American International Journal of Social Science Vol. 3, No.

5; October 2014

The Merits, Limitations, and Modifications of Applying Bandura’s Social Learning

Theory to Understanding African American Children’s Exposure to Violence

Cindy L. Burdick
Capella University, Alumni
USA

Abstract
The goal of this review of the empirical literature is to investigate the application of Social Learning Theory and
make modifications in order to gain understanding African American Children’s exposure to violence. African
American children are exposed to violence more than any other race.Social Learning Theory holds that children
learn through interactions with a variety of socializing agents. With increased violence on television, television
has become a dangerous learning and socializing component that can enhance Social Learning Theory.
Keywords: Social Learning Theory, African American Children, Violence, Television
1. Introduction
According to Voisin (2007) more than any other population of children, African American children are exposed
disproportionately to violence among their family members and within their community. This has been
substantiated by the US Bureau of Justice Statistics (USDOJ) National Survey of Children’s Exposure to Violence
(NatSCEV) findings while more than 60% of children ages birth to 17 years of have been exposed to violence
(Finkelhor, Turner, Ormrod, Hamby &Kracke, 2009), Black youth ages 12 to 19 are exposed to crime at a
significantly higher rate than their White counterparts (The National Center for Victims of Crime, 2012a).
Previously Shakoor and Chalmers (1991) discovered of 1,035 Chicago African American youth, three of four had
been witness to a stabbing, robbing or killing.
Children exposed to violence just once increase their risk for future victimization. Children exposed to violence
suffer from increased levels of anxiety, aggression and conduct disorders (Finkelhor et al., 2009). They have
increased sadness, troubles with teachers in school (Boney-Mccoy&Finkelhor, 1995), become aggressive,
withdraw, appear depressed and/or have difficulty developing a sense of autonomy (Keane, 1996). These children
are more likely to have increased risk of violent dating, delinquency and involvement in the child welfare and
juvenile justice systems (Finkelhor et al., 2009). Those exposed under the age of eleven are likely to develop
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Davidson & Smith, 1990). Durant, Cadenhead, Pendergrast, Slavens and
Linder (1994) have linked exposure to community violence to an increased propensity to become involved in
antisocial behavior, fighting, delinquency, use of weapons and involvement in gangs. In addition to the risk
factors, exposure to violence can lead to the children learning, imitating and repeating the same behaviors they
witness (Bandura, Ross & Ross, 1961). This imitation and repeating of behaviors can be explained through
Social Learning Theory.
1.1. Social Learning Theory
According to the tenets of Social Learning Theory, behaviors are learned through interactions with the variety of
socializing agents to which one is exposed. It is through these interactions where behaviors are either adapted or
extinguished (Brown et al., 2005). Similarly McHale, Dotterer and Ji-Yeon (2009) find children learn from what
they do in their everyday activities. It is the daily activities that influence their identity development, social
relationships and abilities. It is during these activities where children begin to see and develop their own abilities
and begin to identify with the leaders of the activities. According to Sellers, Cochran and Branch (2005) in order
for social learning to occur there are four elements that must be present, imitation, definitions, differential
associations and differential reinforcements.
The extent to which one emulates the behavior of a role model is imitation. In order for imitation to happen there
must be a perceived personal relationship and a direct observation of the role model’s behavior. Definitions refer
to the attitude and values individuals have in regard to the morality of the law in general or an understanding of
wrongfulness. This attitude may change depending on the situation or have different strengths at different points
in time. Differential association refers to the influence the definitions have on another’s conduct.
183
© Center for Promoting Ideas, USA www.aijssnet.com

