multiplicative identity, 18
Integral exponents, 44 multiplicative inverse, 21
Intersection null,5
of graphs of linear systems, 164, 165 rectangular, 5
Inverse row,4
of a matrix, 13, 21 order of, 3
property for real numbers, 40, 41 skew-symmetric, 6
Irrational number, 34, 36 subtraction of, 9, 10
square, 5
K symmetric, 6
Kilometre, 158, 159 transpose, 5, 6
L zero, 5
Law of Trichotomy, 139 Multiplication,
of complex numbers, 49
Laws of logarithms, 65-69 ,
of matrices, 15
· Least common multiple, 114, 116, 117
of pure imaginary numbers, 48
Linear equations, 151-155
of radicals, 44
Linear inequalities, 138, 139
Multiplication properties
Logarithm(s), 59, 60
of equality, 41, 42
antilogarithm, 64
of inequalities,. 49
base of, 59, 65
of real numbers, 42
characteristic, 61, 63 Multiplicative identity
common,60,63 for matrices, 18
common, tables, 63 . . for real numbers, 40
mantissa, 62 Multiplicative inverse
M for matrices, 22, 23
Mantissa, 62 for real numbers, 40, 41
Matrix (Matrices), 2 N
addition of, 9, 11 Natural number(s), 34
Index 300
Number(s) of real numbers, 39

complex, 47, 48, 49 reflexive, 41 •
imaginary, 4 7, 48 symmetric, 41
integers, 34, 35 transitive, 42
irrational, 34, 36 Proof(s) of
natural, 34 theorem of Pythagoras, 238
pure imaginary, 4 7 Properties of real numbers, 39, 40
rational, 34, 35 Proportion,228
real, 34, 35 Pure imaginciry number, 47
whole, 34 Pythagoras's theorem, 238, 240
0 Q
Quadrant, 146, 147
Ordered pairs, 146
Ordinate, 167 R
Origin, 146, 169 Radical,
p addition of, 89
Point(s) division of, 89
collinear, 170 equations, 133
coordinates of, 148 multiplication of, 89
distance between two, 169 subtraction, 89
non-collinear, 170 Radicand, 43
Point of concurrency of, 206, 256 Ratio, 228
altitudes of a triangle, 245 Rational expressions, 77
angle bisectors, 245 addition of, 78
medians of a triangle, 205 multiplication of, 78
perp bisectors, 205 simplification of, 78, 79
Polynomial(s), 98 subtraction of, 79, 80
degree, 108, 110 Rational number(s),
division of, 107 expressed as a decimal, 36, 37
equation, 130 Rationalizing the denominator, 91
factor theorem, 106 Real number(s),
factorization, 98 ordered pairs of, 146
Principal nth root, 43 properties of, 39, 40, 41
Properties, Recurring decimal, 36, 37
addition of inequalities, 42 Remainder Theorem, 106
multiplication of inequalities, 139 Rectangle, 150
of equality, 41, 42 Right triangle(s), 173
301 Mathematics 9
s T
Scientific notation, 58 Tables and Formulas,
Set of Temperature,
complex numbers, 4 7, 48 degrees Celcius, 161, 162
integers, 34, 35 degrees Fahrenheit, 161, 162
irrational numbers, 34, 35 Theorem,
natural numbers, 34, 35 factor, 108
rational numbers, 34, 35 Pythagoras, 238
Solution, 131 remainder, 106
extraneous, 133 Transitive, 42
Solution set(s), property of equality, 44, 48
of equations with absolute property of inequality, 139, 140
value, 136, 137 Triangle, 171, 172, 173, 174
of linear inequalities, 138 altitude of, 245, 246, 247, 248
of linear systems of equilateral, 171
equations, 24--28 isosceles, 172, 173
Solving inequalities, 138 right-angled, 173
Solving systems of equations, scalene, 171, 173, 174, 181
by Cramer's Rule, 25
by graphing, 164, 165
by matrix inversion method, 24, 25 w
Square, 174 Whole number(s), 34, 35
Square matrix, 5
Subtraction, x
of complex numbers, 50 x -axis, 146, 148
of matrices, 9
y
of rational expressions, 79
y-axis, 146, 148
of surds, 89
System of equations, z
solved by determinants, 25--28 Zero of a polynomial, 108, 110
solved by graphing, 164, 165
solved by matrix inversion
method, 24, 25
Bibliography I References 302 -
BIBLIOGRAPHY/ REFERENCES
• Gustafson, R. David and Frisk, P. D; Functions and Graphs, Brooks I Cole

