AMPT Digital Notes

AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING – MRCET (UGC – Autonomous)
AIRCRAFT MATERIALS AND PRODUCTION

TECHNOLOGY
(R17A2102)
COURSE FILE
II B. Tech II Semester
(2017-2018)
Prepared By
Ms. L. SUSHMA, Assoc. Prof
Department of Aeronautical Engineering
MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF

ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
Affiliated to JNTU, Hyderabad, Approved by AICTE - Accredited by NBA & NAAC – ‘A’ Grade - ISO 9001:2015
Certified)
Maisammaguda, Dhulapally (Post Via. Kompally), Secunderabad – 500100, Telangana State, India.
II – I B. Tech R15A210 Aircraft Materials & Production Technology By L SUSHMA 1

MRCET VISION
 To become a model institution in the fields of Engineering, Technology and Management.
 To have a perfect synchronization of the ideologies of MRCET with challenging demands of
International Pioneering Organizations.
MRCET MISSION
To establish a pedestal for the integral innovation, team spirit, originality and competence in the
students, expose them to face the global challenges and become pioneers of Indian vision of
modern society.
MRCET QUALITY POLICY.
 To pursue continual improvement of teaching learning process of Undergraduate and Post
Graduate programs in Engineering & Management vigorously.
 To provide state of art infrastructure and expertise to impart the quality education.

PROGRAM OUTCOMES (PO’s)
Engineering Graduates will be able to:
1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
3. Design / development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems
and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and
research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and
synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex
engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to
assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities
relevant to the professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and
need for sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of the engineering practice.
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or
leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and
write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give
and receive clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member
and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multi disciplinary environments.
12. Life- long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological
change.

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING
VISION
Department of Aeronautical Engineering aims to be indispensable source in Aeronautical

Engineering which has a zeal to provide the value driven platform for the students to acquire
knowledge and empower themselves to shoulder higher responsibility in building a strong
nation.
MISSION
The primary mission of the department is to promote engineering education and research. To
strive consistently to provide quality education, keeping in pace with time and technology.
Department passions to integrate the intellectual, spiritual, ethical and social development of the
students for shaping them into dynamic engineers.
QUALITY POLICY STATEMENT
Impart up-to-date knowledge to the students in Aeronautical area to make them quality
engineers. Make the students experience the applications on quality equipment and tools. Provide
systems, resources and training opportunities to achieve continuous improvement. Maintain
global standards in education, training and services.

PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES

Aeronautical Engineering
1. PEO1 (PROFESSIONALISM & CITIZENSHIP): To create and sustain a community of

learning in which students acquire knowledge and learn to apply it professionally with due
consideration for ethical, ecological and economic issues.
2. PEO2 (TECHNICAL ACCOMPLISHMENTS): To provide knowledge based services to
satisfy the needs of society and the industry by providing hands on experience in various
technologies in core field.
3. PEO3 (INVENTION, INNOVATION AND CREATIVITY): To make the students to design,
experiment, analyze, and interpret in the core field with the help of other multi disciplinary
concepts wherever applicable.
4. PEO4 (PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT): To educate the students to disseminate research
findings with good soft skills and become a successful entrepreneur.
5. PEO5 (HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT): To graduate the students in building
national capabilities in technology, education and research
PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES – Aeronautical Engineering

1. To mould students to become a professional with all necessary skills, personality and sound
knowledge in basic and advance technological areas.
2. To promote understanding of concepts and develop ability in design manufacture and
maintenance of aircraft, aerospace vehicles and associated equipment and develop application
capability of the concepts sciences to engineering design and processes.
3. Understanding the current scenario in the field of aeronautics and acquire ability to apply
knowledge of engineering, science and mathematics to design and conduct experiments in the
field of Aeronautical Engineering.
4. To develop leadership skills in our students necessary to shape the social, intellectual, business
and technical worlds.

MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

II Year B. Tech, ANE‐I Sem
R17A2103 ‐ AIRCRAFT MATERIALS AND PRODUCTION
TECHNOLOGY
OBJECTIVES :
On completion of the course, the student will have knowledge about the selection of aircraft
materials and process involved during production.
UNIT‐I INTRODUCTION:
Classification of aircraft materials, properties of flight vehicle materials and their significant,
factors affecting the selection of material for different parts of airplanes, Process associated
to conventional materials.
UNIT‐II METALS AND ALLOYS:

Aluminum and its alloys, high strength and high corrosion alloys. Titanium and its alloys:
applications, machining, forming,welding and heat treatment; Classification of steels alloys,
effect of alloying elements, magnesium alloys and their properties, heat treatment
processes, maraging steels: properties and applications.
UNIT‐III HIGH STRENGTH AND HEAT RESISTANT ALLOYS:

Classification of heat resistant materials, iron, nickel and cobalt based alloys, refractory
materials, ceramics, properties of inconel, monal, nimonic and super alloys; application of
heat resistant alloy in aircrafts. Heat treatment of steel and its alloys. Case hardening, initial
stresses and stress alleviation procedures, corrosion prevention and protective treatments.
UNIT‐IV COMPOSITE MATERIALS:

Classification, characteristics of composite materials, volume fraction, laminated
composites, particulate composites and fibrous composites. Types of reinforcements, their
shape and size, production and properties of fiber reinforced plastics. Application of
Composite materials.
UNIT‐V AIRCRAFT MANUFACTURING PROCESSES:

Profiling, hydro forming, spar milling, spark erosion and powered metal parts, integral
machining, contour etching, high energy rate forming and manufacturing of honeycomb
structures and general methods of construction of aircraft engine parts.
Text Books:
1. G. F. Titterton, Aircraft Materials and Processes, 5/e, Sterling Book House,1998.
2. F. C. Campbell, Manufacturing Technology for Aerospace Structural Materials,1/e, Elsevier
Publications, 2006.
3. Agarwal, B.D., and Broutman, L.J., "Analysis and Performance of Fibre Composites," John
Wiley and sons. Inc., New York, 1995.

LESSON PLANNER
DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING
SUB: AIRCRAFT MATERIALS AND PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY SEMMESTER – II Year I Sem.

FACULTY: L.SUSHMA, Asst PROF
NO OF
S.no UNIT NO TOPICS PLANNED TO COVER
CLASSES
Classification of aircraft materials, , , 3
INTRODUCTIO properties of flight vehicle materials and their significant 2

1
N factors affecting the selection of material for different parts
3
of airplanes
Process associated to conventional materials. 3
Unit 1 Total no of classes 11
Aluminum and its alloys,.,;, , 1
high strength and high corrosion alloys 1
Titanium and its alloys: applications 1
METALS AND machining, forming,welding and heat treatment 2
2
ALLOYS Classification of steels alloys, effect of alloying elements 1
magnesium alloys and their properties 2
heat treatment processes, maraging steels: properties and
2
applications
Classification of heat resistant materials, iron, nickel and
3
cobalt based alloys, refractory materials, ceramics,..,
HIGH
properties of inconel, monal, nimonic and super alloys;
STRENGTH 2
application of heat resistant alloy in aircrafts
3 AND HEAT
RESISTANT Heat treatment of steel and its alloys 2
ALLOYS Case hardening, initial stresses and stress alleviation
2
procedures
corrosion prevention and protective treatments 2
Classification, characteristics of composite materials, , , ,
2
volume fraction, laminated composites 2

COMPOSITE particulate composites and fibrous composites. Types of
4 2
MATERIALS reinforcements
their shape and size 2
production and properties of fiber reinforced plastics. 2
Application of Composite materials. 2
14

Profiling, hydro forming, spar milling, spark erosion 3

AIRCRAFT powered metal parts, integral machining, contour etching 2
5 MANUFACTURI high energy rate forming and manufacturing of honeycomb
2
NG PROCESSES structures
general methods of construction of aircraft engine parts. 1
10
TOTAL NO OF CLASSES FOR COURSE 61
Text Books:
1. G. F. Titterton, Aircraft Materials and Processes, 5/e, Sterling Book House,1998.
2. F. C. Campbell, Manufacturing Technology for Aerospace Structural Materials,1/e, Elsevier
Publications, 2006.
3. Agarwal, B.D., and Broutman, L.J., "Analysis and Performance of Fibre Composites," John
Wiley and sons. Inc., New York, 1995.
4. L. Gupta, Advanced Composite Materials, 2/e, Himalayan Books, 2006.

UNIT I
INTRODUCTION TO
AIRCRAFT MATERIALS

INTRODUCTION
The development of new materials and better exertion of existing materials has been central to
the advancement of aerospace engineering. Advances in the structural performance, safety,
fuel economy, speed, range and operating life of aircraft has been reliant on improvements to
the airframe and engine materials. Aircraft materials have changed greatly in terms of
mechanical performance, durability, functionality and quality since the first powered flight by
the Wright Brothers in 1903. Furthermore, the criteria which are used to select materials for
aircraft have also changed over the past 100 years.
The main criteria for materials selection for the earliest aircraft (c. 1903–1920) was minimum
weight and maximum strength. The earliest aircraft were designed to be light and strong; other
design criteria such as cost, toughness and durability were given less importance in the quest
for high strength-to-weight. At the time the best material to achieve the strength-to-weight
requirement was wood.
The situation changed during the 1920s/1930s when the criteria for materials selection
widened to consider a greater number of factors affecting aircraft performance and capability.
The design of aircraft changed considerably as commercial and commuter aviation became
more popular and the military began to recognise the tactical advantages of fast fighters and
heavy bombers. Improved performance from the 1930s led to aircraft capable of flying at fast
speeds over long distances while carrying heavy payloads. The requirement for high strength-
to-weight remained central to the choice of material, as it had with earlier aircraft, but other
criteria such as high stiffness and durability also became important. Higher stiffness allowed
sleeker and more compact designs, and hence improved performance. These new criteria not
only required new materials but also the development of new production methods for
transforming these materials into aircraft components. Aluminium alloys processed using new
heat treatments and shaped using new metal-forming processes were developed to meet the
expanding number of selection criteria.
Major advances in aerospace technology, particularly jet aircraft, firstgeneration helicopters

and rockets/missiles, occurred shortly after World War II. These advances placed greater
demands on the performance requirements of the the airframe and engine materials. Another
significant milestone was the introduction of pressurised cabin aircraft for high altitude flight
during the 1940s. The increased pressure loads exerted on the fuselage led to the development
of stressed skin panels made using high-strength material.

Around the same time, the need for materials with fatigue and fracture properties emerged as
a critical safety issue, and represents the introduction of the damage tolerance criterion.
Damage tolerance is the capability of an aircraft structure to contain cracks and other damage
below a critical size without catastrophic failure. The unexpected failure of aircraft structures
was common before and, in some instances, during World War II. Aviation was considered a
high risk industry and aircraft crashes caused by catastrophic structural failures were common.
Designers attempted to minimize the risk by building bulky structures which made the aircraft
heavy, but structural failures continued leading to many crashes. Fracture toughness and
fatigue resistance joined other important properties such as weight, stiffness and strength as
essential properties in the choice of aircraft materials.
The development of supersonic aircraft together with advances in rocket technology during the
1960s prompted the need for high-temperature materials. The aerospace industry invested
heavily in the development of new materials for supersonic airliners such as Concorde, high-
speed fighters and surveillance aircraft for the Cold War, and spacecraft and satellites for the
Space Race. The investments led to the development of heat-resistant airframe materials such
as titanium alloys and special aluminium alloys that were capable of withstanding frictional
heating effects during supersonic flight without softening. The need for more powerful engines
for aircraft and rockets also drove the development of high-temperature materials capable of
operating above 800 °C. New types of nickel-based alloys and other heat-resistant materials
were developed to survive within the hottest sections of jet engines.
The need for damage-tolerant materials became more intense in the late 1970s when
unexpected failures occurred in ultra-high-strength steel components in United States Air Force
(USAF) aircraft. It became clear that the failures involved manufacturing defects and fatigue
cracks so small that they could not be found reliably. The USAF introduced a damage tolerant
design philosophy which accepted the presence of cracks in aircraft and managed this by
achieving an acceptable life by a combination of design and inspection. Achieiving this required
the use of materials that were resistant to fatigue cracking and failure.
The aerospace industry implemented new measures to minimize weight and maximize
structural performance, and this included the greater use of higher-strength aluminium alloys
and the introduction of carbon-epoxy fibre composite materials into secondary structures such
as engine cowlings and undercarriage doors.
Aircraft Manufacturing involves various materials for their own unique applications. The
specialist property may be the most important consideration in materials selection, and other
properties such as the:

 cost
 ease of manufacture or mechanical performance (For example, resistance against
cracking and spalling owing to rapid heating, known as thermal shock resistance, is an
essential property for materials used in the exhaust casing of rocket engines.) Listed
below are several specialist properties which may be considered in materials selection:
 Electrical conductivity is an important property for materials used in the outer skin of
aircraft. The material must have the ability to conduct an electrical charge in the event
of lightning strike.
 Thermal conductivity is a consideration for materials used in high-temperature
applications such as heat shields and engine components. Heat-shield materials require
low thermal conductivity to protect the airframe structure from excessive heating.
 Thermal expansion is also a consideration for high-temperature materials. Materials
with a low thermal expansion coefficient are often required to avoid excessive
expansion and contraction during heating and cooling.
 Flammability is a consideration for materials where there is the risk of fire, such as
aircraft cabins and jet engines. Flammability properties such as ignition temperature,
flame spread rate and smoke may need to be considered.
 Stealth is an important property for materials used in the external surface of covert
military aircraft. Materials with the capability to absorb radar waves and/or reduce the
infrared visibility are important for stealth aircraft.
Various Materials used in aircraft construction are:
 Wood
 Metals
 Alloys
 Plastics
 Composites
I. Wood:
i. Structure and composition of wood: The properties of wood that make it a useful
aircraft material (i.e. lightness, strength and toughness), are controlled by its
structure and composition.
Macrostructure of wood:
• The macrostructure of wood consists of several distinct zones that occur

across a tree trunk.
• The outer layer, or bark, provides some protection for the inside of a tree
against birds, insects, fungi and other organisms.
• Just beneath the bark is a zone called the cambium that contains new
growing cells for both the bark and inner region of the tree. During the
warmer months of each year, the cambium grows new wood cells on its
inner surface and new bark cells on its outer surface. The sapwood is a region
adjoining the cambium that contains cells where nutrients are stored and sap
(containing water and minerals) is transported along the trunk and into the
branches and twigs.
• The inner core of the tree is called the heartwood, and is composed entirely
of dead cells. The heartwood is denser and stronger than the cambium and
sapwood, and provides most of the mechanical support for a tree. Only wood
taken from the heartwood of a mature, fully grown tree is used for aircraft
construction.
Wood is a highly anisotropic material. Three axes are used to describe the
directionality of cut timber. The axes are mutually perpendicular to each other. The
longitudinal axis (L) is parallel with the axis of the trunk, and is also known as the
fibre or grain direction. The radial axis (R) is across the diameter of the trunk and the
tangential axis (T) is normal to the radial direction. The mechanical properties are
different along each axis, and therefore it is important that timber used in aircraft
construction is cut in the direction that maximises structural performance. For
example, stiffness and strength are highest when timber is loaded parallel with the
longitudinal axis and lowest in the radial direction for reasons that are explained in
17.5.2. Wood is toughest when cracking occurs in the radial direction and is more
susceptible to splitting in the other directions. Care is needed when constructing
structures to ensure the wood grain is aligned with the major loads acting on the
aircraft.

Microstructure of wood
The microstructure of heartwood consists of long and thin hollow cells that are
extended in the longitudinal direction.
The microstructure consists of long, hollow cells squeezed together like drinking
straws. These cells are called fibres or fibrils because of their very high aspect ratio
(length-to-width) of 100 or more.
Fibre cells are less than 0.01 mm wide and roughly 1 mm long in hardwoods and
5 mm long in softwoods. The fibres provide wood with most of its stiffness, strength
and toughness.
The microstructure of wood is often considered in the materials engineering context
as a unidirectional fibre–polymer composite.
Wood consists of long fibre cells aligned in the same direction, which is analogous to
the fibres in a composite, which are bonded together in an organic matrix. Most of
the wood fibres are roughly parallel with the longitudinal axis, and this is called the
grain direction. The term grain describes both the cell direction and the wood
texture; the grain direction has a major influence on the mechanical properties of
wood.
Cell structure of wood
• The structure and composition of cells in the heartwood are similar for most
hardwoods and softwoods. Cell consists of a hollow core and multilayer wall
structure. The wall consists of several layers of microfibrils, which are
crystalline cellulose (C6H10O5)n molecules clumped together into long
strands.