It is this exposure to others’ definitions and behaviors that has an impact on one’s own definitions and behaviors.
The impact varies depending on frequency, duration and intensity of the relationship. Differential reinforcement
refers to either the cost or the reward associated with a particular behavior (Sellers et al., 2005). Behaviors get
adopted through reward; behaviors get maintained through reinforcement while behaviors get extinguished
through punishment (Brown et al., 2005).
1.2. Violence of Children and Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
Children learn social skills through their parents’ child rearing practices. Children pick up on their parents’
intended responses and behaviors as well as those not intended. These learning situations are often reinforced
through the child’s imitation of the parents’ behaviors. The child rearing practices influence the child’s behavior
in future social situations as it what they have come to know as either the norm or acceptable behavior (Bandura
& Huston, 1961). In addition, daily activities and interactions with the parents are just as important as child
rearing practices as children learn through these activities and interactions. It is the activities and interactions that
influence their future social relationships as again behavior is learned through the activities and interactions
(McHale et al., 2009).
Therefore in terms of violence, a child can learn aggression when their parent hits them in order to teach them to
be nicer to their sibling. While the parent may be intending to send the message it is important to be nice to the
sibling, their unintended message is that hitting or violence is a way to get a message across. When it comes to
domestic violence, Davies and Cummings (1998) find children who are exposed to domestic violence by
witnessing it from their parents, end up modeling their parents’ aggressive behaviors. Intended violence has the
same impact and these learned behaviors continue into adulthood (Bandura & Huston, 1961). This type of
learned behavior can be seen in incarcerated adults.
Studies have shown high rates of exposure of abuse among incarcerated adults. Adams (2009) found out of 16
men, currently in prison for killing their spouses, half reported being abused as children. Fifty two percent
reported their fathers were highly critical towards them while 29% stated their mothers’ were highly critical of
them. Thirty nine percent of the men reported their fathers had been convicted of criminal behavior at one point
while they were growing up. Sixty eight percent of these men who had killed their spouses reported they had
witnessed violence between their parents. Findings were similar with female inmates.
Roe-Sepowitz (2007) looked at the female inmate population in a Southern United States prison. Results from
surveying 147 female inmates, who were not involved in self-mutilation, showed 53.7% witnessed parental
domestic violence. Physical abuse was experienced by 42.9% of the population while 63.7 experienced sexual
abuse. Both the Adams and Roe-Sepowitz studies show support for the findings Bandura and Huston (1961)
found that children are influenced by the aggressive behaviors of their parents. Other studies have shown the
impact on imitation.
Support for the imitation of the aggressive behaviors can be found in the Bandura et al. (1961) study with 72
nursery school children. The children were exposed to three different conditions, observation of an aggressive
adult, observation of an inhibited nonaggressive adult and no exposure to either model. After exposure to the
adult the children were given a variety of toys to play with. The authors found that those exposed to the
aggressive adult responded with a great deal of aggressive play as compared to the children exposed to the
nonaggressive and control groups. The authors also concluded, boys more than girls displayed more aggressive
behaviors. While this study finds a difference in sex, there are also differences in race in terms of aggressive
behavior, namely crime.
Per capita the African American population commits the largest number of crimes in the United States.
According to the US Census Bureau (2012) while 7,309,208 Whites committed crimes in 2009, 3,027,159 Blacks
committed crimes. With 223.6 million Whites in American and 38.9 million Blacks percentage wise this comes
out to 3.26% and 7.78% respectively.

