Introduction to Nonlinear Control

Lecture # 3

Time-Varying
and
Perturbed Systems

– p. 1/5
Time-varying Systems
ẋ = f (t, x)

f (t, x) is piecewise continuous in t and locally Lipschitz in

x for all t ≥ 0 and all x ∈ D . The origin is an equilibrium
point at t = 0 if
f (t, 0) = 0, ∀ t ≥ 0

While the solution of the autonomous system

ẋ = f (x), x(t0 ) = x0

depends only on (t − t0 ), the solution of

ẋ = f (t, x), x(t0 ) = x0

may depend on both t and t0

– p. 2/5
Comparison Functions
A scalar continuous function α(r), defined for r ∈ [0, a)
is said to belong to class K if it is strictly increasing and
α(0) = 0. It is said to belong to class K∞ if it defined
for all r ≥ 0 and α(r) → ∞ as r → ∞

A scalar continuous function β(r, s), defined for

r ∈ [0, a) and s ∈ [0, ∞) is said to belong to class KL
if, for each fixed s, the mapping β(r, s) belongs to class
K with respect to r and, for each fixed r , the mapping
β(r, s) is decreasing with respect to s and β(r, s) → 0
as s → ∞

– p. 3/5
Example
α(r) = tan−1 (r) is strictly increasing since
α′ (r) = 1/(1 + r 2 ) > 0. It belongs to class K, but not
to class K∞ since limr→∞ α(r) = π/2 < ∞

α(r) = r c , for any positive real number c, is strictly

increasing since α′ (r) = cr c−1 > 0. Moreover,
limr→∞ α(r) = ∞; thus, it belongs to class K∞

α(r) = min{r, r 2 } is continuous, strictly increasing,

and limr→∞ α(r) = ∞. Hence, it belongs to class K∞

– p. 4/5
β(r, s) = r/(ksr + 1), for any positive real number k,
is strictly increasing in r since
∂β 1
= >0
∂r (ksr + 1)2

and strictly decreasing in s since

∂β −kr 2
= <0
∂s (ksr + 1)2

Moreover, β(r, s) → 0 as s → ∞. Therefore, it belongs

to class KL

β(r, s) = r c e−s , for any positive real number c, belongs

to class KL
– p. 5/5
Definition: The equilibrium point x = 0 of ẋ = f (t, x) is
uniformly stable if there exist a class K function α and a
positive constant c, independent of t0 , such that

kx(t)k ≤ α(kx(t0 )k), ∀ t ≥ t0 ≥ 0, ∀ kx(t0 )k < c

uniformly asymptotically stable if there exist a class KL

function β and a positive constant c, independent of t0 ,
such that

kx(t)k ≤ β(kx(t0 )k, t−t0 ), ∀ t ≥ t0 ≥ 0, ∀ kx(t0 )k < c

globally uniformly asymptotically stable if the foregoing

inequality is satisfied for any initial state x(t0 )

– p. 6/5
exponentially stable if there exist positive constants c,
k, and λ such that

kx(t)k ≤ kkx(t0 )ke−λ(t−t0 ) , ∀ kx(t0 )k < c

globally exponentially stable if the foregoing inequality

is satisfied for any initial state x(t0 )

– p. 7/5
Theorem: Let the origin x = 0 be an equilibrium point for
ẋ = f (t, x) and D ⊂ Rn be a domain containing x = 0.
Suppose f (t, x) is piecewise continuous in t and locally
Lipschitz in x for all t ≥ 0 and x ∈ D . Let V (t, x) be a
continuously differentiable function such that

(1) W1 (x) ≤ V (t, x) ≤ W2 (x)

∂V ∂V
(2) + f (t, x) ≤ 0
∂t ∂x
for all t ≥ 0 and x ∈ D , where W1 (x) and W2 (x) are
continuous positive definite functions on D . Then, the origin
is uniformly stable

– p. 8/5
Theorem: Suppose the assumptions of the previous
theorem are satisfied with
∂V ∂V
+ f (t, x) ≤ −W3 (x)
∂t ∂x
for all t ≥ 0 and x ∈ D , where W3 (x) is a continuous
positive definite function on D . Then, the origin is uniformly
asymptotically stable. Moreover, if r and c are chosen such
that Br = {kxk ≤ r} ⊂ D and c < minkxk=r W1 (x), then
every trajectory starting in {x ∈ Br | W2 (x) ≤ c} satisfies
kx(t)k ≤ β(kx(t0 )k, t − t0 ), ∀ t ≥ t0 ≥ 0

for some class KL function β . Finally, if D = Rn and

W1 (x) is radially unbounded, then the origin is globally
uniformly asymptotically stable
– p. 9/5
Theorem: Suppose the assumptions of the previous
theorem are satisfied with

k1 kxka ≤ V (t, x) ≤ k2 kxka

∂V ∂V
+ f (t, x) ≤ −k3 kxka
∂t ∂x
for all t ≥ 0 and x ∈ D , where k1 , k2 , k3 , and a are
positive constants. Then, the origin is exponentially stable.
If the assumptions hold globally, the origin will be globally
exponentially stable.