• Each molecular chain consists of long segments of linear, crystalline cellulose

separated by shorter segments of amorphous cellulose. Cellulose is a linear
molecule with no cumbersome sidegroups, and so it crystallises easily into
strands of great stiffness and strength. The crystalline cellulose strands are
encased in a layer of hemicellulose. This is a semicrystalline polymer of
glucose that acts as a binding agent to the cellulose strands.
• The hemicellulose is covered with lignin, which is an amorphous polymer
(phenol–propane) that also acts as a binder. A microfibril then consists of a
bundle of crystalline cellulose chains that are encased with hemicellulose and
lignin. This structure is somewhat anagolous to a fibre–polymer composite,
where the cellulose strands act as the fibres and the hemicellulose and lignin
are the matrix binding phase.
II. Elements: The elements can be classified as

i. Metals: Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity, and are malleable
(they can be hammered into sheets) and ductile (they can be drawn into wire)
are (usually) poor conductors of heat and electricity, and are not malleable or
ductile.
ii. Nonmetals are (usually) poor conductors of heat and electricity, and are not
malleable or ductile; many of the elemental nonmetals are gases at room
temperature, while others are liquids and others are solids.
iii. The metalloids are intermediate in their properties. In their physical properties,
they are more like the nonmetals, but under certain circumstances, several of
them can be made to conduct electricity. These semiconductors are extremely

important in computers and other electronic devices.
Metals are used in aircraft construction. Metals are classified as
i. Ferrous: The metal in which iron is the principal element is known as ferrous
metal. These are directly attracted by magnets.
Ferrous metals are those that contain iron as the base metal. The properties of
ferrous metals may be changed by adding various alloying elements. The chemical
and mechanical properties need to be combined to produce a metal to serve a
specific purpose.
The basic ferrous metal form is pig iron. Pig iron is produced in a blast furnace that
is charged with an iron ore, coke, and limestone. The four principal iron ores are
hematite, limonite, magnetite and faconite.
Manipulation of atom-to-atom relationships between iron, carbon and
various alloying elements establishes the specific properties of ferrous metals. As
atoms transform from one specific arrangement, or crystallite lattice, to another,
strength, toughness, impact resistance, hardness, ductility and other properties are
altered. Ferrous metals include:
 cast iron and steel
 stainless steels
 special steels
General Information: Ferrous Metals
Material selection for a mechanical or structural application requires some

important considerations, including how easily the material can be shaped into a
finished part and how its properties can be either intentionally or inadvertently altered
in the process. Depending on the end of use, metals can be simply cast into the finished
part or cast into an intermediate form, such as an ingot, then worked, wrought by
rolling, or processed by forging, extruding or another deformation process.
Although the same operations are used with ferrous as well as non-ferrous metals
and alloys, the reaction of nonferrous metals to these forming processes is often more
severe. Consequently, properties may differ considerably between the cast and wrought
forms of the same metal or alloy.
To shape both non-ferrous and ferrous metals, designers use processes that range
from casting and sintered powder metallurgy (P/M) to hot and cold working. Each

forming method imparts unique physical and mechanical characteristics to the final
component. As the more abundant of all commercial metals, alloys of iron and steel
continue to cover a broad range of structural applications. Iron ore is readily available,
constituting about 5% of the earth's crust and is easy to convert to a useful form. Iron s
obtained by fusing the ore to drive off oxygen, sulfur and other impurities. The ore is
melted in a furnace in direct contact with the fuel using limestone as a flux. The
limestone combines with impurities and forms a slag, which is easily removed.
Adding carbon in small amounts reduces the melting point of iron. All commersial
forms of iron and steel contain carbon, which is an integral part of the metallurgy of iron
and steel.
The various properties of materials can be assessed, by accurate laboratory tests on

sample pieces.
SOME FERROUS METALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES
NAME ALLOY OF PROPERTIES USES
Tough. High tensile Most common metal used in

Carbon 0.1 -
strength. Can be case school workshops. Used in
Mild Steel 0.3% Iron
hardened. Rusts very general metal products and
99.9 - 99.7%
easily. engineering.
Carbon 0.6 -
Tough. Can be hardened
Carbon Steel 1.4% Iron 99.4 - Cutting tools such as drills.
and tempered.
98.6%
Iron, nickel and Tough, resistant to rust

Stainless Steel Cutlery, medical instruments.
chromium and stains.
Strong but brittle.

Carbon 2 - 6% Castings, manhole covers,
Cast Iron Compressive strength
Iron 98 - 94% engines.
very high.
Almost 100% Fibrous, tough, ductile, Ornamental gates and railings.

Wrought Iron
iron resistant to rusting. Not in much use today.
CARBON CONTENT The carbon content affects the properties. We have

Pure Iron: The cast iron with carbon content of less than 0.2% is called wrought
iron or pure iron. Wrought iron is an iron alloy with a very low carbon content. it
is commercially known as " pure iron"
Medium Carbon Steel:
High Carbon Steel: High-Carbon is much harder so High-Carbon Steel can cut
Low-Carbon Steel
Cast Iron: The cast iron with carbon content of 0.2-1.7% is called cast steel. So,
cast steel is a kind of special cast iron. More than 2% of content is called pig
iron. Wrought iron is very soft, plastic and easily deformed, but its strength and
hardness are lower, so not widely used.
Low Carbon Steel (mild steel): The Low-Carbon (Mild) Steel is soft and easily
s
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ii. Non Ferrous: The metal which does not contain iron is called non-ferrous
metals. Eg : copper, Aluminum ,Tin ,Lead.
a) Aluminum: Commercially pure aluminum is a white lustrous metal which

stands second in the scale of malleability, sixth in ductility, and ranks high
in its resistance to corrosion. Aluminum combined with various
percentages of other metals forms alloys which are used in
aircraft construction. Several aluminum alloys as for example 2024 and
7075 are very susceptible to corrosion. Sheets of such material are clad
with a thin layer of pure aluminum with1 % zinc on both sides as a mean
of corrosion protection. These layers are permanently welded to the base
material in a rolling process at high temperature. Other than
electroplated stock, clad material can be formed. The thickness of the
clad layers is about 3 or 5% of the material thickness. An ink print on US
sheet metal that reads Alclad, Clad or Alc indicates that such sheet isclad.

b) Magnesium
Magnesium alloys are used frequently in structures in cast, forged, and
sheet form. The greatest advantage of magnesium is that it is one of the
lightest metals for its strength. The disadvantages in the use of
magnesium sheet are that it is more subject to corrosion than many
metals, it is not easily worked at room temperatures, and if it becomes
ignited, it is extremely difficult to extinguish. When magnesium is used in
an airplane structure, it can often be recognized by the fact that it has
a yellowish surface due to the chromate treatment used to pre-vent
corrosion and furnish a suitable paint base.
c) Titanium
Titanium is a metal that has been developed within the past fifty years
into an important aircraft structural material. It is lightweight and
corrosion resistant, and has high structural strength which it retains to a
high temperature. It is used in turbine engines, and for aircraft skins
in areas where the temperature is high. Titanium may be worked by
methods similar to those used with stainless steel, but it requires some
special techniques, and the tools used must be kept very sharp. It may be
welded, but because it reacts with oxygen at high temperatures, it must
be protected from the air with a blanket of helium or argon gas. For this
reason, inert-gas arc welding is used.
d) Nickel Alloys: nickel alloys used in aerospace. The alloy provides strength
and structural reliability at high temperatures, as this alloy remains
structurally sound at temperatures as high as 870°C. As a result of
Wasaploy’s great temperature resistance, it is routinely used in the
exhaust section of an aircraft where burning jet fuel can cause parts to
become immensely hot for extended periods of time. Other nickel alloys
commonly used in the ‘hot section’ are Alloy 25, 188, 282®, 625, 718, X
and Rene 41. (* ‘hot section’ refers to combustion chambers and exhaust
systems of an aircraft).
 Alloy 230, C263, 617, 625, X, X-750 and 75 have superb resistance
in extremely high-stressed and high temperature environments,
such as those found in pressure vessels, rocket engines, gas
turbines and other aircraft structures.
 Alloy X-750 for example, being precipitation hardened with
elements such as aluminium and titanium, can withstand very
high levels of oxidation and corrosion which are often
commonplace in numerous parts of an aircraft engine.

 Alloys 230, C263, 617, 625, X, X-750 and 75 are alloys of choice for
the ‘cold section’ of an aircraft engine where air inlet gets
compressed before being combusted.
 CREEP RESISTANCE UNDER HIGH STRESS CONDITIONS Apart from
the super alloy mentioned above, other nickel alloys for
aerospace applications such as Nimonic®80A and Nimonic®90
have exceptional creep resistance and stress-rupture properties.
This alloys’ ability to retain its fortitude under high degrees of
stress and at temperatures from 815-920°C makes it extremely
useful for the construction of aircraft exhaust valves, turbine
rotors and other rotating parts.
 WEIGHT-SAVING ALLOYS Because you cannot afford to add any

unnecessary weight on an aircraft, strong but light-weight alloys
such as titanium grade 5 or Ti 6AL-4V and Ti 6-2-4-2 are a popular
choice for a manufacture of discs, ducts, fansand front bearing
housing in the turbine engine.
 LOW-EXPANSION AT HIGH TEMPERATURES Alloy 36 is a nickel and

iron based alloy (containing 36% nickel) which is used mainly in
lay-up tooling for aerospace composite parts and structures. Alloy
36’s main advantage is its extremely low levels of expansion at
temperatures of 260°C and above, allowing this alloy to
consistently retain its shape and strength in the moulding process.
Its application within the field of aerospace includes the
formation of composites, thermostat rods, measuring devices,
laser components and tanks and piping for liquefied gas storage.
III. Composite Materials:

Composites, also known as Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (FRP) composites, are made from
a polymer matrix that is reinforced with an engineered, man-made or natural fiber (like
glass, carbon or aramid) or other reinforcing material. The matrix protects the fibers
from environmental and external damage and transfers the load between the fibers.
The fibers, in turn, provide strength and stiffness to reinforce the matrix—and help it
resist cracks and fractures.
In many of our industry’s products, polyester resin is the matrix and glass fiber is the
reinforcement. But many combinations of resins and reinforcements are used in
composites—and each material contributes to the unique properties of the finished

product: Fiber, powerful but brittle, provides strength and stiffness, while more flexible
resin provides shape and protects the fiber. FRP composites may also contain fillers,
additives, core materials or surface finishes designed to improve the manufacturing
process, appearance and performance of the final product.
FIBER MATRIX: FIBER COMPOSITE MATRIX
Provides strength Protects and Creates a material with
and stiffness transfers load between fibers attributes superior to
(glass, carbon, (polyester, epoxy, either component alone
natural fibers) aramid, basalt,
vinyl ester, others)
a) Natural and synthetic composites
Composites can be natural or synthetic. Wood, a natural composite, is a

combination of cellulose or wood fibers and a substance called lignin. The
fibers give wood its strength; lignin is the matrix or natural glue that
binds and stabilizes them. Other composites are synthetic (man-made).
Plywood is a man-made composite that combines natural and synthetic

materials. Thin layers of wood veneer are bonded together with adhesive
to form flat sheets of laminated wood that are stronger than natural
wood.

Not all plastics are composites. In fact, most plastics—the ones used in
toys, water bottles and other familiar items—are notcomposites. They’re
pure plastics. But many types of plastic can be reinforced to make them
stronger. This combination of plastic and reinforcement can produce
some of the strongest, most versatile materials (for their weight) ever
developed by technology.
Polymer resins (such as polyester, vinyl ester, epoxy or phenolic) are

sometimes referred to as plastic.
Many terms are used to define FRP composites. Modifiers have been
used to identify a specific fiber such as Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer
(GFRP), Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP), and Aramid Fiber
Reinforced Polymer (AFRP). Another familiar term used is Fiber
Reinforced Plastics. In addition, other acronyms have been developed
over the years and their use depended on geographical location or
market use. For example, Fiber Reinforced Composites (FRC), Glass
Reinforced Plastics (GRP), and Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC) can be
found in many references. Each of the aforementioned terms means the
same thing: FRP composites.



Process associated with conventional metals
Aircraft production technology
Production of modern aircrafts involves the manufacture of several thousands of individual

parts to precise dimensions and assembling them together with brought out components.
The parts to be manufactured include those required for the airframe structure and
bracketry, pipelines, electic cable runs etc for installing aircraft systems. The individual
parts of the aircraft structure are assembled in several stages such as minor subassemblies,
sub assemblies and major assemblies to form the aircraft structure.
Unlike mass manufacturing practices prevalent in general engineering industries, aircraft are
produced in relatively small quantities. Very high standards of quality control are required to
meet the stringent design specifications and ensure safety of human lives. All raw material
and components should comply with airworthiness standards and traceable throughout the
process of manufacture and service usage to enable proper analysis of defects / flying
accidents. Extensive specific to type production tooling is employed for achieving the
required close dimensions and tolerances, surface finish and interchangeability of
components. Many manufacturing processes and production machines have been specially
developed for aircraft industry, such as, heat treatment and surface treatment processes,
CNC machines etc. some of these are later adopted in general engineering industries.
Sophisticated management system has been evolved in aircraft industry to cope with the
complex technologies, high risk and investment, long gestation periods for design,
development and production for series preparation and prolonged pay back periods.
Manufacturing:
Manufacturing implies making of articles or goods and providing services to meet the human
needs. It creates value by useful application of physical and mental labour in the process.
This, however, is too inadequate a definition to give a clear picture of domain of
manufacturing which is more complex and broad based than what it appears from this
definition.
It can be defined as a chain of interrelated activities and operations as
Order processing Design Drawing Selection of materials Process

planning Production Production control Quality control Management
Marketing. Etc
Most of the metals used in industry are obtained as ores. These ores are subjected to
suitable reducing or refining processes which convert the metal into a molten form. This
molten metal is poured into moulds to give commercial castings, called ingots. These ingots
are further subjected to one or more processes to obtain usable metal products of different

shapes and sizes. All these further processes used for changing the ingots into usable
products can be classified as follows
Classification Manufacturing Process
They are mainly classified into six groups:
 Primary Shaping (or) forming process: Primary shaping is manufacturing of a

solid body from molten or gaseous state or forms an amorphous material.
Amorphous materials are liquid, gaseous, powders, fibers, chips, melts and like. A
primary shaping or forming tool contains a hollow space, which, with the allowance
for contraction usually corresponds to the form of the product. Here, cohesion is
normally created among particles. Some of the important primary shaping processes
are;
1. Casting
2. Powder metallurgy
3. Plastic technology
 Deforming processes: Deforming processes make use of suitable stresses like

compression, tension, and shear or combined stresses to cause deformation of the
materials to produce required shapes without changing its mass or material
composition. In forming, no material is removed; they deformed and displaced.
Some of the deforming processes are;
1. Forging 5. Rotary swaging

2. Extrusion 6. Thread Rolling
3. Rolling 7. Explosive forming
4. Sheet metal working 8. Electromagnetic forming
 Machining (or) removing processes: The principle used in all machining

processes is to generate the surface required by providing suitable relative
motion between the work piece and the tool. In these processes material is
removed from the unwanted regions of the input material. In this work
material is subjected to a lower stress as compared to forming processes.
Some of the machining processes are;
1. Turning 5. EDM
2. Drilling 6. ECM
3. Milling 7. Shaping & Planning
4. Grinding 8. Ultrasonic machining
 Joining processes: In this two or more metal parts are united together to
make sub-assembly or final product. The joining processes are carried out by

fusing, pressing, rubbing, riveting or any other means of assembling. Some of

the joining processes are;
1. Pressure welding 4. Resistance Welding

2. Diffusion welding 5. Explosive welding
3. Brazing
6. Soldering
 Surface finish processes: These processes are utilized to provide intended

surface finish on the metal surface of a job. By imparting surface finishing
processes, dimension of the part is not changed functionally, either negligible
amount of the metal is removed from or certain material is added to the
surface of the job. Surface cleaning processes is also accepted as surface
finishing processes. Some of the surface finishing processes are
1. Plastic coating 7. Honing

2. Metallic coating 8. Tumbling
3. Organic finishes 9. Electro-plating
4. Anodizing 10. Lapping
5. Buffing 11. Sanding
6. Inorganic finishes
 Material properties modification processes
1. Heat and surface treatment

2. Annealing
3. Stress relieving

The selection of manufacturing process depends on:
i. Type & nature of the starting material.

ii. Volume of production.
iii. Expected quality & properties of the components.
iv. Technical viability of the process.
v. Economy.
vi. Other factors influencing are – Geometric shape, tooling, jigs fixtures, gauges, equipment and delivery date.
Selection of material is based on the processing factors and functional requirements referred in table 1.1 to 1.3.
Type of material is whether to select a brittle or ductile material. And whether they are casted or machined.
Ex:
1. Cold work renders a stronger, harder and brittle material. And surface finish, tolerances can be obtained when
compared to hot working.
2. Very thin sections can not be casted and complex parts can’t be mechanically worked easily.
3. Lead time: time to start the work. If larger volumes are manufactured it must be economical and reduce the cast per
unit.
4. Able to complete by the delivery date or possible before that and check for quality.
5. Cost must be optimum.