184
American International Journal of Social Science Vol. 3, No. 5; October 2014

2. Merits to Applying Bandura’s Social Learning Theory to African American Children’s Exposure
to Domestic Violence
Children exposed to domestic violence have an increased impairment in their own future parenting abilities later
on in life, thus increasing the susceptibility for their children to be at risk for exposure to violence (Finkelhor et
al., 2009). This therefore becomes a cycle of learned behaviors that continue from one generation to the next
(Windom, 1989). The cycle increases the propensity for these children to become involved other acts of violence.
There is an increased propensity for children exposed to violence to become involved in antisocial behavior,
fighting, delinquency, use of weapons and involvement in gangs (Durant et al., 1994). It would therefore stand to
reason based on the tenets of Social Learning Theory the cycle of exposure to violence continues from one
generation to the next with the number of African American children continuing the cycle at higher rates because
the incidences of exposure of abuse among African American children is higher than White children as
determined by The National Center for Victims of Crime (2012a) findings that Black youth are exposed to crime
at a significantly rate than their White counterparts. A difference is also seen in the domestic violence in adults.
The difference between White adults’ and African American adults’ domestic abuse can be seen in intimate
partner victimization records. According to The National Center for Victims of Crime (2012b) African American
women are more likely to be victimized by their intimate partners at a rate of 35% higher than White females. In
addition African American males are more likely to be victimized by their intimate partners at a rate of 62%
higher than that of White males. Differences can also be seen in the maltreatment rates of children.
In a study using data from the National Incidence Study of Child Abuse and Neglect (NIS-4)
Seldak, McPherson and Das (2010) found Black children were exposed to maltreatment at higher rates than White
children in many of the categories. The authors found socioeconomic status as being the strongest predictor of
maltreatment with the income of Black families not rising as much as the income of White families since the
inception of the last study, the NIS-3. In addition, Black children ages 1-9 had the highest rates of homicides and
burn death. Black children ages 10-19 had higher injury related deaths and homicides as compared to their White
counterparts (Bernard, Paulozzi& Wallace, 2007).
Consequently because there are higher numbers of African American children exposed to violence and domestic
violence in the form of maltreatment, the potential of African American children to imitate violent and domestic
violent behaviors increases. This claim can be substantiated via Bandura and Huston (1961) social leaning theory
as children learn by imitating their parents’ behaviors. In addition children who witness aggressive behaviors, and
these behaviors do not need be from the parent, learn to imitate said aggressive behaviors themselves (Bandura et
al., 1961).
This claim of learning maladaptive behaviors from the parents or from the family can also be substantiated by
findings from Patterson, Dishion and Bank (1984). The authors used a variety of assessments including
interviews, questionnaires and laboratory and home observations to look at relations among 91 preadolescent and
adolescent boys and their families. The authors found it was the family interactions that served as a basis for the
training of fighting. In other words, the maladaptive and aggressive behaviors exhibited by children originated
within the family because of interactions and behaviors learned from family members themselves.
Low and Espelage (2012) support this idea of and find the home is where the training of problem behaviors
outside the family occurs and that African American Children are more likely to be exposed to violence in their
study on bullying.
Looking at 1023 student Low and Espelage (2012) looked at bullying and its association with family violence and
parental supervision. They found African American children were not only exposed to more family violence and
alcohol and drug use, but they received less parental monitoring and empathy from their parents than the White
students. The author’s concluded their finding were consistent with Social Learning Theory and it was the African
American students’ high risk of exposure to violence and learning how to behave from this exposure to violence
and due to low levels of protective factors in the home that increased their propensity to bully.