Publishing Company, 1987, U.S.A. ·
• H. Anton; Calculus with Analytic Geometry, ·(Second Edition), John Wiley &
Sons, New York.
• H.S. Hall and F.H. Stevens; A School Geometry, (Metric Edition, 2006)
A.I.T.B.S., Publishers, India. ·
• Jerome E . .Kaufmann; Algebra for College Students, .(2nd Edition,. 19a7), PWS-
KENT Pb. Co. Boston.
• Joseph N. Payne; Algebra Two with Trigonometry, (2nd Edition), Harcourt Brace
Joranovich, INC.
• Karl J. Smith and P.J. Boyle; College Algebra, (3rd Edition, 1985), Brooks I Cole
Publishing Co., California.
• L.D. Hoffmann and G.L Bradley; Calculus for Business and Life Science, (Sixth
Edition), McGraw Hill, N.Y.
• L. Redford, A Vavra and S. Richlicki; (Technical Mathematics) Breton Publishers,
U.S.A.
• Mark Dugopolski; Intermediate Algebra, (3rd Edition, 2000), McGraw-Hill Co.
• Pythagorean Theorem - from Wolfuun Math World
• Shamshad Muhammad Lodhi (Late) & Others; Mathematics 9, 10, (5th Ed) Punjab
Textbook Board, Lahore.
• Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia.
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"Education is a matter of life and death for

Pakistan. The world is progressing so rapidly

(September 26, 1947, Karachi) Quaid-e-Azam

J~Ji; ~!;( J~ Ji; ~;; J~

Unit8 LINEAR GRAPHS & THEIR APPLICATION 145

Authors : o Dr. Karam at H. Dar o Prof. lrfan-ul-Haq

Prepared by: The Caravan Book House, Kachehri Road, Lahore.

MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS

* define the detenninant of a square matrix.

a matrix [ ~ ~ ~ J. Similarly [ ~ !J is another matrix.

the matrix N = [- ~ ~ ~l is a 3-by-3 matrix and P =[ 3 2 5 ] is a matrix of order

(i) A= [ -! ~ J and B = [ _! ~~~ J are equal matrices.

We see that order of P "#order of Q, so P "# Q.

D = [5 3 ], E=[: ~]' F= [~].

1.2 Types of Matrices

(iii) Rectangular Matrix

e.g • A = li ~l B= [: : ; l C= [I 2 3] and D= m are all

e.g., A=[~ -;J H~ -:1

orders, 2-by-2, 3-by-3 and 1-by-1 respectively.

e.g., [~ ~J. [o o], [~] , [~ ~ ~] and l~ ~ ~l

[~ ~l = M. Thus Mis a symmetric matrix.

Hence A is not a symmetric matrix.

Since At= -A, therefore A is a skew-symmetric matrix.

e.g., A= [~ ~ ~], [~ ~ ~land [~ ~ ~]

M =[ ~ ~Jand N =[~ ~Jare diagonal matrices oforder 2-by-2.

and non-zero. For example r~ ~ ~] where k is a constant "# 0, 1.

Also A = [~0 0~ 2~] ,B = [ ~ ~] and C =[5] are scalar matrices oforder

3-by-3, 2-by-2 and 1-by-1 respectively.

e.g., A= [~ ~ ~] is a 3-by-3 identity matrix,

B= [~ ~] is a 2-by-2 identity matrix,

and C = [1] is a l-by-1 identity matrix.

A=[~ ~], B = [2 3 4], C= [~].

From the following matrices, identify

A=[~ ~]' B=[~ ~]'

4. Find negative of matrices A, B, C, D and E when:

A=[_! l B =[5 I -6], C = ] ,

D=[~ ;] ' E= [~ ;] ' F= [; ~]

1.3 Addition and Subtraction of Matrices

e.g., A= [ i ~ ~ J and B = [ -i ; ~ J are conformable for addition.

e.g., A= [ i ; ~ J and B = [ _~ ; ; J are conformable for

(a) If A= r~ -~ ~l] and B= r~ -~ ~].then

A+B =l~ -~ ~] +lr =~ ~]

1.3.3 Multiplication of a Matrix by a Real Number

1.3.6 Additive Inverse of a Matrix

then B = (-A) = - [ ~ - ~ -~] = [

A=[_~ ;], B= [~], C= [ ; -~], D= [2;1 ],

(i) A+[~ ~] (ii) B+ [-~] (iii) C+[-2 I 3]

(vii) (-2) C (viii) 3D (ix) 3C

(i) m~H~ ~]) +[: ~J (ii) [~ ~H[~ ~H: ~1)

6. IfA=[; -; ] and B = [ _~ ~ ] , find (i) 3A - 2B (ii) 2At - 3B1•

8. IfA= [ ~ i]' B=[~ ~ J, then verify that

(iii) A + At is symmetric (iv) A - At is skew symmetric

e.g., let A = [ ; ~ J and B= [ ~ J. Here number of columns of A is equal

(i) If A= (I i] andB = G ~],then AB=[! 2]G ~]

(ii) If A = [ ~ _ ~ J and B = [- ~ ~ J , then

AB =G-!H-~ ~]= ['~~=:~:~~3~(3) lx0+3x2 ]

e.g., if A=[-~ ~J B = [~ :] and C=[ _~ ~ J then

= [-~ ~][~ ~]-[-~:~:~:~ 2x3+3x1]

= [-~ a~ :H-~ ~J [_~ ~J .

= [~ · -~H-~ 4] = [9+1 5+4] =[ 10 9] = L.H.&