MOULDING
1. Classification based on the method used Classification based on the material used
a. Bench Molding i. Expandable Molding
a. Sand Molding
b. Floor Molding
Green Sand Moulding
c. Pit Molding Dry Sand Moulding
Skin Dried Moulding

d. Machine Molding
Core Sand Moulding
Cemented bounded Sand Molding
Loam Sand Moulding

Jolting
Corbondioxide Moulding
Squeezing
b. Shell Molding
Jolt and squeeze c. Vacuum molding
Slinging d. Investment casting

andMoulding
e. Plaster and ceramic mold casting
ii. Non expandable

molding
a. Permanent b. Die Casting c. Centrifugal d. Continuous e. Slush casting

casting casting casting
a. BENCH MOLDING: is for small work, done on a bench of a height convenient to the molder.
b. FLOOR MOLDING: When castings increase in size, with resultant difficulty in handling, the work is done on
the foundry floor. This type of molding is used for practically all medium and large size castings.
c. PIT MOLDING: Extremely large castings are frequently molded in a pit instead of a flask. The pit acts as the
drag part of the flask and a separate cope is used above it. They sides of the pit are brick kind, and on the
bottom there
d. MACHINE MOLDING: Machines have been developed to do a number of operations that the molder
ordinarily does by hand. Ramming the sand, rolling the mold, forming the gate and drawing the pattern can
be done by these machines.
There are three main types of machines:
Jolting
Squeezing
Sand slinger
Or combination of above three
JOLTING: In the jolting molding machine, the pattern and flask are mounted on a mould plate and flask is
filled with sand. The entire assembly is raised a small amount by means of a cylinder and is then dropped
against a fixed stop. The compacting of sand is achieved by the decelerating forces acting on it.
SQUEEZING: this machine has a fixed flask and movable flask which compresses the sand in the molding flask.
SAND SLINGER: in this machine the sand is thrown out by centrifugal force from a rapidly rotating single laded
impeller and directed over the pattern in the flask.
i PERMANENT MOULD
In this method the same mould is used for large numbers of castings. Each casting is released by opening
the mould rather than by destroying it. Permanent moulds need to be made of a material which can
withstand the temperature fluctuations and wear associated with repeated casting. A good example of a
product made with methods such of this is the ubiquitous ‘die-cast’ child’s toy (‘die’ is another word for
‘mould’).
ii EXPENDABLE MOULD AND PATTERN
With this type of casting, a pattern is made from a low melting point material and the mould is built around
it. The pattern is then melted or burnt out as the metal is poured in. The mould has to be destroyed to
retrieve the casting. This method is used to make moulds for casting high melting-point alloys like those
used for jet engine turbine blades. A model (the pattern) of the blade is made in wax. The pattern is then
coated in a thick slurry containing ceramic particles. The slurry dries, and is then fired in an oven: this
hardens the ceramic (like firing a pot) and melts out the wax, leaving a hollow ceramic mould. The metal is
then poured in to the mould, which is broken away after the metal has solidified and cooled.
CASTING is a manufacturing process by which a liquid material is (usually) poured into a mold, which
contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The solid casting is then ejected
or broken out to complete the process. Casting may be used to form hot liquid metals or various materials
that cold set after mixing of components (such as epoxies, concrete, plaster and clay). Casting is a 6000 year
old process. The casting process is subdivided into two distinct subgroups: expendable and non-
expendable mold casting.
Advantages of Castings
 Intricate can be achieved, molten metal can be made to flow into any small section in the mould
cavity and as such any intricate shapes internal or external can be made with the casting process
 Castings of ferrous and nonferrous metals are practically possible
 Necessary tools required for casting mould are simple and inexpensive. As a result, for trial
production or of a small lot, it is an ideal method it is possible in casting process, to the amount of
material where exactly require. As a result, weight reduction in design can be achieved

 Castings are generally cooled uniformly from all sides and therefore they are expected to have no
directional properties
 Castings of and weight, even up to two hundred tones can be made.
Steps involved in Casting are
1) Pattern making
2) Mould and core preparation (or)making
3) Making the provisions like gating, riser, runner, sprue
4) Melting and pouring the metal
5) Allow the mould to solidify
6) Fettling i.e. Cleaning
7) Testing and inspection of the casting

CASTING TERMS:
PATTERN: Pattern is the replica of the final object to be made with some modifications.The mould cavity is
made with the help of the pattern.
PARTING LINE: This is a line dividing the molding flasks that makes up the sand mould. In split pattern it is also
the dividing between the two halves of the pattern
BOTTOM BOARD: This the board normally made of wood which is used at the start of the mould making. The
pattern is first kept on the board, sand is sprinkled on it and then ramming is done in the drag.
FACING SAND: Small amount of carbonaceous material sprinkled on the inner surface of the mould cavity to
give a better surface finish to the castings.
MOULDING SAND: Mixture of silica, clay and moisture in appropriate proportions to get the desired results
and it surrounds the pattern while making the mould cavity.
BACKING SAND: It constitutes the refractory material found in the mould. This is made up of burnt sand.
FLASK: A moulding flask is one which holds the sand mould intact. Depending upon the position of the flask
in mould structure it is referred to by various names
drag – lower moulding flask
cope – upper moulding flask
cheek – intermediate moulding flask
CHILLS: To control the solidification and metallurgical structure of the metal, it is possible to place metal
plates—chills— in the mold. The associated rapid local cooling will form a finer-grained structure and may
form a somewhat harder metal at these locations. In ferrous castings the effect is similar to quenching
metals in forge work.
CORES: Cores are separate shapes of sand that are generally required to form hollow interiors of the casting
or a hole through the casting. To produce cavities within the casting—such as for liquid cooling in engine
blocks and cylinder heads—negative forms are used to produce cores. Usually sand-molded, cores are
inserted into the casting box after removal of the pattern. Whenever possible, designs are made that avoid
the use of cores, due to the additional set-up time and thus greater cost.

Requirements:
1. Cores must be strong enough to retain its shape without deforming, to withstand handling and to
resist erosion and deformation during filling of the mould
2. Cores must be permeable to allow the core gases to escape easily
3. Cores should be highly refractory in nature to withstand high temperature of the molten metal
4. Cores must be sufficiently low in residual gas-forming materials to prevent excess gas entering the
metal
5. Cores must be stable with a minimum of contraction and expansion to make a true form of casting
6. Cores should be sufficiently collapsible, i.e., they should disintegrate and collapsible after the metal
solidifies, to minimize strains on the castings and to facilitate removal of the core from the castings
during shakeout.
PATTERN  Pattern is the replica of the component to be produced by casting process and is used to
prepare mould cavity. The success of a casting process depends a lot on the quality and the design of
pattern.
PATTERN MATERIALS generally pattern is prepared using any of the following
1. Wood
2. Metal
3. Plastic
4. Plaster & Polyurethane foam
5. Wax or Mercury.
Types of patterns
PATTERNS
There are various types of patterns depending upon the complexity of the job, the no of castings require and the molding
procedure adopted
 Single piece pattern  Boxed-up pattern

 Split pattern  Lagged-up pattern
 Match plate pattern  Left and right hand pattern
 Cope and drag pattern
 Gated pattern
 Loose piece pattern
 Sweep pattern
 Follow board pattern
 Skeleton pattern
 Segmental pattern
 Shell pattern
 Built-up pattern

Single piece pattern:
MOLDING MATERIAL AND PROPERTIES
A large variety of molding materials is used in foundries for manufacturing molds and cores.
They include molding sand, system sand or backing sand, facing sand, parting sand, and core
sand. The choice of molding materials is based on their processing properties. The properties
that are generally required in molding materials are: Table 4
 Refractoriness: It is the ability of the molding material to resist the temperature of the
liquid metal to be poured so that it does not get fused with the metal. The
refractoriness of the silica sand is highest.
 Permeability: During pouring and subsequent solidification of a casting, a large amount
of gases and steam is generated. These gases are those that have been absorbed by the
metal during melting, air absorbed from the atmosphere and the steam generated by
the molding and core sand. If these gases are not allowed to escape from the mold,
they would be entrapped inside the casting and cause casting defects. To overcome this
problem the molding material must be porous. Proper venting of the mold also helps in
escaping the gases that are generated inside the mold cavity.
 Green Strength: The molding sand that contains moisture is termed as green sand. The
green sand particles must have the ability to cling to each other to impart sufficient
strength to the mold. The green sand must have enough strength so that the
constructed mold retains its shape.
 Dry Strength: When the molten metal is poured in the mold, the sand around the mold
cavity is quickly converted into dry sand as the moisture in the sand evaporates due to
the heat of the molten metal. At this stage the molding sand must posses the sufficient
strength to retain the exact shape of the mold cavity and at the same time it must be
able to withstand the metallostatic pressure of the liquid material.
 Hot Strength: As soon as the moisture is eliminated, the sand would reach at a high
temperature when the metal in the mold is still in liquid state. The strength of the sand
that is required to hold the shape of the cavity is called hot strength.
 Collapsibility: The molding sand should also have collapsibility so that during the
contraction of the solidified casting it does not provide any resistance, which may result
in cracks in the castings. Besides these specific properties the molding material should
be cheap, reusable and should have good thermal conductivity.
Molding Sand Composition: The main ingredients of any molding sand are:
1. Base Sand: Silica sand is most commonly used base sand. Other base sands that are also
used for making mold are zircon sand, Chromite sand, and olivine sand. Silica sand is cheapest
among all types of base sand and it is easily available.
2. Binder: Binders are of many types such as:
1. Clay binders,

2. Organic binders
3. Inorganic binders
Clay binders are most commonly used binding agents mixed with the molding sands to provide
the strength. The most popular clay types are: Kaolinite or fire clay (Al2O3 2 SiO2 2 H2O) and
Bentonite (Al2O3 4 SiO2 nH2O) of the two the Bentonite can absorb more water which increases
its bonding power.
3. Moisture: Clay acquires its bonding action only in the presence of the required amount of
moisture. When water is added to clay, it penetrates the mixture and forms a microfilm, which
coats the surface of each flake of the clay. The amount of water used should be properly
controlled. This is because a part of the water, which coats the surface of the clay flakes, helps
in bonding, while the remainder helps in improving the plasticity. A typical composition of
molding sand is given in (Table 4).
ELEMENTS OF GATING SYSTEMS: Gating system provides the way for the molten metal to flow in to the mould
cavity when poured from the ladle. It comprises of
1. Pouring basin
2. Sprue
3. Sprue base well
4. Runner
5. Runner extension
6. In gate
7. Riser
8. Core

DIFFERENT PATTERN ALLOWANCES:
1. Shrinkage allowance:
Castings shrink when they cool. Like nearly all materials, metals are less dense as a liquid than a solid. During
solidification (freezing), the metal density dramatically increases. This results in a volume decrease for the metal in
a mold. Solidification shrinkage is the term used for this contraction. Cooling from the freezing temperature to
room temperature also involves a contraction. The easiest way to explain this contraction is that is the reverse of
thermal expansion. Compensation for this natural phenomenon must be considered in two ways. Shrinkage after
solidification can be dealt with by using an oversized pattern designed for the relevant alloy. Pattern makers use
special "contraction rulers" (also called "shrink rules") to make the patterns used by the foundry to make castings
to the design size required.
2. Machine allowance: Castings may oxidised in the mould during heat treatment so scales etc are
formed, even rough surfaces are seen, therefore machining is to be done,therefore the dimensions
must be slightly higher to compensate this decrease in dimensions.
 Machine finish allowance should be given on pattern in order to compensate the amount of metal
that is lost in machining or finishing the casting to obtain the final casting of required dimensions and
surface finish.
 The amount of this allowance depends upon the size of casting, type of machining operation such as
grinding, turning, milling, boring etc.
 Type of moulding process such as sand casting, die casting etc, and the degree of surface finish
3. Draft allowance:
At the time of withdrawing the pattern from the sand mould, the vertical faces of the pattern are in continual
contact with the sand, which may damage the mould cavity, as shown in figure 1. To reduce the chances of
this happening, the vertical faces of the pattern are always tapered from the parting line as shown in figure 2.
This provision is called draft allowance.Draft allowance varies with the complexity of the job.
 In general inner details of the pattern require higher draft than outer surfaces.
 More draft is needed in case of hand moulding compare to machine moulding.
4. Distortion allowance:
 Weaker section such as long flat portions, U, V, Sections are distortion prone.
 Foundry practice should be given extra material provision for reducing the distortion. Alternatively,
the shape of pattern itself should be given a distortion of equal amounts in the opposite direction of
the likely distortion direction.
5. Shake or Rapping allowance:
Before withdrawal from the sand mould, the pattern is rapped all around the vertical faces to enlarge
the mould cavity slightly which facilitates its removal. Since it enlarges the final casting made, it is
desirable that the original pattern dimensions should be reduced to account for this increase.
 No quantifying method is available.

 Depends on the personnel and practices involved.
It is the negative allowance and is to be applied only to those dimensions which are parallel to the parting plane.

MELTING PRACTICES
Melting is an equally important parameter for obtaining a quality castings. A number of

furnaces can be used for melting the metal, to be used, to make a metal casting. The choice of
furnace depends on the type of metal to be melted. Some of the furnaces used in metal casting
are as following.
 Crucible furnaces
 Cupola
 Induction furnace
 Reverberatory furnace
1. CRUCIBLE FURNACE.
Crucible furnaces are small capacity typically used for small melting applications. Crucible
furnace is suitable for the batch type foundries where the metal requirement is intermittent.
The metal is placed in a crucible which is made of clay and graphite. The energy is applied
indirectly to the metal by heating the crucible by coke, oil or gas. The heating of crucible is
done by coke, oil or gas. .
2. COKE-FIRED FURNACE.
 Primarily used for non-ferrous metals

 Furnace is of a cylindrical shape
 Also known as pit furnace
 Preparation involves: first to make a deep bed of coke in the furnace
 Burn the coke till it attains the state of maximum combustion
 Insert the crucible in the coke bed
 Remove the crucible when the melt reaches to desired temperature
3. OIL-FIRED FURNACE.
 Primarily used for non-ferrous metals

 Furnace is of a cylindrical shape
 Advantages include: no wastage of fuel
 Less contamination of the metal
 Absorption of water vapor is least as the metal melts inside the closed metallic furnace
4. CUPOLA FURNACE
Cupola furnaces are tall, cylindrical furnaces used to melt iron and ferrous alloys in foundry operations.
Alternating layers of metal and ferrous alloys, coke, and limestone are fed into the furnace from the
top. A schematic diagram of a cupola is shown in Figure. This diagram of a cupola illustrates the
furnace's cylindrical shaft lined with refractory and the alternating layers of coke and metal scrap. The
molten metal flows out of a spout at the bottom of the cupola. .