185
© Center for Promoting Ideas, USA www.aijssnet.com

3. Limitations to Applying Bandura’s Social Learning Theory to African American Children’s

Exposure to Violence
While Bandura’s Social Learning theory holds it is the imitation of behaviors that trains youth (Bandura &
Huston, 1961) there are also genetic conditions, more specifically psychiatric disorders, that could play a role in
antisocial, maladaptive or aggressive behavior in children and adolescents (DiLalla & Gottesman, 1991) rather
than social learning. Beardslee et al. (1996) conducted a study on family history of depression and found it was a
significant predictor of emotional and behavioral problems in children. Burt et al. (2005) suggests mothers who
suffer from depression are more inconsistent, insensitive and inattentive towards their children. These behaviors
in turn suggest it is the impairment of parenting that predisposes depression and mental illness to their children.
Thompson (2006) also finds depression runs in families and the outcomes relate to negative or maladaptive
outcomes. Mothers who are depressed are more likely to use harsh words and have lower sensitivity towards their
infant. The potential then for intergenerational linkages in said depressive behavior is relevant as a genetic factor.
Other studies have shown a link between psychiatric disorders and involvement in domestic violence.
Danielson, Moffit, Caspi and Silva (1998) have found adults who met the criteria for diagnosis for certain
psychiatric disorders including antisocial personality disorder, depression and substance use have increased risk
of getting involved in domestic violence with their intimate partner. Turner, Lloyd and Taylor (2006) in their
study with 1,968 individuals classified as being disabled for reasons of emotional or psychiatric difficulties, found
the African American population had the highest number of individuals living with antisocial personality disorder.
In their study with abuse and mental disorders, Danielson et al. (1998) measured domestic violence and
compared it with mental disorders. The authors found over 50% of the women victims had elevated rates of
mood and eating disorders. Almost two thirds met the criteria for one or more disorders including mood, eating
and substance use disorders as well as antisocial personality disorder and symptoms of schizophrenia. Over 50%
of the male perpetrators also met criteria for some type of disorder and had elevated rates of anxiety, substance
use and antisocial personality disorder. Poverty may also be an indicator of genetic disorders and domestic abuse.
Seldak et al. (2010) using the National Incidence Study of Child Abuse and Neglect (NIS) found that
socioeconomic status is the strongest predictor of maltreatment. Simning, van Wijngaarden and Conwell (2010)
found African American individuals living in public housing were 1.8 times more likely to have an anxiety
disorders, 1.4 times more likely to have a mood disorder and 2.2 times more likely to have substance use
disorders than those in non-public housing. These numbers are significant as of the 2.4 million people living in
public housing, 69% are racial and ethnic minorities of which 46% are African Americans. The significance to the
African American population lies in Seldak et al. (2010) finding that the income of Black families is not rising as
much as the income of White families. This is significant in regard to children as according to the National
Poverty Center (2012) 38.2% of Black children lived in poverty in 2010 while 22% of White children lived in
poverty.
While genetic conditions such as psychiatric disorders play a role in the antisocial, maladaptive or aggressive
behavior of children and adolescents (DiLalla & Gottesman, 1991), there are also other venues, such as the media
that have been found to be a medium of learning which influences the behavior of children (Rudy, Popova& Linz,
2010) and a modification to Bandura’s Social Learning Theory adding the element of media as a socializing agent
may make the theory more relevant to African American children due to a higher amount of television watched by
African American children as compared to White children as found by the CDC (2012).
4. Modifications Necessary to Make Bandura’s Social Learning Theory More Culturally Relevant to
African American Children
Bandura’s Social Learning Theory holds children learn through imitation of their adult role model with aggression
learned from aggressive role models and the way in which a parent rewards or punishes the behavior leads to
reinforcement or extinguishment of the behavior (Bandura & Huston, 1961). The theory also holds parents
reinforce or extinguish behaviors based on perceived sex appropriate behaviors (Bandura et al., 1961). What this
theory does not take into consideration is the influence the media, more specifically the watching of television,
has on children and their behaviors in terms of social learning.
According to McHale et al. (2009) it is during every day activities where children begin to see their own abilities
and will often identify with the leaders of the activities.
186
American International Journal of Social Science Vol. 3, No. 5; October 2014

The watching of television is one of these activities or participation venues. Rudy et al. (2010) found according to
Social Cognitive theory children learn through media in the same manner in which they learn in real life, through
repetition, messaging and role modeling. The watching of television therefore has become context which
influences learning and adapting behaviors.
According to Wilson (2008) it is not how much television is watched, but the type of programming. Children, she
finds can learn about emotions from watching emotional experiences of television characters. Repetitive
watching can lead empathy with those characters. Repetitive watching of violent television can also lead to
violent behaviors in children. Television watching has therefore become the place where children learn to
appreciate the norms and standards as depicted by the fictional characters and shows. This has led to children
learning emotional and social behaviors not through life situations but vicariously through media and how media
portrays people. As found by Stroman (1986) television has become the new socializing agent.
These findings are important to African American children as the CDC (2012) found in 1997 40% of Black
children reported watching six or more hours of television on a day while only 14% of White children watched six
or more hours of television a day. The most recent study from the CDC using data from the Youth Risk Behavior
Survey, 2001-2009 showed 63.3% of Black high school students watched three of more hour of television a day
whereas only 28.3% of White high school students watched three or more hours of television a day (Jones,
Anderson, Lowry & Conner, 2011). With this in mind certain modifications are necessary in order to make
Bandura’s Social Learning Theory more culturally relevant to African American Children as behaviors learned
may not be from the parents, but from television. How families are portrayed and how much violence is on
television may also be contributing to Social Learning Theory.
Berry (1998) finds African American families are portrayed in a comically ghetto manner. But it is not just the
portrayal of African American families children are watching, it is the violence on television that is important.
According research from Kaiser Foundation (2012) The National Television Violence Study shows two out of
three programs on television contain some type of violence with an average of six violent acts per hour. Violence
was found to be more prevalent in children’s programming at a rate of 69% than in regular programming at 57%.
With Black children watching three or more hours a day of television on a school day (Jones, 2011) there are
more than just parents and family members that have an influence on their socialization. This statement can be
supported by Miller, Grabell, Thomas, Bermann and Grahm-Bermann (2012) study on violence. In their study
with 213 mothers and their children it was found higher levels of maternal depression and increased exposure to
violent television led to the child’s more aggressive behaviors towards their sibling. In addition community
violence was linked to sibling aggression with children who had aggressive fathers. What surprised the authors
was that after accounting for family and community violence, violent television was significantly associated with
aggression towards a sibling.
With this additional information on the impact of television on children modifications to Bandura’s Social
Learning Theory can be made in order to make social learning more relevant to African American children and
the impact of the watching of television. These modifications can be made in form of adding the watching of
television as one of the socializing agents to which one is exposed in the four elements that need to be present in
order for social learning to occur and by adding television watching to how children learn social skills as it is not
just through parent child rearing practices as found by Bandura and Huston (1961). The first element that must be
present is imitation. In order for imitation to happen there must be a perceived relationship and a direct
observation of the role models behavior (Sellers, 2005). Television watching offers this element. Applying
Social Cognitive theory Rudy et al. (2010) discovered children have found role models on television and through
watching of television they learn and adapt to the behaviors they see.
The second element, Definitions, refer to the attitudes and values individuals have in regard to the morality of the
law in general or an understanding of wrongfulness. With Black children watching television at high rates (Jones,
2011) the potential to identify with the attitudes and values in regard to morality of the law based on the
characters they see increases. In addition, Wilson (2008) finds the children learn about emotions from watching
the emotions displayed by characters on television with repetitive watching leading to empathy towards these
characters. She finds children are not learning emotional and social behaviors through life situations, but rather
through television characters.