Gas defects:-
 Blow holes and open blows: These are the spherical, flattened or elongated cavities present inside the
casting or on the surface as shown on the surface they are called open blows and inside, they are called
blow holes. Because of the heat in the molten metal, the moisture is converted into steam, part of
whish when entrapped in the reaches the surface.
 Air inclusions: The atmospheric and other gases absorbed by the molten metal in the furnace, in the
ladle, and during the flow in the mould, when not allowed to
escape, would be trapped inside the casting and weaken it.
 Pin hole porosity: This is caused by hydrogen in the molten metal. This could have been picked up in
the furnace or by the dissociation of water inside the mould cavity.
 Shrinkage cavities: These are caused by the liquid shrinkage occurring
during the solidification of the casting.
Causes:
Excessive moisture & Organic content of sand, Moisture on chills, chaplets or metal inserts, Poor
venting and Less permeability of sand if used (hard ramming), High gas content of molten metal and
improper feeding & Insufficient drying of mould and cores
Molding material defects:
 Cuts and washes: These appear as rough spots and areas of excess metal, and are caused by the erosion
of molding sand by the flowing molten metal. It appears as a low projection on the drag face of a casting
that extends along the surface, decreasing the height as it extends from one side of the casting to the
other end.
It generally occurs in bottom gating in which the sand as in sufficient hot strength and when too much
metal is allowed to flow.
 Metal penetration: When the molten enters the gaps between the sand
grains, the result would be a rough casting surface. The main reason for this is that, either the
grain size of the sand is too coarse, or no mould wash has been applied to the mould cavity.
 Fusion:- This is caused by the fusion of sand grains with the molten metal,
giving a brittle, glassy appearance on the casting surface.
 Run out:- A run out is caused when the molten metal leaks out of the mould. This may be caused either
due to faulty mould making or because of the faulty molding flask.
 Buckles:- It appears as a long, fairly, shallow, broad, vee depression occurring in the surface of flat
castings. It extends in a straight line across the entire flat surface. Rat tail is caused by the compression
failure of the skin of the mould cavity because of the excessive heat in the molten metal. This as molding
sand has got poor expansion properties and hot strength or the heat in the pouring metal is too high.
 Rat tails: It appears as a long, fairly, shallow, broad, angular depression occurring in the surface of flat
castings. It extends in a straight line across the entire flat surface.
 Swell: this occurs as slight smooth bulge usually found on vertical faces of castings resulting from liquid
metal pressure. Under the influence of the metallostatic forces, the mould wall may move back causing a
swell in the dimensions of the casting. This is caused due to low strength of mould because of too high
water content or when sand not rammed properly.
 Drop: The dropping of loose molding sand or lumps normally from the cope surface into the mould cavity
is responsible for this defect.
 Scab: Caused when portion of the face of a mould lifts or break downs thus the recess is filled by the
molten metal.
Pouring metal defects:-

 Mis-runs: Mis-run is caused when the metal is unable to fill the mould cavity completely and thus leaves
unfilled cavities.
 Cold shuts: A cold shut is caused when two metal streams while meeting in the mould cavity, did not fuse
together properly, thus causing a discontinuity or weak spot in the casting.
Causes:
1. Sometimes a condition leading to cold shuts can be observed when no sharp corners exist in a casting.
2. These defects are caused essentially, by the lower fluidity of the molten metal or when the section
thickness of the casting is too small.
Metallurgical defects:-
 Hot tears:-Hot tears are hot cracks which appear in the form of irregular crevices with dark oxidized
fracture surface.
Causes:
Since metal has low strength at higher temperature, any unwanted cooling stress may cause the rupture
of the casting, If the metal does not have sufficient strength to resist ensile forces produced during
solidification & Non uniform cooling and incorrect gating design
 Hot spots:- These are caused by the chilling of the casting. For example, with grey cast iron having small
amounts of silicon, very hard white cast iron may result at the chilled surface.

FETTING
The complete process of the cleaning of casting, called ‘fettling’, involves the removal of the cores, gates
and risers, cleaning of the casting surface and chipping of the unnecessary projections on surfaces.
The dry sand cores can be removed simply by knocking off with an iron bar, by means of core vibrator, or
by means of hydro blasting. The method depends on the size, complexity and the core material used.
The gates and risers can be removed by hammering, chipping, hack sawing, abrasive cutoff or by flame or
arc cutting. For brittle materials such as grey cast iron, the gates can easily be broken by hitting with a hammer.
For steel and other similar materials, sawing with any metal cutting saw like hack saw and band saw would be
more convenient. For large size gates and risers, it may be necessary to use flame or arc cutting to remove them.
Similarly, abrasive cut off may also be used for removal of gates.
For cleaning the sand particles sticking to the casting surface, sand blasting normally used. The casting is
kept in a closed box and a jet of compressed air with a blast of sand grains or steel grit is directed against the
surface, which thoroughly cleans the casting surface. The typical shot speeds reached of the order of 80 m/s.
Another useful method fir cleaning the casting surface is the tumbling. Here the castings are kept in a barrel which
is completely closed and than slowly rotated on a horizontal axis 30 to 40 rpm. The barrel is reasonable packed,
with enough room for castings to move so that they will be able to remove the sand and unwanted fins and
projections. However one precaution to be taken for tumbling is that, the casting should all be rigid with non frail
or overhung segments which may get knocked of during the tumbling operation.

References:
1. http://easapart66module6materialsandhardware.blogspot.in/2014/08/1-aircraft-
materials-ferrous.html (Video lecture).

UNIT II
METALS AND ALLOYS

2.1 ALUMINIUM & ITS ALLOYS
Aluminium alloys have been the main airframe materials since they started replacing wood in
the late 1920s. Even though the role of aluminium in future aircraft will probably be
somewhat diminished by the increasing use of composite materials, high-strength aluminium
alloys are, and will remain, important airframe materials. The attractiveness of aluminium is
that it is a
 Relatively low cost
 light weight metal
 They can be heat treated to fairly high-strength levels;
 easily fabricated of the high-performance materials,
Disadvantages of aluminium alloys include
 a low modulus of elasticity,
 low elevated-temperature capability ( 130 °C),
 in high-strength alloys the susceptibility to corrosion
Dramatic improvements in aluminium alloys have occurred since they were first introduced
in the 1920s. These improvements, shown in Fig. 2.1, are a result of increasing understanding
of chemical composition, impurity control and the effects of processing and heat treatment.
The data in Fig. 2.1 pertain to established aerospace aluminium alloys; newer ones (such as
AA7085) are under evaluation, as are the third-generation aluminium–lithium (Al–Li) alloys
The chemical compositions of some aerospace grade aluminium alloys [2] are given in Table
2.1. One of the earliest aerospace Al alloys was Duralumin (AA2017) which had a yield
strength of 280 MPa. Property improvements have come through development of new alloy
systems, modifications to compositions within particular systems, and from the use of a
range of multistage ageing treatments (tempers) [3].
Figure 2.1: Yield strengths versus year of introduction of Al alloys

I. Classification and Designation:

Aluminium alloys are classified as
Heat treatable
Non-heat treatable,
The heat treatable alloys contain elements that decrease in solid solubility with
decreasing temperature, and in concentrations that exceed their equilibrium solid
solubility at room temperature and moderately higher temperatures. The most
important alloying elements in this group include copper, lithium, magnesium and zinc.
A large number of other compositions rely instead on work hardening through
mechanical reduction, usually in combination with various annealing procedures for
property developments.
These alloys are referred to as non-heat-treatable or work-hardening alloys. Some
casting alloys are essentially non-heat-treatable and are used as-cast or in thermally
modified conditions uninfluenced by solutionizing or precipitation effects.
Figure 2.2 gives an overview of the principal types of aluminium alloys.

A. Wrought Alloys A four-digit numerical designation system is used to identify wrought

aluminium and aluminium alloys. As shown below, the first digit of the four-digit
designation indicates the group. Aluminium, >99.00 %—1XXX.
Aluminium alloys grouped by major alloying element(s);
Copper — 2XXX;
Manganese — 3XXX;
Silicon — 4XXX;
Magnesium — 5XXX;
Magnesium and Silicon — 6XXX;
Zinc — 7XXX;
Other elements — 8XXX;
Unused series — 9XXX.
B. Cast Alloys A system of four-digit numerical designations incorporating a decimal

point is used to identify aluminium and aluminium alloys in the form of castings and
foundry ingots. The first digit indicates the alloy group. Aluminium, >99.00 %—1XX.X.
Aluminium alloys grouped by major alloying element(s);
Copper — 2XX.X;
Silicon with added copper and/or magnesium — 3XX. X;
Silicon — 4XX.X;
Magnesium — 5XX.X;
Zinc — 7XX.X;
Tin — 8XX.X;
Other elements — 9XX.X;
Unused series — 6XX.X

C. Temper Designations
The temper designation system is used for all product forms (both wrought and cast),
with the exception of ingots. The system is based on the sequences of mechanical or
thermal treatments, or both, used to produce the various tempers.
The temper designation follows the alloy designation and is separated from it by
hyphen. Basic temper designations consist of individual capital letters. Major
subdivisions of basic tempers, where required, are indicated by one or more digits
following the letter. These digits designate sequences of treatments that produce
specific combinations of characteristics in the product. Variations in treatment
conditions within major subdivisions are identified by additional digits.
 T1—cooled from an elevated-temperature shaping process and naturally
aged to a substantially stable condition. This designation applies to products
that are not cold-worked after an elevated-temperature shaping process such
as casting or extrusion, and for which mechanical properties have been
stabilized by room temperature ageing. This designation also applies to
products that are flattened or straightened after cooling from the shaping
process, whereby the cold-work effects imparted by flattening or
straightening are not accounted for in the specified property limits.
 T2—Cooled from an elevated-temperature shaping process, cold-worked,
and naturally aged to a substantially stable condition. This designation refers
to products that are cold-worked specifically to improve strength after cooling
from a hot-working process such as rolling or extrusion, and for which the
mechanical properties have been stabilized by room temperature ageing. This
designation also applies to products in which the effects of cold-work,
imparted by flattening or straightening, are accounted for in the specified
property limits.
 T3—Solution heat treated, cold-worked, and naturally aged to a
substantially stable condition. T3 applies to products that are cold-worked
specifically to improve strength after solution heat treatment and for which
mechanical properties have been stabilized by room temperature ageing. This
designation also applies to products in which the effects of cold work,
property limits.
 T4—Solution heat treated and naturally aged to a substantially stable
condition. This designation signifies products that are not cold-worked after
solution heat treatment and for which mechanical properties have been
stabilized by room temperature ageing. If the products are flattened or

straightened, the effects of the cold-work imparted by flattening or

 T5—Cooled from an elevated-temperature shaping process and artificially
aged. T5 includes products that are not cold-worked after an elevated-
temperature shaping process such as casting or extrusion and for which the
mechanical properties have been substantially improved by precipitation heat
treatment. If the products are flattened or straightened after cooling from the
shaping process, the effects of the cold-work imparted by flattening or
 T7—Solution heat treated and overaged or stabilized. T7 applies to wrought
products that have been precipitation heat treated beyond the point of
maximum strength to provide some special characteristics, such as enhanced
resistance to stress corrosion cracking or exfoliation corrosion. This
designation also applies to cast products that are artificially aged after
solution heat treatment to provide dimensional and strength stability.
 T8—Solution heat treated, cold-worked, and artificially aged. This
designation applies to products that are cold-worked specifically to improve
strength after solution heat treatment and for which mechanical properties or
dimensional stability, or both, have been substantially improved by
precipitation heat treatment. The effects of cold work, including any cold work
property limits.
 T9—Solution heat treated, artificially aged, and cold-worked. This group is
comprised of products that are cold-worked specifically to improve strength
after they have been precipitation heat treated.
 T10—Cooled from an elevated-temperature shaping process, cold-worked,
and artificially aged. T10 identifies products that are cold-worked specifically
to improve strength after cooling from a hot-working process such as rolling or
extrusion and for which the mechanical properties have been substantially
improved by precipitation heat treatment. The effects of cold work, including
any cold work imparted by flattening or straightening, are accounted for in the
specified property limits.
II. Age-Hardenable Aluminium Alloys: Although most metals will alloy with aluminium,
comparatively few have sufficient solid solubility to serve as major alloying additions,
see Table 2.2. Some of the transition metals, e.g. chromium, manganese and zirconium,
which have solid solubilities below 1 at.% confer important improvements to alloy
properties by forming intermetallic compounds that control the grain structure. Apart

from tin, which is sparingly soluble, the maximum solid solubilities in binary aluminium
alloys occur at the eutectic and peritectic temperatures.
The heat treatment given to aluminium alloys to increase strength is age hardening. As
stated at the beginning of Sect. 2.2, the basic requirement for an alloy to be amenable
to age-hardening is a decrease in solid solubility of one or more of the alloying elements
with decreasing temperature. Heat treatment normally involves the following stages:
1. Solution treatment at a relatively high temperature within the single-phase region.
2. Rapid cooling or quenching, usually to room temperature to obtain a supersaturated
solid solution (SSSS) of the age-hardening elements in aluminium.
3. Controlled decomposition of the SSSS to form a finely dispersed precipitate, usually
by ageing for convenient times at one and sometimes two intermediate temperatures.
The complete decomposition of an SSSS is usually a complex process which may involve several
stages. Typically, Guinier–Preston (GP) zones and an intermediate precipitate may be formed in
addition to the equilibrium phase. Most aluminium alloys that respond to ageing will undergo
some hardening at ambient temperatures. This is called ‘natural ageing’ and may continue
almost indefinitely, although the rate of change becomes extremely slow after months or years.
Ageing at sufficiently elevated temperature (artificial ageing) is characterized by a different
behaviour in which the hardness usually increases to a maximum and then decreases. The
highest value of hardness occurs at one particular temperature, which varies with each alloy.
Maximum hardening in commercial alloys normally occurs when a critical dispersion of GP
zones, or an intermediate precipitate, or a combination of both, are present. In some alloys
more than one intermediate precipitate may be formed. The softening that occurs on
prolonged artificial ageing is known as ‘overageing’. For commercial heat treatments an ageing
schedule is usually selected to give the desired response to hardening (strengthening) within a
convenient period of time. Some alloys are cold-worked (e.g. stretching or compression, up to 5
%) after quenching and before ageing. The cold-work increases the dislocation density and
provides more sites at which heterogeneous nucleation of intermediate precipitates may occur
during ageing [6]. The result is an improvement in the strength properties.
III. Effects of Alloying Elements The effect(s) of various alloying elements are given below.
Some of the effects, particularly with respect to impurities, are not well documented and are
specific to particular alloys or conditions.
 Chromium: Is a common addition to many alloys of the aluminium–magnesium,
aluminium–magnesium–silicon, and aluminium–magnesium–zinc groups, in which it is
added in amounts generally not exceeding 0.35 wt%. Above this limit chromium tends
to form very coarse constituents with other impurities or additions such as manganese
and titanium. Chromium has a low diffusion rate and forms a fine dispersed phase in

wrought products. The dispersed phase inhibits nucleation and grain growth. Hence
during hot working or heat treatment, chromium prevents grain growth in aluminium–
magnesium alloys and recrystallization in aluminium–magnesium–silicon or aluminium–
magnesium–zinc alloys. The main drawback of chromium in heat treatable alloys is the
increase in quench sensitivity when the hardening phase tends to precipitate on the
preexisting chromium-phase particles.
 Copper: Aluminium–copper alloys containing 2–10 wt% Cu, generally with other
additions, form an important family of Al alloys. Both cast and wrought aluminium–
copper alloys respond to solution heat treatment and subsequent ageing, with an
increase in strength and hardness and a decrease in elongation. The strengthening is
maximum between 4 and 6 wt% Cu, depending upon the influence of other
constituents. N.B: the ageing characteristics of binary aluminium–copper alloys have
been studied in greater detail than for any other system, but all commercial aerospace
alloys contain other alloying elements.
 Copper–Magnesium: The main benefit of adding magnesium to aluminium– copper
alloys is the increased strength following solution heat treatment and quenching. In
certain wrought alloys of this type, ageing at room temperature (natural ageing) causes
an increase in strength accompanied by high ductility. Artificial ageing, at elevated
temperatures, results in a further increase in strength, especially the yield strength, but
at a substantial sacrifice in tensile elongation. For both cast and wrought aluminium–
copper alloys, as little as about 0.5 wt % Mg is effective in changing the ageing
characteristics. In wrought products the effect of magnesium additions on strength can
be maximized in artificially aged materials by cold-working prior to ageing. In naturally
aged materials, however, the benefit to strength from magnesium additions can
decrease with cold-working. The effect of magnesium on the corrosion resistance of
aluminium–copper alloys depends on the type of product and thermal treatment.
 Copper–Magnesium plus Other Elements: Al–Cu–Mg alloys containing manganese are
the most important and versatile class of commercial high-strength wrought
aluminium–copper–magnesium alloys. In general, tensile strength increases with
separate or simultaneous increases in magnesium and manganese, and the yield
strength also increases, but to a lesser extent. Further increases in tensile strength and
particularly yield strength occur on cold-working after heat treatment. Additions of
manganese and magnesium decrease the fabrication characteristics of aluminium–
copper alloys, and manganese also causes a loss in ductility. Hence the concentration of
manganese does not exceed about 1 wt% in commercial alloys. Additions of cobalt,
chromium, or molybdenum to the wrought Al-4 wt% Cu-0.5 wt% Mg type of alloy
increase the tensile properties on heat treatment, but none offers a distinct advantage
over manganese. The cast aluminium–copper–magnesium alloys containing iron are