187
© Center for Promoting Ideas, USA www.aijssnet.com

The third element, Differential Association, refers to the influence the definitions have on another’s conduct
(Sellers, 2005). According to McHale et al. (2009) the daily activities in which children are involved influences
their social relationships. What Black children see in terms of Black families on television are characters that are
typically comical or ghetto in nature (Berry, 1998). In addition, with two out of three programs containing some
type of violence with an average of 6 violent acts per hour (Kaiser Foundation, 2012) violence is what children
learn to associate with.
Finally there is the fourth element, Differential Reinforcement. This refers to the rewards or costs associates with
a particular behavior (Sellers et al., 2005). Miller et al. (2012) found exposure to violence on television led to a
child’s aggressive behavior towards their sibling. Therefore there is the potential that differential reinforcement is
occurring due to the prevalence of the outcome of watching violent television which would be the violence
directed at the sibling.
5. Conclusion
According to the tenets of Social Learning theory, behaviors are learned through interactions with the variety of
socializing agents to which one is exposed (Brown et al., 2005). According to Bandura and Huston (1961)
children learn social skills through their parent’s child rearing practices. Bandura et al. (1961) postulate children
who witness aggressive behaviors in others imitate the same aggressive behavior. Imitation, learned morality or
an understanding of wrongfulness, frequency, duration and intensity of a relationship as well as cost or reward of
the learned behavior all add up to reinforce social learning (Sellers et al., 2005).
One such interaction in which children are exposed is violence, with African American children getting exposed
disproportionately to both family and community violence (Voslin, 2007). This exposure has a negative impact
on their future psychological and behavioral functioning as the exposure to violence has led to increased risk of
future victimization, anxiety, aggression and conduct disorders (Finkelhor et al., 2009) as well as developing
depression, failure in developing a sense of autonomy (Keene, 1996), impairment in their own parenting
capabilities and an increased involvement in the juvenile justice system (Finkelhor et al., 2009).
While Social Learning Theory holds it is the imitation of behavior that trains youth (Bandura & Huston, 1961)
genetic factors also need to be considered. DiLalla and Gottesman (1991) find psychiatric disorders could play a
role in the antisocial and maladaptive or aggressive behaviors found in children and adolescents. This is
significant as Danielson et al. (1998) discovered adults who met the criteria for certain psychiatric disorders
including antisocial personality disorder had an increased risk of getting involved in domestic violence. This is
important to the African American population as Turner et al. (2006) found the African American population had
the highest number of individuals with antisocial personality disorder. This large number of individuals with
antisocial personality disorder would potentially mean there is an increase in the number of children learning from
said individuals. Yet there are other factors to consider such as media.
Television itself holds all the components Sellers et al. (2005) has found to be present in order for social learning
to occur. The elements include imitation, definitions, differential associations and differential reinforcement.
Using the tenets of Social Learning Theory, Rudy et al. (2010) has found children can learn through media in the
same manner in which they learn in real life, through repetition, messaging and role modeling. McHale et al.
(2009) finds children learn from what they do in their everyday activities, one such activity is television with
African American children watching more television per day than white children (CDC, 2012). With an increased
prevalence of violence in television (Kaiser Foundation, 2012), this makes television a dangerous learning and
socializing component that can be used to enhance Bandura’s Social Learning Theory in order to help explain
behaviors associated with violence and domestic violence and the African American Children.

References
Adams, D. (2009). Predisposing childhood factors for men who kill their intimate partners. Victims & Offenders, 4(3),
215-229. doi: 10.1080/15564880903048479
Bandura, A., & Huston, A. C. (1961).Identification as a process of incidental learning. Journal of Abnormal & Social
Psychology, 63(2), 311-318. doi: 10.1037/h0040351
Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1961).Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models.
Journal of Abnormal & Social Psychology, 63(3), 575-582. Retrieved from
http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Bandura/bobo.htm
188
American International Journal of Social Science Vol. 3, No. 5; October 2014

Beardslee, W.R., Keller, M. B., Seifer, R., Lavori, P. W., Staley.,Podorefsky, D., &Shera, D. (1996). Prediction of
adolescent affective disorder: Effects of prior parental affective disorders and child psychopathology. Journal
of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 35(3), 279-288. doi:
10.1097/00004583-199603000-00008
Bernard, S. J., Paulozzi, L. J., & Wallace, L. J. (2007).Fatal injuries among children by race and ethnicity: United
States,1999-2002. Retrieved from the Center for Disease Control, Division of Unintentional Injury Prevention,
National Center for Injury Prevention and Control at
http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/ss5605a1.htm
Berry, G. L. (1998). Black family life on television and the socialization of the African American child: Images of
marginality. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 29(2), 233-242. Retrieved from
http://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-57590475/black-family-life-on-television-and-the-socialization
Boney-McCoy, S., &Finkelhor, D. (1995). Psychosocial sequelae of violent victimization in a national youth sample.
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 63(5), 726-736.
doi: 10.1037/0022-006X.63.5.726
Brown, E. C., Catalano, R. F., Fleming, C. B., Haggerty, K. P., Abbott, R. D., Cortes, R. R., & Park, J. (2005).
Mediator effects in the social development model: An examination of constituent theories. Criminal
Behaviour& Mental Health, 15(4), 221-235. doi: 10.1002/cbm.27
Burt, K. B., Van Dulmen, M. H. M., Carlivati, J., Egeland, B., Alan Sroufe, L., Forman, D. R., Carlson, E. A. (2005).
Mediating links between maternal depression and offspring psychopathology: The importance of independent
data. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 46(5), 490-499. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00367.x
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2012).Multicultural Outreach Fact Sheet: Verb.™ : It’s what you do.
Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/youthcampaign/pressroom/PDF/6.1.01-NatMultCulFactSheet.pdf
Cook, C. A. L., Flick, L. H., Homan, S. M., Campbell, C., McSweeney, M., & Gallagher, M. E. (2010). Psychiatric
disorders and treatment in low-income pregnant women. Journal of Women's Health (15409996), 19(7), 1251-
1262. doi: 10.1089/jwh.2009.1854
Danielson, K. K., Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., & Silva, P. A. (1998). Comorbidity between abuse of an adult and DSM-III-
R mental disorders: Evidence from an epidemiological study.The American Journal of Psychiatry, 155(1),
131-3. Retrieved from
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3641656/pdf/nihms460993.pdf
Davidson, J., & Smith, R. (1990). Traumatic experiences in psychiatric outpatients. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 3(3),
459-475. doi: 10.1007/BF00974785
Davies, P. T., & Cummings, E. M. (1998).Exploring children's emotional security as a mediator of the link between
marital relations and child adjustment. Child Development, 69(1), 124-139. doi:
10.2307/1132075
DiLalla, L. F., &Gottesman, I. I. (1991). Biological and genetic contributors to violence: Widom's untold tale.
Psychological Bulletin, 109(1), 125-129. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.109.1.125
DuRant, R. H., Cadenhead, C., Pendergrast, R. A., &Slavens, G. (1994). Factors associated with the use of violence
among urban black adolescents. American Journal of Public Health, 84(4), 612-617. doi:
10.2105/AJPH.84.4.612
Finkelhor, D., Turner, H., Ormrod, R & Hamby, S. (2009). Violence, abuse and crime exposure in a national sample of
children and youth.Pediatrics, 124(5), 1411-1423. doi: 10.1542/peds.2009-0467
Finkelhor, D., Ormrod, R., Hamby, S., &Kracke. (2009) Children’s exposure to violence: A comprehensive national
survey. Retrieved from The U.S Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice
and Delinquency Prevention website: https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/227744.pdf
Jones, S. E., Anderson, K., Lowry, R., & Conner, H. (2011) Risks to health among American Indian/Alaska Native high
school students in the United States. Retrieved from the CDC: Preventing Chronic Disease: Public Health
Research. Practice.and policy website:
http://www.cdc.gov/pcd/issues/2011/jul/10_0193.htm#table3_down
Kaiser Foundation (2005).Retreived 09/02/2011 from www.kff.org
Keane, T. M. (1996). Clinical perspectives on stress, traumatic stress, and PTSD in children and adolescents. Journal of
School Psychology, 34(2), 193-197. doi: 10.1016/0022-4405(96)00008-8
Low, S., &Espelage, D. (2012).Differentiating cyber bullying perpetration from non-physical bullying: Commonalities
across race, individual, and family predictors. Psychology of Violence,
doi:10.1037/a0030308