characterized by dimensional stability and improved bearing characteristics, as well as

high strength and hardness at elevated temperatures. However, in a wrought Al-4 wt%
Cu-0.5 wt% Mg alloy, iron in concentrations as low as 0.5 wt% lowers the tensile
properties in the heat-treated condition unless the silicon content is sufficient to
sequester the iron as FeSi intermetallic particles. When sufficient silicon is present to
combine with the iron, the strength properties are unaffected, although the FeSi
particles are detrimental to fracture toughness, see Sect. 2.5.1. However, if there is
excess iron, it unites with copper to form the Cu2FeAl7 constituent, thereby reducing
the amount of copper available for heat-treating effects. Silicon also combines with
magnesium to form Mg2Si precipitates that contribute to the age-hardening process,
see below. Silver substantially increases the strength of heat treated and aged
aluminium– copper–magnesium alloys. Nickel improves the strength and hardness of
cast and wrought aluminium–copper–magnesium alloys at elevated temperatures.
However, addition of about 0.5 wt% Ni lowers the tensile properties of the heat-treated
wrought Al-4 %Cu-0.5 %Mg alloy at room temperature.
 Magnesium–Silicon: Wrought alloys of the 6XXX group contain up to 1.5 wt% each of
magnesium and silicon in the approximate ratio to form Mg2Si, i.e. 1.73:1. The
maximum solubility of Mg2Si in Al is 1.85 wt%, and this decreases with temperature.
Precipitation upon age-hardening occurs by formation of Guinier– Preston zones and a
very fine precipitate. Both confer an increase in strength to these alloys, though not as
great as in the case of the 2XXX or the 7XXX alloys. Al–Mg2Si alloys can be divided into
three groups. In the first group the total amount of magnesium and silicon does not
exceed 1.5 wt%. These elements are in a nearly balanced ratio or with a slight excess of
silicon. Typical of this group is AA6063, which nominally contains 1.1 wt% Mg2Si and is
widely used for extruded sections. Its solution heat-treating temperature of just over
500 °C and its low quench sensitivity are such that this alloy does not need a separate
solution treatment after extrusion, but may be air quenched at the press and artificially
aged to achieve moderate strength, good ductility, and excellent corrosion resistance.
The second group nominally contains 1.5 wt% or more of magnesium + silicon and
other additions such as 0.3 wt% Cu, which increases strength in the T6 temper.
Elements such as manganese, chromium, and zirconium are used for controlling grain
structure. Alloys of this group, such as AA6061, achieve strengths about 70 MPa higher
than in the first group in the T6 temper. However, this second group requires a higher
solution treating temperature than the first and they are quench sensitive. Therefore
they generally require a separate solution treatment followed by rapid quenching and
artificial ageing. The third group contains an amount of Mg2Si overlapping the first two
but with substantial excess silicon. An excess of 0.2 wt% Si increases the strength of an
alloy containing 0.8 wt% Mg2Si by about 70 MPa. Larger amounts of excess silicon are

less beneficial. Excess magnesium, however, is of benefit only at low Mg2Si contents
because magnesium lowers the solubility of Mg2Si. In excess silicon alloys, segregation
of silicon to the grain boundaries causes grain-boundary fracture in recrystallized
structures. Additions of manganese, chromium, or zirconium counteract the effect of
silicon by preventing recrystallization during heat treatment. Common alloys of this
group are AA6351 and the more recently introduced alloys AA6009 and AA6010. An
addition of lead and bismuth to an alloy of this series (AA6262) improves machinability.
 Silicon: In wrought alloys silicon is used with magnesium at levels up to 1.5 wt % to
produce Mg2Si in the 6XXX series of heat treatable alloys. High-purity aluminium–
silicon casting alloys exhibit hot shortness up to 3 wt% Si, the most critical range being
0.17–0.8 wt% Si. However, in aluminium–copper– magnesium alloys silicon additions
(0.5–4.0 wt%) reduce the cracking tendency. Small amounts of magnesium added to
any silicon-containing alloy will render it heat treatable, but the converse is not true,
since excess magnesium over that required to form Mg2Si sharply reduces the solid
solubility of this compound. Modification of the silicon morphology in casting alloys can
be achieved through the addition of sodium in eutectic and hypoeutectic alloys and by
phosphorus in hypereutectic alloys.
 Titanium: Is used primarily as a grain refiner of aluminium alloy castings and ingots.
When used alone, the effect of titanium decreases with time of holding in the molten
state and with repeated remelting. The grain-refining effect is enhanced if boron is
present in the melt or if it is added as a master alloy containing boron largely combined
with titanium as TiB2.
 Zinc–Magnesium: Addition of magnesium to aluminium–zinc alloys develops the
strength potential of this alloy system, especially in the range of 3–7.5 wt% Zn.
Magnesium and zinc form MgZn2, which produces a far greater response to heat
treatment than occurs in the binary aluminium–zinc system. On the negative side,
increasing additions of both zinc and magnesium decrease the overall corrosion
resistance of aluminium, such that close control over the microstructure, heat
treatment, and composition are often necessary to maintain adequate resistance to
stress corrosion and exfoliation corrosion. For example, depending upon the alloy,
stress corrosion is controlled by some or all of the following: overageing; cooling rate
after solution treatment; maintaining an unrecrystallized structure via additions such as
zirconium, copper or chromium (see zinc– magnesium–copper alloys); and adjusting the
zinc–magnesium ratio closer to 3:1.
 Zinc–Magnesium–Copper: Addition of copper to the aluminium–zinc–magnesium
system, together with small but important amounts of chromium and manganese,
results in the highest strength aluminium-base alloys (7XXX series) commercially
available. 2 Aluminium Alloys for Aerospace Applications 39 In this alloy system, zinc

and magnesium control the ageing process. The effect of copper is to increase the
ageing rate by increasing the degree of supersaturation and perhaps through nucleation
of the CuMgAl2 phase. Copper also increases the quench sensitivity upon heat
treatment. In general, copper reduces the resistance to general corrosion of
aluminium–zinc–magnesium alloys, but increases the resistance to stress corrosion.
Minor alloy additions, such as chromium and zirconium, have a marked effect on
mechanical properties and corrosion resistance.
 Zirconium: Additions in the range 0.1–0.3 wt% are used to form a fine precipitate of
intermetallic particles that inhibit recovery and recrystallization. An increasing number
of alloys, particularly in the aluminium–zinc–magnesium family, use zirconium additions
to increase the recrystallization temperature and to control the grain structure in
wrought products. Zirconium additions render this family of alloys less quench sensitive
compared to chromium additions. Higher levels of zirconium are employed in some
superplastic alloys to retain the required fine substructure during elevated temperature
forming. Zirconium additions have been used to reduce the as-cast grain size, but the
effect is less than that of titanium. In addition, zirconium tends to reduce the grain-
refining effect of titanium plus boron additions so that it is necessary to use more
titanium and boron to grain refine zirconium-containing alloys.
IV. Mechanical Properties 2.5.1 Strength and Fracture Toughness
 Strength and Fracture Toughness: Aluminium alloys may be divided into two groups
depending upon whether or not they respond to precipitation hardening. For alloys that
do not respond to ageing treatments, it is the finely dispersed precipitates that have the
dominant effect in inhibiting dislocation motion and thereby raising yield and tensile
strengths. For the other group the grain size of cast alloys and the dislocation structures
produced by cold-working in the case of wrought alloys are of prime importance. Some
of the mechanical properties of wrought age-hardening aerospace aluminium alloys are
given in Table 2.3. Coarse intermetallic compounds have relatively little effect on yield
or tensile strength but they can cause a marked loss of ductility in both cast and
wrought products. The particles may crack at small plastic strains forming internal voids
which, under the action of further plastic strain, coalesce leading to premature fracture.
Early work on the higher strength aluminium alloys was directed primarily at
maximizing tensile properties in aerospace materials. Since the 1960s the emphasis in
alloy development has shifted away from tensile strength as the primary consideration,
and more attention is given to optimizing a combination of properties and the alloys’
behaviour under a variety of service loadings and environmental conditions. Yield
strength is important for resisting deformation under service loads, but in the presence

of cracks and other flaws it is the fracture toughness that generally becomes the more
important parameter. Minimum fracture toughness requirements have become
mandatory, and in the high-strength alloys the generally inverse relationship between
strength and toughness, see Fig. 2.3, limits the level of yield strength that can be safely
employed by the designer. The major step in the development of aluminium alloys with
greatly improved fracture toughness has come from controlling the levels of the
impurity elements iron and silicon. This effect is shown in Fig. 2.3a for alloys based on
the Al–Cu– Mg system: it can be seen that plane-strain fracture toughness values may
be doubled by maintaining the combined levels of these elements below 0.5 wt% as
compared with similar alloys in which this value exceeds 1.0 wt%. Consequently, some
high-toughness versions of older alloy compositions are now commercially used with
reduced impurity levels [3]. Figure 2.3b shows that in general the 7XXX series of alloys
can attain superior combinations of strength and fracture toughness compared with
2XXX alloys.
 Fatigue: Fatigue life and strength properties are always important design data for
aircraft structures. The practical significance is, however, restricted to notched fatigue,
since cracks start at stress concentrations, especially fastener holes. Unlike steels, the
unnotched fatigue strengths of wrought aluminium alloys are not proportional to the
static strengths, i.e. stronger alloys do not necessarily have a higher fatigue strength,
see Fig. 2.4. This is even more marked for notched fatigue, and there is actually little
difference in the high-cycle notched fatigue strengths of IM wrought alloys, for example
Fig. 2.5.
 Fatigue Crack Growth Conventional (non-lithium-containing) 2XXX series alloys are
generally superior to 7XXX series alloys under constant amplitude loading, for example
Fig. 2.6, and gust spectrum loading (typical for transport aircraft), but not necessarily
under maneuver spectrum loading representative for tactical (fighter) aircraft [8]. Also,
for constant amplitude loading at low DK values, the alloy rankings depend strongly on
the ageing treatment: naturally aged (T3X) and artificially aged (T8X) treatments for
2XXX series alloys, and artificially peak aged (T6X) and overaged (T7X) treatments for
7XXX series alloys [7]. Thus, summarizing, fatigue crack growth testing, even at the basic
materials level, when selecting candidate materials for further evaluation, should
include realistic load histories and representative stress levels [8].
 Corrosion Resistance The corrosion resistance of any specific aluminium alloy depends
on the environment as well as the alloy. Both chemical and physical environmental
variables affect corrosion. The influence of the environment depends on its
composition and the presence of impurities, such as heavy metal ions. Physical
variables are temperature, degree of movement and agitation, and pressure. Alloy
variables that affect corrosion are composition and fabrication practice. These

determine the microstructure, which controls whether localized corrosion occurs and
the method of attack [9]. Conventional (non-lithium-containing) aerospace alloys
always require some form of corrosion protection. This can be cladding with (nearly)
pure aluminium and anodizing for sheet alloys; anodizing or ion vapour deposition for
other types of products; and primer and paint systems. Some aluminium alloys are
susceptible to stress corrosion cracking (SCC), which occurs under the combined action
of a continuous tensile stress and a specific corrosive environment. The most important
aerospace aluminium alloys susceptible to SCC are the 2XXX-T8XX, 7XXX-T6XX and
7XXX-T7XX tempers [12]. Very rarely, SCC occurs in aluminium–magnesium–silicon
alloys (6XXX).
V. Typical Aerospace Applications of Aluminium Alloys

Even though the role of aluminium in future commercial aircraft will probably be ‘threatened’
by the increasing use of composite materials, the high-strength aluminium alloys are, and will
remain, important airframe materials. Even in fighter aircraft, which already have composite
material percentages in the range of 40– 50 %, aluminium still plays a significant role [1]. The
attractiveness of aluminium is that it is a relatively low cost, lightweight metal that can be heat
treated to fairly high-strength levels, and it is one of the most easily fabricated high
performance materials, i.e. the manufacturing costs are relatively low. Improvements in
aluminium manufacturing technology include high-speed machining and friction stir welding
(FSR):
• Although higher metal removal rates are an immediate benefit of high-speed machining, an
additional cost saving is the ability to machine extremely thin walls and webs. This allows the
design of weight competitive high-speed machined assemblies, in which sheet metal parts that
were formally assembled with mechanical fasteners can now be machined from a single or
several blocks of aluminium plate.
• FSR is a solid state joining process that has the ability to weld the 2XXX and 7XXX alloys, which
are not suited to conventional fusion welding. FSR also allows the design of weight competitive
assemblies with a minimum number of mechanical fasteners.
More specifically, the alloy property requirements vary depending on the application. A generic
example is given in Fig. 2.7, which illustrates the engineering property requirements for several
of the main structural areas in a transport aircraft, namely (i) fuselage and pressure cabins, (ii)
wings and (iii) empennage (horizontal and vertical stabilizers). The engineering properties
required for these structures are strength (TS, CYS), stiffness (E), damage tolerance (DT: fatigue,
fatigue crack growth, fracture toughness), and corrosion (general and stress corrosion). The
rankings of the requirements differ for different areas, but there is much commonality. Table
2.4 presents a survey of the actual and proposed uses of conventional 2XXX and 7XXX
aluminium alloys in airframe structures. Alloy producers develop basically similar alloys for

different product forms and applications. The most important contribution to this flexibility is
the development of a range of alloy tempers that allow optimizations and trade-offs of
properties, and hence the ability to match the alloys to particular applications.
VI. Indian Scenario

4 % of the global primary Al production of about 50 million tons is produced in India by three
large manufacturers: NALCO, HINDALCO and the Vedanta Group. Comparable quantities are
produced by recycling (using domestic as well as imported scrap, mostly by thousands of small
units). About 80 % of the primary aluminium is consumed domestically, while the rest is
exported, making India an Al-surplus country. This deceptive surplus is essentially due to the
very low per capita consumption of aluminium (under 1 kg) compared to the US and Europe
(25–30 kg), and even China (3 kg). The domestic consumption pattern gives a clue to the
reasons for this situation: the Power Industry (mainly overhead cables and other conductors) is
the principal consumer of domestic aluminium (48 %). Other sectors lag far behind: Transport
15 %; Construction 13 %; Machinery and Equipment 7 %; Consumer Durables 7 %; Packaging: 4
%; Others 6 %. From the foregoing list it is clear that only very small amounts of aluminium and
its alloys made in India go into the aerospace industry, which itself is at an early stage of
development, particularly in the private sector. The only primary aircraft manufacturer is the
public sector Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL), which produces military aircraft, either of its
own design or under licence from a foreign Table 2.4 Actual and proposed uses of conventional
aerospace aluminium alloys in airframe structures [13] Product Strength levels Alloy/temper
Applications Sheet Damage tolerant 2024-T3, 2524-T3/351 Fuselage/pressure cabin skins Plate
Damage tolerant 2024-T351, 2324-T39, 2624-T351, 2624-T39 Lower wing covers Medium
strength 2024-T62 Tactical aircraft fuselage panels Medium strength 2124-T851 Tactical aircraft
bulkheads Medium strength 7050-T7451, 7X75-T7XXX Internal fuselage structures High strength
7150-T7751, 7055-T7751, 7055-T7951, 7255-T7951 Upper wing covers Medium strength 7050-
T7451 Spars, ribs, other internal structures Forgings High strength 7175-T7351, 7050-T7452
Wing/fuselage attachments Extrusions Damage tolerant 2024-T3511, 2026-T3511, 2024-T4312,
6110-T6511 Lower wing stringers Fuselage/pressure cabin stringers Medium/high strength
7075-T73511, 7075-T79511, 7150-T6511, 7175-T79511, 7055-T77511, 7055-T79511 Fuselage
stringers and frames, upper wing stringers, floor beams, seat rails 2 Aluminium Alloys for
Aerospace Applications 47 manufacturer. The other major aerospace organization is the Indian
Space Research Organization (ISRO). This is a research establishment producing highly advanced
Space Vehicles that serve as technology demonstrators. Nonetheless these have high
commercial potential. Several hundred ancillary units fabricate component parts for aerospace
applications. Two examples are Hindalco-Almex Aerospace Ltd (HAAL), Aurangabad, and PMI
Engineering Exports Pvt Ltd, Chennai. The aluminium alloys they state they are able to produce
include AA2014, AA2618, AA5083, AA6061, AA7010, AA7020, AA7050, AA7075 and AA7175: in

short, a considerable variety. Besides industry, there is considerable aerospace R&D activity in
other institutions in India, led by several prestigious DRDO laboratories. Missile development
programs at several of these laboratories are supplemented by extensive work on manufacture
and property studies for a range of Al alloys including Al–Li alloys (see Chap. 3 of this Volume) at
the Defence Metallurgical Research Laboratory, Hyderabad. Some CSIR labs like the National
Aerospace Laboratory (NAL), Bengaluru, and the Regional Research Laboratory, Trivandrum, a
few University Departments and Research Institutions like the celebrated Indian Institute of
Science, Bengaluru, complete the R&D picture.
2.2 Titanium Alloys

The high strength and low density of titanium and its alloys have from the first ensured a
positive role for the metal in aero-engine and airframe applications. It is difficult to imagine
how current levels of performance, engine power to weight ratios, airframe strength, aircraft
speed and range and other critical factors could be achieved without titanium.
Aircraft Engines
Titanium alloys capable of operating at temperatures from sub zero to 600°C are used in
engines for discs, blades, shafts and casings from the front fan to the last stage of the high
pressure compressor, and at the rear end of the engine for lightly loaded fabrications such as
plug and nozzle assemblies.
Airframes
Alloys with strength up to 1200MPa are used in a wide variety of airframe applications from
small fasteners weighing a few grams to landing gear trucks and large wing beams weighing up
to 1 ton. Currently titanium makes up to 10% of empty weight of aircraft such as the Boeing
777.
Titanium Alloys for Aircraft Applications
Some of the alloys available for aircraft applications are outlined in the following tables. The
alloys are grouped by their relative usages.
Table 1. More widely used titanium alloys in aircraft applications.
Alloy Attributes/Applications
Ti6Al4V Workhorse, general purpose high strength alloy

Ti6Al2Sn4Zr2Mo (6-
Creep and oxidation resistant engine alloy
2-4-2)
Ti6Al2Sn4Zr6Mo (6-
Creep and oxidation resistant engine alloy
2-4-6)
Ti3Al8V6Cr4Zr4Mo
Beta alloy with established spring applications
(Beta C)
Ti10V2Fe3Al (10-2-3) Beta forging alloy used for 777 landing gear
Ti15V3Cr3Sn3Al (15-
High strength heat treatable beta sheet alloy
3-3-3)
Ti3Al2.5V Medium strength alloy used for hydraulic tubing
Ti4Al4Mo2Sn (550) Higher strength heat treatable airframe and engine alloy
Ti5.5Al3.5Sn3Zr1Nb
Advanced engine alloy, creep and oxidation resistant
(829)
Ti5.8Al4Sn3.5Zr0.7Nb
(834)
Ti5Al2Sn4Mo2Zr4Cr
(Ti17)
Ti15Mo3Nb3Al0.2Si
Oxidation and corrosion resistant beta sheet alloy
(21S)
Table 2. Titanium alloys of increasing importance in aircraft applications.
Ti6Al2Zr2Sn2Mo2Cr0.25Si
Airframe alloy for F22 and JSF projects
(6.22.22)
Ti4.5Al4Mo4Sn0.5Si (SP
Competitor for Ti6Al4V for SPF and general use
700)

Table 3. Less widely used titanium alloys in aircraft applications, but alloys that may be critical
in their application to specific fully validated components.
Ti2Cu Heat treatable sheet alloy
Ti4Al4Mo4Sno.5Si (551) High strength airframe alloy, very limited availability
Ti8Al1Mo1V Early alloy now mainly used for spares and replacements
Ti-6-6-2 High strength alloy with specific earlier applications
Ti11Sn5Zr2.5Al1Mo0.2Si
Earlier engine alloy rarely specified in new programmes
(679)
Ti6Al5Zr0.5MoO.25Si
Engine alloy now mainly for spares and replacements
(685)
iron has few practical uses in its pure state. However, adding small amounts of other materials
to molten iron dramatically changes its properties. Some of the more common alloying
elements include carbon, sulphur, silicon, phosphorus, nickel and chromium (also referred to as
chrome).
2.3 Steel
Steel is essentially an alloy of iron and less than 2.5% carbon, usually with a few
impurities. (In practice, most steels do not have more than 1.5% carbon).
Steel is produced by refining pig iron (removing excess carbon and other unwanted
impurities). The excess carbon is extracted by blowing oxygen or air through the molten
metal and/or adding iron oxide. Slag, containing other impurities is skimmed off. The
most common furnace used for this process was the ‘Bessemer Converter’, developed
in 1856. It reduced the cost of steel to one fifth of its original cost. Bessemer converters
were loaded with 20-50 tons of pig iron and air was blown from the bottom for
approximately 15 minutes.
The high quality steels that are used in aircraft construction are usually produced in
electric furnaces, which allow better control than gas furnaces, when alloying. The
carbon electrodes produce an intense arc and the steel (when molten) can have
impurities removed and measured amounts of alloying materials added.

I. Classification of Steels
When carbon is alloyed with iron, the hardness and strength of the metal increases.
The effect of varying amounts of carbon is truly dramatic. If carbon is progressively
added to pure iron, the following occurs:
 Initially, the strength and hardness increases – Steel containing 0.4% carbon has
twice the strength of pure iron.
 When 1% of carbon is added, the strength and hardness show a further increase
but ductility is reduced.
 If 1% to 1.5% of carbon is added, the hardness continues to increase. But there
is no further increase in strength and there is even less ductility. Steels
containing such high amounts of carbon are seldom used for anything except
cutting implements e.g. razor blades and scissors.
The (American) Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) has classified steel alloys
with a four-digit numerical index system. A small extract from the SAE
classification system is shown in table below, where it can be seen. For example,
that one common steel alloy is identified by the designation SAE 1030. The first
digit identifies it as a Carbon-Steel, while the second digit shows that it is a Plain
Carbon-Steel. The last two digits denote the percentage of carbon in the steel
(0.30%). It should be noted that the British Standards Institute (BS) has a
different classification system.
II. Metallurgical Structure of Steel

The amount of carbon present in steel has a major effect on the mechanical
properties. The form in which the carbon is present is also important.
 Structure and Properties – Slow-cooled Steels
Carbon can be present in these steels in the following forms:
 When the carbon is fully dissolved and uniformly distributed in a

solid solution, the metallurgical structure is called ferrite. At room
temperature, only a very small amount of carbon (0.006%) can be
contained in solid solution. Therefore, this ferrite structure is almost
pure iron, which is soft, weak and ductile.
 When 1 carbon atom chemically combines with 3 iron atoms, the
result is called cementite or iron carbide, which is very hard and
brittle.
 Cementite can be present either as free cementite or laminated with
ferrite (in alternate layers) to produce a metallurgical structure
called pearlite. As pearlite is half cementite and half ferrite, it is not
surprising to find that pearlite combines the properties of ferrite and
cementite i.e. pearlite is strong without being brittle.

The amount of carbon necessary to produce a totally pearlite structure is

0.83%, but this material is a little too hard for general structural use. If the
carbon content exceeds this value, the excess carbon forms carbon-rich
cementite areas along the grain boundaries, and this is known as free
cementite. Such high-carbon steels as already stated are very hard and
strong but very brittle. Mild steel has a metallurgical structure comprising
approximately one third pearlite and two thirds ferrite.
 Effects of Cooling Rates on Steels
Previously, the effect of carbon on the properties of a slowly cooled steel

has been considered. However, if such steels are rapidly cooled from
relatively high temperature the metallurgical structure and properties can
be somewhat different.
 Heat-Treatment of Carbon Steels
If a ‘straight’ carbon steel is progressively heated from cold, a steady rise in

temperature occurs. However, at approximately 700oC, there is a reduction
in the rate of temperature rise (a ‘hesitation’), even though the heating is
continued (refer to figure below). This hesitation starts at 700 oC and finishes
at up to 200oC higher (depending on the percentage of carbon present) and
eventually, the temperature rise speeds up and the rate of rise is similar to
that which occurred before the hesitation.
The start of the hesitation is known as the ‘lower critical point’ and the end
is called the ‘upper critical point’. And the phenomenon of the temperature
response is due to a change in the crystalline structure of the steel in
between the two critical points.
If carbon steel is heated to just above its Upper Critical Point, the structure
is called ‘Austenitic’. This structure is a solid solution of carbon in iron
(i.e. all the carbon is uniformly distributed throughout the iron). If the steel
contains above 0.3% carbon, and it is rapidly cooled (i.e. quenched) from
above the Upper Critical Point it becomes hardened.
The more the carbon is present, the harder the steel will be after quenching.
This rapid cooling causes a change in the metallurgical structure and is
called ‘Martensite’. Martensite is extremely hard, but is not suitable for
most engineering purposes due to it being very brittle. For most
applications, it is necessary to carry out a further heat-treatment to reduce
the brittleness of the steel and this is called ‘tempering’.
To temper hardened carbon steel, it is necessary to heat it to a suitable

temperature below its Lower Critical Point followed by cooling (usually
quenching). The effect of this heat-treatment is to slightly reduce the

hardness whilst at the same time greatly increasing the toughness. The
actual tempering temperature used depends on the requirements of
strength, hardness and toughness.
The higher the tempering temperature, the lower will be strength and
hardness, but the toughness will be greater. The maximum tensile strength
of hardened carbon steel is achievable when 0.83% carbon is present. If an
even greater amount of carbon is present, the hardness continues to
increase but strength will decrease.
Associated Problems - Hardening Process
The effective hardening of carbon steels depends not only on the amount of
carbon present but also on very rapid cooling from high temperature. The
cooling rate mainly depends on the cooling medium, the size of tank and the
mass of the object to be cooled.
Agitation in the cooling bath can also speed up the cooling rate and in terms
of cooling severity, brine is more effective than water, followed by oil and
finally air.
Carbon steels require an extremely rapid cooling phase. So brine or water is

normally used, whereas oil or air-cooling is used on certain alloy steels. The
rapid cooling rates, involved in the hardening of carbon steel, cause
enormous thermal stresses in the component and distortion is
commonplace. Cracking may also occur in some cases.
To achieve relatively uniform cooling, it is sometimes necessary to immerse

the object in a specific way because of its shape and mass.
• Tempering
As already stated, tempering is carried out to improve the

toughness of hardened steel whilst suffering only a modest drop in
strength. In addition to well-equipped facilities, accurate
temperature measuring equipment are required to do these
procedures on aerospace metals.
However, the following table shows that, when carbon steel is

polished and then slowly heated, a range of colours appears due to
a thin oxide film formation during the heating process. These
colours are related fairly closely to temperatures. The higher the
temperature achieved during the tempering process, the softer and
tougher the material will become and vice-versa.

• Annealing
The annealing of steel may be for one of the following purposes:
 To soften the steel for forming or to improve machinability.

 To relieve internal stresses induced by a previous process
(rolling, forging, or unequal cooling).
 To remove coarseness of grain.
Annealing is normally achieved on carbon steel by heating to just

above the Upper Critical Limit, followed by very slow cooling. In
practise, the slow cooling rates are achieved by cooling in the
furnace or by immersing in a poor thermal conductor such as ashes.
The end result is a stress-free, fully softened material, suitable for
major forming operations such as deep pressing, drawing, extruding
etc.
• Normalising
This process is similar to annealing, except that the cooling is done
in still air. Again, the end result is a stress-free, soft material with
uniform fine grain structure. Normalising is commonly used on
actual components after heavy machining operations (or welding),
prior to the final hardening and tempering processes.
Surface Hardening of Steels
 Unlike conventional through-hardening of steel, it is

sometimes desirable to retain a relatively tough (relatively
less brittle) inner core, coupled with a very hard surface. This
would, typically, be required of a component, which is
subjected to high dynamic stresses, yet also has to resist
surface wear and would include:
 Gears (where the teeth need to be hardened)
 Camshafts and crankshafts (bearing surfaces)
 Cylinder barrels of piston engines (or landing gear legs)
Some materials can be ‘case-hardened’ to achieve this aim. Several

methods are used, depending on the parent material and the
particular application.
• Carburising
This is the most common method of case-hardening low-carbon
steels and consists of heating the metal to approximately 900 oC,
while the component is in contact with a carbon-rich medium
followed by a suitable heat-treatment.

Carbon is generally absorbed into the surface of the heated steel

and the rate of penetration is approximately 1mm in 5-6 hours.
Low-carbon steels are particularly suited to this type of treatment,
as it increases the carbon content and hence the hardness locally.
Various methods of carburising are used, the most common ones
being:
 Pack Carburising: The object is sealed in a container

containing a carbon-rich (charcoal based) powder and
heated in a furnace. The metal is then quenched in oil (not
water, which would cause the hard case to peel off). The
depth of the hard skin depends on the length of time that
the metal is heated.
 Gas Carburising: The object is placed in a basket in a
furnace, through which is passed a suitable, carbon-rich gas
(e.g. methane, propane).
 Liquid Carburising: The object is heated to a suitable
temperature and then immersed in a hot, salt bath at 900 oC.
The salts are usually based on sodium cyanide and the
process is often called ‘cyanide hardening’. The metal is
quenched in water (not oil, which would react unfavourably
with the salts).
• Nitriding
This process involves the absorption of nitrogen (instead of carbon)
into the surface of the steel. Suitable "Nitralloy" steels are necessary
for this process and they usually contain 1% Aluminium, 1.5%
Chromium and 0.2% Molybdenum.
A special furnace is used and ammonia gas is circulated through it.

The furnace temperature of 500oC converts the ammonia into a
nitrogen-rich gas and forms hard iron nitride in the surface of the
steel.
The resulting case depth is less than that by pack carburising, but
the major advantage of nitriding is that no hardening or tempering
is necessary to achieve the final hardness and no finish machining is
required after nitriding. This relatively low-temperature process
results in negligible distortion and is much cleaner than the carbon
methods. Aircraft piston engine cylinder barrels are particularly
suitable for nitriding, as are some crankshaft bearing surfaces and
the stems of some aero-engine induction and exhaust valves.
Nitrided surfaces must be protected against pitting corrosion,

usually (as with engine gears and shafts) by keeping the surface
oiled.

Note: If certain surfaces of a component are not to be case-

hardened, it is necessary to protect them during the carburising or
nitriding processes, to locally prevent the hardening agent from
being absorbed. Copper plating, nickel plating or a proprietary paste
are generally used in such areas.
• Flame/Induction Hardening
Unlike carburising and nitriding, flame and induction hardening do
not add a hardening agent into the surface of a basically softer
material. Instead, they are merely techniques for hardening the
surface of material by a ‘local heat-treatment’. Steels suitable for
these processes already contain sufficient carbon (or other
elements) to attain a high degree of hardness if heated and
quenched.
Only the surface is locally heated (by a flame or electrical induction

coil), and the heated surface is then immediately quenched by
water jets. The flame or induction coil is positioned so that it only
heats the area required to be hardened.
Other Surface Hardening Techniques
In addition to case-hardening, there are other methods of producing hard surfaces

on metals, such as by electro-plating, welding, bonding, and metal spraying. All
usually involve adding a harder surface metal to the parent material.
III. Alloying Elements in Steel
 Carbon
Carbon is the most common alloying element found in steel. When mixed
with iron, compounds of iron carbide form and it is the carbon in steel that
allows it to be heat-treated to obtain varying degrees of hardness, strength
and toughness. The greater the carbon content, the more receptive the
steel becomes to heat-treatment and, while its strength and hardness
increases, its malleability and weldability decreases.
 Low-Carbon Steel: Low-carbon steels contain between 0.1% and

0.3% carbon and are classified as SAE 1010 to SAE 1030 steels. They
are used in such items as locking wire and cable bushings. And in
sheet form, they are used for low-load applications. Low-carbon
steels weld easily but do not accept heat-treatment very well.
 Medium-Carbon Steel: These steels contain between 0.3% and 0.7%
carbon. The increased carbon assists in heat-treatment while still

retaining reasonable ductility. Medium-carbon steels are used for

machining or forging and where surface hardness is required.
 High-Carbon Steel: The carbon content of these steels, ranges
between 0.5% and 1.5% and this makes them very hard. High-carbon
steels are primarily used in springs, files and in most cutting tools.
 Sulphur
Sulphur causes steel to be brittle when rolled or forged and so it must be

removed during the refining process. If it proves impossible to remove all of
the sulphur, then manganese can be added to the metal (to form
manganese sulphide). The manganese also improves forging by making the
steel less brittle during the forming processes.
 Silicon
When silicon is alloyed with steel, it acts as a hardener. When used in small
quantities, it also improves ductility.
 Phosphorus
Phosphorus raises the yield strength of steel and improves a low-carbon

steel’s resistance to atmospheric corrosion. The steel tends to be brittle
when cold. So, no more than 0.05% phosphorus is normally used in steel
production.
 Nickel
Nickel is used extensively for alloying with steel as follows:
 In the range of 1-5%, there is a marked improvement in strength and

hardness without lowering ductility. This high-strength, tough steel is
widely used for highly stressed parts.
 At about 25% nickel, the steel becomes highly corrosion-resistant,
heat-resistant and non-magnetic.
 At 36% nickel, a unique steel (known under its trade name as ‘Invar’)
is created. This has the lowest coefficient of expansion of any metal
(1/20th that of steel) and is excellent for master gauges and
instruments.
 Because of the effect of such amounts of nickel on the expansion
properties of steel, a range of nickel-steels can be purpose-made, to
trim the coefficient of expansion to specific needs. These alloys are
used in thermostats, spark plug electrodes etc.