189
© Center for Promoting Ideas, USA www.aijssnet.com

Miller, L. E., Grabell, A., Thomas, A., Bermann, E., & Graham-Bermann, S. (2012). The associations between
community violence, television violence, intimate partner violence, parent–child aggression, and aggression in
sibling relationships of a sample of preschoolers. Psychology of Violence, 2(2), 165-178. doi:
10.1037/a0027254
McHale, S. M., Dotterer, A., &Ji-Yeon Kim. (2009). An ecological perspective on the media and youth development.
American Behavioral Scientist, 52(8), 1186-1203. doi: 1031177/0002764209331541
National Center for the Victims of Crime (2012a).About Sexual Assault.Retrieved from
http://victimsofcrime.org/our-programs/dna-resource-center/untested-sexual-assault-kits/about-sexual-assault
National Center for the Victims of Crime (2012b).Action partnership on interventions for black children exposed to
violence and victimization. Retrieved from http://www.victimsofcrime.org/our-programs/other-projects/youth-
initiative/interventions-for-black-children%27s-exposure-to-violence/black-children-exposed-to-violence
National Poverty Center (2012) retrieved 10/19/2012 from http://npc.umich.edu/poverty/
Patterson, G. R., Dishion, T. J., & Bank, L. (1984). Family interaction: A process model of deviancy training.
Aggressive Behavior, 10(3), 253-267. D
doi: 10.1002/1098-2337(1984)10:3<253::AID-AB2480100309>3.0.CO;2-2
Roe-Sepowitz, D. (2007). Characteristics and predictors of self-mutilation: A study of incarcerated women. Criminal
Behaviour& Mental Health, 17(5), 312-321. doi: 10.1002/cbm.665
Rudy, R., Popova, L., & Linz, D. (2010). The context of current content analysis of gender roles: An introduction to a
special issue. Sex Roles, 62(11), 705-720. doi: 10.1007/s11199-010-9807-1
Sedlak, A., McPherson, K., Das, B. (2010). Supplementary analyses of race differences in child maltreatment rates in
the NIS-4. Retrieved 10/29/2012 from www.acf.hhs.gov
Sellers, C., Cochran, J., & Branch, K. (2005). Social learning theory and partner violence: A research note. Deviant
Behavior, 26(4), 379-395. doi: 10.1080/016396290931669
Shakoor, B. H., & Chalmers, D. (1991). Co-victimization of African-American children who witness violence: effects
on cognitive, emotional, and behavioral development. Journal of the National Medical Association 83(3), 233-
238.
Simning, A., van Wijngaarden, E., & Conwell, Y. (2011). Anxiety, mood, and substance use disorders in united
statesafrican-american public housing residents. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 46(10), 983-
992. doi: 10.1007/s00127-010-0267-2
Stroman, C. A. (1986).Television viewing and self-concept among black children. Journal of Broadcasting &
Electronic Media, 30(1), 87-93. doi: 10.1080/08838158609386610
Thompson, R. A. (2006). Nuturing future generations: Promoting resilience in children and adolescents through
social, emotional and cognitive skills. New York, NY: Routledge
Turner, R. J., Lloyd, D. A., & Taylor, J.Physical disability and mental health: An epidemiology of psychiatric and
substance disorders. Rehabilitation Psychology, 51(3), 214-223. doi: 10.1037/0090-5550.51.3.214
US Bureau of Justice Statistics (2012).Children’s exposure to violence: A comprehensive national survey. Retrieved
10/25, 2012 from www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/227744.pdf
U.S Census Bureau (2012).Table 325: Arrests by race: 2009. Retrieved from
http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2012/tables/12s0325.pdf
US Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor and Statistics (2012).Unemployment and the newest high school
dropouts.Retrieved 00/28/2012 from dol.gov
Voisin, D. R. (2007). The effects of family and community violence exposure among youth: Recommendations for
practice and policy. Journal of Social Work Education, 43(1), 51-66. doi:
10.5175/JSWE.2007.200400473
Widom, C. S. (1989). Does violence beget violence? A critical examination of the literature. Psychological Bulletin,
106(1), 3-28. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.106.1.3
Wilson, B. J. (2008). Media and Children's Aggression, Fear, and Altruism. Future of Children, 18(1), 87-118.
Retrieved from
http://www.princeton.edu/futureofchildren/publications/docs/18_01_05.pdf

190