 Nickel Alloys: When the amount of nickel present is predominant, then the
material becomes known as a Nickel Alloy, many of which are widely used in
industry.
One of the most important nickel-based alloy groups is the nimonics. These
are a family of alloys, containing 50-80% nickel, with the balance being
mainly chromium (chrome) with some titanium and aluminium.
Nimonic alloys are used in hot air control ducting, for gas turbine engine
combustion chambers and turbine blades because of their extremely low
coefficient of expansion at elevated temperatures.
Other ranges of nickel-based alloys come under the trade names of Inconel
and Hastelloy, which are also temperature-resistant and corrosion-resistant.
Another common nickel alloy is Monel. This metal (68% nickel and 29%
copper, with iron, manganese, silicon and carbon) has excellent resistance
to both corrosion and chemical attack. It is tough, ductile, reasonably strong
(equivalent to mild steel) and is non-magnetic. It is used in many marine
applications for surgical apparatus and for aircraft rivets. Normally, Monel
does not respond to heat treatment but, when alloyed with a small amount
of aluminium (2-4%), it can be hardened to double its strength. This version
is known as ‘K-Monel’.
Nickel adds strength and hardness to steel as well as increasing its yield
strength. By slowing the rate of hardening during heat-treatment, the depth
of hardening can be increased and the steel’s grain structure made finer.
SAE 2330 steel, containing 3% nickel and 0.3% carbon is used in the
manufacture of bolts, nuts, rod ends and pins.
 Chromium (Chrome)
When small amounts of chrome are added to steel, the strength and
hardness increases, but there is some loss of ductility. 1.5% chrome in a
high-carbon (1%) steel, results in a very hard material, which is used
extensively for instrument pivots and in ball and roller bearings. Low
chrome (1.5-3%) steels are used for high tensile fasteners and are suitable
for nitriding. Chromium can also be electrolytically deposited onto metals,
to provide hardwearing surfaces, such as those required in cylinder bores.
Steels containing 12% or more chrome are very corrosion-resistant.

Stainless (SS) Steels or Corrosion Resistant Steels (CRS) come into this
category. One particular stainless steel is designated ‘18/8 Stainless’, which
contains approximately 18% chrome and 8% nickel. These stainless steels
are used extensively in engine parts, particularly for hot applications and for
exhaust areas where their corrosion resistance is vital.

 Nickel-Chrome Steel and Its Alloys:
This term is used when the amount of nickel present is greater than the
chrome content. A wide range of such steels exists, but the low nickel-
chrome alloys are suitable for through-hardening or case-hardening. The
nickel content is around 3-5% and the chrome ranges from 0.5-1.5%.
Crankshafts and connecting rods are often made from this group. High
nickel-chrome alloys (65-85% nickel, 15-20% chrome) have a high electrical
resistance and are often used as heater elements.
By adding both metals in appropriate percentages, steel is produced. Nickel-

chromium steels are used for forged and machined parts requiring high
strength, ductility, shock resistance and toughness.
 Cobalt
Cobalt is often included in High-Speed Steel (HSS) in addition to chrome,

vanadium, molybdenum and tungsten, to improve still further the ability to
cut at high working temperatures. Cobalt is included in high-strength,
permanent magnets in some of the nimonic alloys used for high-
temperature components in gas turbine engines. It is also found in a range
of temperature-resistant alloys called ‘Stellite’ (used in piston engine valves
and for cutting tools).
 Vanadium
When added to steel, vanadium improves the strength, without the loss of
ductility. But also greatly improves its toughness and its resistance to
fatigue. Because of the improved tensile and elastic properties, valve (and
many types of other) springs usually include vanadium. Small amounts of
vanadium are included in certain nickel-chrome steels and good quality
engineering tools.
Vanadium, when combined with chromium, produces a strong, tough,

ductile steel-alloy. Amounts of up to 0.2% vanadium improve grain
structure, ultimate tensile strength and toughness. Ball bearings are also
made from chrome vanadium steel.
 Manganese
When small amounts of manganese are added to steel (up to 1.5%), the
result is a steel which is strong and hard (similar to nickel-chrome steel).
Such steel is often used for shafts and axles. 11-14% manganese steel has
very unusual properties and is extremely useful. When this material is
heated to approximately 1000oC and water-quenched, its structure
becomes austenitic and although it is only moderately hard, any attempt to
cut it or abrade it, results in the local formation of hard Martensite. Thus, it
becomes highly resistant to cutting or abrasion. Because of this peculiar
property, it is used extensively for rock drills, stone crushers, and railway
lines at junctions etc. Small amounts of manganese are used in steel
production and in welding rods since it acts as a purifying agent by reducing
oxidation.
 Molybdenum
One of the most widely used alloying elements for aircraft structural steel is
molybdenum. It reduces the grain size of steel, which increases its impact
strength and elastic limit. Other advantages are an increase in wear-
resistance and high fatigue-resistance, which is the reason why
molybdenum-steels are found in structural members and engine parts.
 Chrome and Molybdenum
Chrome-molybdenum steel is probably the most commonly used alloy steel

in the aircraft industry. Its SAE 4130 designation denotes an alloy of 0.8-
1.10% Cr, 0.15-0.25% Mo, 0.28-0.33% C and other elements, such as Mn, P,
S and Si. It machines well and is easily welded by gas or electric arc
methods, as well as responding well to heat-treatment. Its use in aircraft
construction includes landing gear, engine mountings and many engine
components.
 Tungsten
Tungsten has an extremely high melting point and adds this characteristic to
the steel with which it is alloyed. Tungsten steels retain their hardness at
elevated temperatures, and are typically used for contact-breaker contacts
(in magnetos), and also for high-speed cutting tools.
2.4 MAGNESIUM
Use of Magnesium in Aircraft Parts casting in recent years, new Magnesium alloy castings has
demonstrated superior corrosion performance. This advantage has lead magnesium and
magnesium alloys for aerospace applications.
Magnesium Alloy Offers:
 Light weight.
 Low density (Just two thirds of aluminium).
 Excellent high temperature mechanical properties.
 Good to medium corrosion resistance.

I. Application of Magnesium Alloy in Aircraft Parts:
They are used for helicopter transmission casings, main rotor gearbox castings,
applications can have auxiliary gearboxes, generator housings, canopies, intermediate
compressor casings for turbine engines. Airframe mounted auxiliary drive systems
(AMADS) as in fighter jets etc.
 Magnesium is an excellent metal as it is readily available commercially and it is

the lightest of all the structural metals having a density of 1.7g/cm3 ;
 It also has good heat dissipation, good damping and good electro-magnetic
shield. It is most commonly found in the earth’s ocean.
 At room temperature magnesium and its alloys are difficult to deform due to
the crystal structure which is hexagonal close packed (Figure 1). This structure
restricts its ability to deform because it has fewer slip systems at lower
temperatures.
 Magnesium has a moderately low melting temperature making it easier to melt
for casting. Additionally it is relatively unstable chemically and extremely
susceptible to corrosion in a marine environment.
 It is thought that the corrosion is due more to impurities in the metal versus an
inherent characteristic. Finally magnesium powder ignites easily when heated in
air and must be handled very carefully in a powder form.
 Figure 1: Example of Hexagonal Close Packed Crystalline Structure Pure
magnesium is rarely used in the manufacturing of aerospace and automotive
parts. In order to be used in manufacturing, it is alloyed with other metals.
 Some of the most common alloyed elements in commercial alloys are:
aluminum, zinc, cerium, silver, thorium, yttrium and zirconium.
There are three main groups of magnesium alloys (both wrought and cast):
1. Magnesium-Manganese Alloys.
These alloys have good weldability and are used for manufacturing thin plates.
2. Magnesium-Aluminum-Zinc Alloys.
These alloys are manufactured by Die casting, Sand casting, Permanent mold
casting, Forging and Extrusion. The alloys are heat-treatable.
3. Magnesium-Zinc-Zirconium-Thorium Alloys.
These alloys have high impact toughness, good corrosion resistance and
machinability. The alloys are heat-treatable.
The designation system uses the following combination of letters and numbers
for identification of the alloys:
The first two letters indicate the major alloying elements in the alloy according
to the following codes:
A – Aluminum (Al),
B – Bismuth (Bi),
C – Copper (Cu),
D – Cadmium (Cd),
E – Rare earth elements,
F – Iron (Fe),
H – Thorium (Th),
K – Zirconium (Zr),
L – Beryllium (Be),
M – Manganese (Mn),
N – Nickel (Ni),
P – Lead (Bb),
Q – Arsenic (As),
R – Chromium (Cr),
S – Silicon (Si),
T – Tin (Sn),
Z – Zinc (Zn).
The two letters are followed by two numbers, indicating the concentration of
the major alloying elements.
The fifth symbol is a letter, signifying the alloy modification.
The alloy code is followed by a designation of temper. The temper designation
system of magnesium alloys is similar to the Temper designation of aluminum
alloys:
F –As fabricated;
O – Annealed;
H – Cold worked;
T4 – Solution treatment;
T5 – Artificial aging;
T6 – Solution treatment followed by artificial aging.
Example:
Alloy designated as ZE63A-T6 is magnesium alloy, containing 6% (rounded off) of
zinc (symbol Z) and about 3% (rounded off) of rare earth elements (symbol E).
Modification of the alloy – A.
The temper of the alloy is solution treatment followed by artificial aging (T6).

Alloy Characteristics
AZ63 Good room temperature strength and ductility

AZ81 Tough, leak tight castings with 0.0015 Be, used for pressure die-casting
AZ91 General-purpose alloy used for sand and die castings
AM50 High-pressure die castings
AM20 Good ductility and impact strength
AS41 Good creep properties to 150ºC
AS21 Good creep properties to 150ºC
AE42 Good creep properties to 150ºC
ZK51 Sand castings, good room temperature strength and ductility
ZK61 As for ZK51
ZE41 Sand castings, good room temperature strength, improved castability
ZC63 Pressure-tight castings, good elevated temperature strength, weldable
EZ33 Good castability, pressure-tight, weldable, creep resistant to 250ºF
HK31 Sand castings, good castability, weldable, creep resistant to 350ºC
HZ32 As for HK31
QE22 Pressure tight and weldable, high proof stress to 250ºC
QH21 Pressure-tight, weldable, good creep resistance and proof stress to 300ºC
WE54 High strength at room and elevated temperatures
WE43 Good corrosion resistance, weldable
M1 Low-to medium- strength alloy, weldable, corrosion resistant
AZ31 Medium-strength alloy, weldable, good formability
AZ61 High-strength alloy, weldable 13
AZ80 High-strength alloy
ZM21 Medium-strength alloy, good formability, good damping capacity
ZK30 High-strength alloys ZK60 Good formability
ZMC711 High-strength alloy
HK31 High creep resistance to 350ºC, weldable
HM21 High creep resistance to 350ºC, short time exposure to 425ºC, weldable
WE43 High temperature creep resistance
WE54 High temperature creep resistance
LA141 Ultra-light weight

II. Types of Heat Treatment
Magnesium alloy castings respond readily to heat treatment, and about 95

percent of the magnesium used in aircraft construction is in the cast form. The
heat treatment of magnesium alloy castings is similar to the heat treatment of
aluminum alloys in that there are two types of heat treatment: Magnesium,
however, develops a negligible change in its properties when allowed to age
naturally at room temperatures.
 Solution Heat Treatment
Magnesium alloy castings are solution heat treated to improve tensile

strength, ductility, and shock resistance. This heat-treatment condition is
indicated by using the symbol -T4 following the alloy designation. Solution
heat treatment plus artificial aging is designated -T6. Artificial aging is
necessary to develop the full properties of the metal.
Solution heat-treatment temperatures for magnesium alloy castings range

from 730 °F to 780 °F, the exact range depending upon the type of alloy. The
temperature range for each type of alloy is listed in Specification MIL-H-
6857. The upper limit of each range listed in the specification is the
maximum temperature to which the alloy may be heated without danger of
melting the metal.
The soaking time ranges from 10 to 18 hours, the exact time depending
upon the type of alloy as well as the thickness of the part. Soaking periods
longer than 18 hours may be necessary for castings over 2 inches in
thickness. NEVER heat magnesium alloys in a salt bath as this may result in
an explosion.
A serious potential fire hazard exists in the heat treatment of magnesium

alloys. If through oversight or malfunctioning of equipment, the maximum
temperatures are exceeded, the casting may ignite and burn freely. For this
reason, the furnace used should be equipped with a safety cutoff that will
turn off the power to the heating elements and blowers if the regular
control equipment malfunctions or fails. Some magnesium alloys require a
protective atmosphere of sulfur dioxide gas during solution heat treatment.
This aids in preventing the start of a fire even if the temperature limits are
slightly exceeded.
Air quenching is used after solution heat treatment of magnesium alloys

since there appears to be no advantage in liquid cooling.

 Precipitation Heat Treatment
After solution treatment, magnesium alloys may be given an aging

treatment to increase hardness and yield strength. Generally, the aging
treatments are used merely to relieve stress and stabilize the alloys in order
to prevent dimensional changes later, especially during or after machining.
Both yield strength and hardness are improved somewhat by this treatment
at the expense of a slight amount of ductility. The corrosion resistance is
also improved, making it closer to the “as cast” alloy.
Precipitation heat treatment temperatures are considerably lower than

solution heat-treatment temperatures and range from 325 °F to 500 °F.
Soaking time ranges from 4 to 18 hours.
Annealing:
Wrought magnesium alloys in various conditions of strain hardening or

temper can be annealed by being heated at 290 to 455°C (550 to 850°F),
depending on alloy, for one or more hours. This procedure usually will
provide a product with the maximum anneal that is practical.
Because most forming operations on magnesium are done at elevated

temperature, the need for fully annealed wrought material is less than with
many other metals.
Stress Relieving of Wrought Alloys:
Stress relieving is used to remove or reduce residual stresses induced in

wrought magnesium products by cold and hot working, shaping and
forming, straightening, and welding.
When extrusions are welded to hard rolled sheet, the lower stress-relieving
temperature and the longer time should be used to minimize distortion-for
example, 150°C (300°F) for 60 min, rather than 260°C (500°F) for 15 min.
Stress Relieving of Castings:
The precision machining of castings to close dimensional limits, the

necessity of avoiding warp age and distortion, and the desirability of
preventing stress-corrosion cracking in welded magnesium-aluminum
casting alloys make it mandatory that cast components be substantially free
from residual stresses. Although magnesium castings do not normally
contain high residual stresses, the low modulus of elasticity of magnesium
alloys means that comparatively low stresses can produce appreciable
elastic strains.
Residual stresses may arise from contraction due to mold restraint during
solidification, from no uniform cooling after heat treatment, or from
quenching. Machining operations also can result in residual stress and
require intermediate stress relieving prior to final machining.
Solution Treating and Aging:
In solution treating of magnesium-aluminum-zinc alloys, parts should be

loaded into the furnace at approximately 260°C (500°F) and then raised to
the appropriate solution-treating temperature slowly, to avoid fusion of
eutectic compounds and resultant formation of voids. The time required to
bring the load from 260°C to the solution-treating temperature is
determined by the size of the load and by the composition, size, weight and
section thickness of the parts, but 2 h is a typical time.
During aging, magnesium alloy parts should be loaded into the furnace at
the treatment temperature, held for the appropriate period of time, and
then cooled in still air. There is a choice of artificial aging treatments for
some alloys; results are closely similar for the alternative treatments given.
Reheat Treating:
Under normal circumstances, when mechanical properties are within

expected ranges and the prescribed best treatment has been carried out,
reheat treating is seldom necessary. However, if the microstructures of heat
treated castings indicate too high a compound rating or if the castings have
been aged excessively by slow cooling after solution treating, reheat
treating is called for. Most magnesium alloys can be reheating treated with
little danger of germination.

UNIT III
HIGH STRENGTH
AND HEAT
RESISTANT
ALLOYS

I. HEAT RESISTANT ALLOYS

Heat resistant alloys of iron, nickel and cobalt are used where high temperature
performance, particularly creep resistance, is required. These alloys have been typically
selected for gas turbine components such as blades, turbine wheels and latter stage
compressor disks, which are subjected to long term rotational stresses and high
temperatures. Increased understanding of the alloy systems has permitted the
upgrading of forgings by mechanical and thermal treatment to satisfy requirements for
high strength in applications other than creep resistance, such as low and high cycle
fatigue and crack growth resistance.
Such alloys are designed to offer high strength at elevated temperatures. These
characteristics, which are desirable in the end product, make forging very difficult.
Furthermore, any additive that improves service temperature performance tends to
decrease workability. Alloy cleanliness also has a significant effect on hot forgeability.
Alloy selection is generally directed at optimizing one or more of seven properties:

 Creep strength
 Tensile strength
 Low-cycle fatigue response
 High-cycle fatigue response
 Fracture toughness
 Creep rupture behavior
 Cyclic rupture (creep-fatigue interaction) behavior.
An example of a forged iron-based heat resistance alloy is A286 (AMS 5737). This and
similar alloys are forged with practices similar in many respects to those used for 18-8
austenitic stainless grades. Because they are alloyed with reactive elements such as
titanium, aluminum, boron, or columbium, they respond to solution and aging cycles
similar to the specialty stainless grades.
Cobalt based forging alloys such as L605, Alloy 188 and N-155 continue to be used. S-
816 alloys are still used for exhaust valves on gasoline and diesel engines.
The most widely forged true heat resistant alloys are Ni-Cr-Fe-based, such as alloys 718,
706 and 625. More highly alloyed Ni-Cr-Co based materials like Waspaloy, alloy 41 and
alloy 500, which are very high strength and very difficult to forge, are less widely used.
Forging process for heat resistant alloys are highly refined to control temperatures,

strain rate, strain and alloy condition. These controls are necessary to achieve uniform
critical properties, such as grain size, and other characteristics after heat treatment.
Some "super-superalloys" such as Rene 95, IN 100, Merl 76 and low-carbon Astroloy are
best forged with a more complex process that includes the initial consolidation of
compacted billets of powder, followed by sintering, canning, and then hot extrusion to
develop the starting billets for forging. This P/M (powder metallurgy) route precedes
the use of isothermal or hot die forging process to near-net shapes. These alloys
contain less cobalt and more reactive metals like titanium, aluminum, columbium, or
tungsten. They tend to form stable carbides that improve creep resistance at higher
service temperatures.
Heat resistant alloy forgings and processes are often computer modeled using various
commercial codes. Modeling reduces costly tryout and costly inputs, such as material
and die preparations, prior to tooling and process development. This practice has led to
some remarkable refinements in the forgings processes and quality improvements.
Typical forging grades and nominal compositions are:
IronBasedHeatResistantAlloy
A286 AM5737
Nickel-IronBasedHeatResistantAlloy
Alloy 901 AMS 5660
CobaltBasedHeatResistantAlloys
L605 AMS 5758
188 AMS 5772
N-155 AMS 5769
NickelBasedHeatResistantAlloys

Ni-600 AMS 5665
Ni-625 AMS 5666
Ni-706 AMS 570
Ni-718 AMS 5663
Ni-X750 AMS 5667
Waspaloy AMS 5708
Alloy 41 AMS 5712
Following are nominal compositions for several heat resistant alloys.
AlloyDesignation PrincipalElement Percentcomposition
AL Cb Co Cr Fe Mo Ni Ti W
A286 Iron 0.2 15 54 1 26 2
Stellite Cobalt Bal 30 3 1 23 4
L605 Cobalt 53 20 0 15
S-816 Cobalt Bal. 20 3 4 20
IN 901 Nickel 0.2 4 12 36 6 43 3
Astroloy Nickel 4 17 15 5 55 4
IN 718 Nickel 1 5 19 18 3 52 3
Rene 41 Nickel 2 11 19 1 55 3
Rene 95 Nickel 4 4 8 14 3 61 3 4
Udimet 700 Nickel 4 17 15 5 55 3
Waspaloy Nickel 1 13 19 4 58 3
MERL 76 Nickel 5 18 12 3 59 4 v

II. Role of refractory
Refractory materials have a crucial impact on the cost and quality of steel products. The
diversification on steel products and their cleanliness requirement in recent years have
increased the demand for high quality refractory. Steelmaking requires high temperatures of
the order of 1600 degree centigrade. In addition steelmaking handles high temperature phases
like molten steel, slag and hot gases. These phases are chemically reactive; refractory materials
are required to produces steels. High quality refractory at a cheaper cost is the main
requirement because cost of refractory adds into the cost of product.
What is a refractory?
Refractories are inorganic nonmetallic material which can withstand high temperature without
undergoing physico – chemical changes while remaining in contact with molten slag, metal and
gases. It is necessary to produce range of refractory materials with different properties to meet
range of processing conditions. The refractory range incorporates fired, chemically and carbon
bonded materials that are made in different combinations and shapes for diversified
applications.
Why required?
• To minimize heat losses from the reaction chamber
• To allow thermal energy dependent conversion of chemically reactive reactants into products
because metallic vessels are not suitable.
In steelmaking, the physico- chemical properties of the following phases are important: Slag:
Mixture of acidic and basic inorganic oxides like SiO2, P2O5, CaO, MgO, FeO,etc.; temperature
varies in between 1400℃ to 1600℃.
Molten steel: Iron containing carbon, silicon, manganese, phosphorous, tramp elements, non
metallic inclusions, dissolved gases like nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen and different alloying
elements like Cr,Ni,Nb, Mo, W, Mo etc.; temperature 1600℃ Gases: CO, CO2,N2,Ar containing
solid particles of Fe2O3, Fe3O4 etc.; temperature 1300℃ to 1600℃ . The above phases are
continuously and constantly in contact with each other and are in turbulent motion.
Refractory requirements:
The refractory materials should be able to withstand
• High temperature
• Sudden changes of temperature
• Load at service conditions
• Chemical and abrasive action of phases

The refractory material should not contaminate the material with which it is in contact.
Melting point of some pure compounds used to Manufacture refractory Compounds Melting
point (℃)
MgO (pure sintered) 2800
CaO(limit) 2571
SiC pure 2248
MgO (90-95%) 2193
Cr2O3 2138
Al2O3(pure sintered) 2050
Fireclay 1871
SiO2 1715
Kaolin (Al2O3. SiO2) 1816
Chromite (FeO. Cr2O3) 2182
Properties required in a refractory

The diversified applications of refractory materials in several different types of industries
require diversified properties to meet the physico-chemical and thermal requirements of
different phases. In some industrial units more than one phase are present e.g. in steel-making
vessels slag /metal /gases are simultaneously present in the vessel at high temperatures. In the
heat treating furnaces solid/reducing or oxidizing gases are simultaneously present.
Below are briefly described the properties of the refractory materials:
Refractoriness:
Refractoriness is a property at which a refractory will deform under its own load. The
refractoriness is indicated by PCE (Pyrometric cone equivalent). It should be higher than the
application temperatures. Refractoriness decreases when refractory is under load. Therefore
more important is refractoriness under load (RUL) rather than refractoriness. Porosity and Slag
permeability Porosity affects chemical attack by molten slag, metal and gases. Decrease in
porosity increases strength and thermal
Conductivity:
Strength It is the resistance of the refractory to compressive loads, tension and shear stresses.
In taller furnaces, the refractory has to support a heavy load; hence strength under the
combined effect of temperature and load, i.e. refractoriness under load is important. Specific
gravity Specific gravity of the refractory is important to consider the weight of a brick. Cost of
bricks of higher specific gravity is more that of lower specific gravity. But strength of bricks of
higher specific gravity is greater than one with lower specific gravity.

Spalling:
Spalling relates to fracture of refractory brick which may occur due to the following reasons:
• A temperature gradient in the brick which is caused by sudden heating or cooling.
• Compression in a structure of refractory due to expansion
• Variation in coefficient of thermal expansion between the surface layer and the body of the
brick
• Variation in coefficient of thermal expansion between the surface layer and the body of the
brick is due to slag penetration or due to structural change.
On sudden heating Spalling tendency ∝ coeff . of thermal expansion max m shearing strain
�thermal diffusivity On sudden cooling Spalling tendency ∝ coeff . of thermal expansion max
m tensile strength
�thermal diffusivity Permanent Linear change (PLC) on reheating In materials certain
permanent changes occur during heating and these changes may be due to
• Change in the allotropic form
• Chemical reaction
• Liquid phase formative
• Sintering reactions
PLC(%)linear = Increase /decrease in length original length × 100 PLC%(volume) = Increase
/decrease in volume original volume × 100 These changes determine the volume stability and
expansion and shrinkage of the refractory at high temperatures.
Thermal conductivity Thermal conductivity of the bricks determines heat losses. Increase in
porosity decreases thermal conductivity but at the same time decreases strength also. Bulk
density: Decrease in bulk density increases volume stability, heat capacity. Types of refractory
materials This can be discussed in several ways, for example chemical composition of
refractory or use of refractory or method of manufacture or in terms of physical shape. Below
is given type of refractory depending on its chemical composition and physical shape. A)
Chemical composition
Refractories are composed of either single or multi-component in organic compounds with non
metallic elements. Acid refractory The main raw materials used are SiO2, ZrO2 and alumino-
silicate. They are used where slag and atmosphere are acidic. They cannot be used under basic
conditions. Typical refractories are fireclay, quartz and silica. Basic refractory Raw materials
used are CaO, MgO, dolomite and chrome-magnesite. Basic refractories are produced from a
composition of dead burnt magnesite, dolomite, chrome ore.
a) Magnesite: Chrome combinations have good resistance to chemical action of basic slag and
mechanical strength and volume stability at high temperatures.

b) Magnesite: Carbon refractory with varying amount of carbon has excellent resistance to
chemical attack by steelmaking slags.
c) Chromite- Magnesite refractory: used in inner lining of BOF and side walls of soaking pits.(
basic refractory)
d) Magnesite: Basic refractory in nature.
Magnesite bricks cannot resist thermal stock, loose strength at high temperature and are not
resistant to abrasion. Neutral refractory Neutral refractory is chemically stable to both acids
and bases. They are manufactured from Al2O3, Cr2O3 and carbon.
B) Physical form broadly speaking refractory materials are either bricks or monolithic. Shaped
refractories are in the form the bricks of some standard dimensions. These refractories are
machine pressed and have uniform properties. Special shapes with required dimensions are
hand molded and are used for particular kilns and furnaces.
Different types are:
i. Ramming refractory material is in loose dry form with graded particle size.
They are mixed with water for use. Wet ramming masses are used
immediately on opening.
ii. Castables refractory materials contain binder such as aluminate cement
which imparts hydraulic setting properties when mixed with water. These
materials are installed by casting and are also known as refractory concretes.
iii. Mortars are finely ground refractory materials, which become plastic when
mixed with water. These are used to fill the gap created by a deformed shell,
and to make wall gas tight to prevent slag penetration. Bricks are joined with
mortars to provide a structure.
iv. Plastic refractories are packed in moisture proof packing and pickings are
opened at the time of use.
Plastic refractories have high resistance to corrosion.

Monolithic refractories Monolithic refractories are replacing conventional brick refractories in
steelmaking and other metal extraction industries. Monolithic refractories are loose materials
which can be used to form joint free lining. The main advantages of monolithic linings are
• Grater volume stability
• Better spalling tendency
• Elimination of joint compared with brick lining
• Can be installed in hot standby mode
•Transportation is easier

Monolithic refractories can be installed by casting, spraying etc. Ramming masses are used
mostly in cold condition so that desired shapes can be obtained with accuracy. Insulating
materials The role of insulating materials is to minimize heat losses from the high temperature
reactors. These materials have low thermal conductivity while their heat capacity depends on
the bulk density and specific heat. Insulating materials are porous in structure; excessive heat
affects all insulating materials. Choice of insulating materials would depend upon its
effectiveness to resist heat conductivity and upon temperature. High alumina with thermal
conductivity 0.028 kcal m℃, and silica with thermal conductivity 0.04 kcal m℃ etc are amongst
others, used as insulating materials. Ceramic fibres are important insulating materials and are
produced from molten silica, titania, Zirconia etc in the form of wool, short fibres and long
fibres. They have excellent insulation efficiency. They are long weight.


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AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING – MRCET (UGC – Autonomous)

AIRCRAFT MATERIALS AND PRODUCTION

MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF

II – I B. Tech R15A210 Aircraft Materials & Production Technology By L SUSHMA 1

 To become a model institution in the fields of Engineering, Technology and Management.

 To have a perfect synchronization of the ideologies of MRCET with challenging demands of

International Pioneering Organizations.

MRCET QUALITY POLICY.

 To pursue continual improvement of teaching learning process of Undergraduate and Post

Graduate programs in Engineering & Management vigorously.

II – I B. Tech R15A210 Aircraft Materials & Production Technology By L SUSHMA 2

PROGRAM OUTCOMES (PO’s)

Engineering Graduates will be able to:

1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

II – I B. Tech R15A210 Aircraft Materials & Production Technology By L SUSHMA 3

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

Department of Aeronautical Engineering aims to be indispensable source in Aeronautical

QUALITY POLICY STATEMENT

II – I B. Tech R15A210 Aircraft Materials & Production Technology By L SUSHMA 4

PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES

1. PEO1 (PROFESSIONALISM & CITIZENSHIP): To create and sustain a community of

PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES – Aeronautical Engineering

II – I B. Tech R15A210 Aircraft Materials & Production Technology By L SUSHMA 5

MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

UNIT‐II METALS AND ALLOYS:

UNIT‐III HIGH STRENGTH AND HEAT RESISTANT ALLOYS:

UNIT‐IV COMPOSITE MATERIALS:

UNIT‐V AIRCRAFT MANUFACTURING PROCESSES:

II – I B. Tech R15A210 Aircraft Materials & Production Technology By L SUSHMA 6

SUB: AIRCRAFT MATERIALS AND PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY SEMMESTER – II Year I Sem.

INTRODUCTIO properties of flight vehicle materials and their significant 2

volume fraction, laminated composites 2

II – I B. Tech R15A210 Aircraft Materials & Production Technology By L SUSHMA 7

Profiling, hydro forming, spar milling, spark erosion 3

II – I B. Tech R15A210 Aircraft Materials & Production Technology By L SUSHMA 8

II – I B. Tech R15A210 Aircraft Materials & Production Technology By L SUSHMA 9

Major advances in aerospace technology, particularly jet aircraft, firstgeneration helicopters

II – I B. Tech R15A210 Aircraft Materials & Production Technology By L SUSHMA 10

II – I B. Tech R15A210 Aircraft Materials & Production Technology By L SUSHMA 11

Various Materials used in aircraft construction are:

• The macrostructure of wood consists of several distinct zones that occur

II – I B. Tech R15A210 Aircraft Materials & Production Technology By L SUSHMA 13

II – I B. Tech R15A210 Aircraft Materials & Production Technology By L SUSHMA 14

• Each molecular chain consists of long segments of linear, crystalline cellulose

II. Elements: The elements can be classified as

them can be made to conduct electricity. These semiconductors are extremely

Metals are used in aircraft construction. Metals are classified as

General Information: Ferrous Metals

Material selection for a mechanical or structural application requires some

II – I B. Tech R15A210 Aircraft Materials & Production Technology By L SUSHMA 16

The various properties of materials can be assessed, by accurate laboratory tests on

SOME FERROUS METALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES

NAME ALLOY OF PROPERTIES USES

Tough. High tensile Most common metal used in

Iron, nickel and Tough, resistant to rust

Strong but brittle.

Almost 100% Fibrous, tough, ductile, Ornamental gates and railings.

CARBON CONTENT The carbon content affects the properties. We have

II – I B. Tech R15A210 Aircraft Materials & Production Technology By L SUSHMA 17