– p. 10/5
Example:

ẋ = −[1 + g(t)]x3 , g(t) ≥ 0, ∀ t ≥ 0

V (x) = 12 x2

V̇ (t, x) = −[1 + g(t)]x4 ≤ −x4 , ∀ x ∈ R, ∀ t ≥ 0

The origin is globally uniformly asymptotically stable

Example:
ẋ1 = −x1 − g(t)x2
ẋ2 = x1 − x2
0 ≤ g(t) ≤ k and ġ(t) ≤ g(t), ∀ t ≥ 0

– p. 11/5
 V (t, x) = x21 + [1 + g(t)]x22

x21 + x22 ≤ V (t, x) ≤ x21 + (1 + k)x22 , ∀ x ∈ R2

V̇ (t, x) = −2x21 + 2x1 x2 − [2 + 2g(t) − ġ(t)]x22

2 + 2g(t) − ġ(t) ≥ 2 + 2g(t) − g(t) ≥ 2
" #
2 2 T 2 −1
V̇ (t, x) ≤ −2x1 + 2x1 x2 − 2x2 = − x x
−1 2
The origin is globally exponentially stable

– p. 12/5
Perturbed Systems

Nominal System: ẋ = f (x), f (0) = 0

Perturbed System: ẋ = f (x) + g(t, x), g(t, 0) = 0

Case 1: The origin of the nominal system is exponentially

stable
∂V

2 2
c1 kxk ≤ V (x) ≤ c2 kxk , ≤ c4 kxk
∂x

∂V
f (x) ≤ −c3 kxk2
∂x

– p. 13/5
Use V (x) as a Lyapunov function candidate for the
perturbed system
∂V ∂V
V̇ (t, x) = f (x) + g(t, x)
∂x ∂x
Assume that

kg(t, x)k ≤ γkxk, γ≥0

∂V

2
∂x kg(t, x)k
V̇ (t, x) ≤ −c3 kxk +

≤ −c3 kxk2 + c4 γkxk2

– p. 14/5
 c3
γ<
c4

V̇ (t, x) ≤ −(c3 − γc4 )kxk2

The origin is an exponentially stable equilibrium point of the
perturbed system

– p. 15/5
Example

ẋ1 = x2
ẋ2 = −4x1 − 2x2 + βx32 , β≥0

ẋ = Ax + g(x)
" # " #
0 1 0
A= , g(x) =
−4 −2 βx32
√
The eigenvalues of A are −1 ± j 3
3 1
 
2 8
P A + AT P = −I ⇒ P = 
 

1 5
8 16

– p. 16/5
 T ∂V
V (x) = x P x, Ax = −xT x
∂x
c3 = 1, c4 = 2 kP k = 2λmax (P ) = 2 × 1.513 = 3.026
kg(x)k = β|x2 |3
g(x) satisfies the bound kg(x)k ≤ γkxk over compact sets
of x. Consider the compact set

Ωc = {V (x) ≤ c} = {xT P x ≤ c}, c>0

k2 = max |x2 | ⇒ |x32 | ≤ k22 |x2 |

xT P x≤c

– p. 17/5
 √
k2 = max |[0 1]x| = max c|[0 1]P −1/2 y|
xT P x≤c y T y≤c
√ −1/2 √
= ck[0 1]P k = 1.8194 c

kg(x)k ≤ β c (1.8194)2 kxk, ∀ x ∈ Ωc

kg(x)k ≤ γkxk, ∀ x ∈ Ωc , γ = β c (1.8194)2
c3 1 0.1
γ< ⇔ β< ≈
c4 3.026 × (1.8194)2 c c

β < 0.1/c ⇒ V̇ (x) ≤ −(1 − 10βc)kxk2

Hence, the origin is exponentially stable and Ωc is an
estimate of the region of attraction

– p. 18/5
Alternative Bound on β

V̇ (x) = −kxk2 + 2xT P g(x)

≤ −kxk2 + 18 βx32 ([2 5]x)
√
29
≤ −kxk2 + 8
βx2
2 kxk 2

Over Ωc , x22 ≤ (1.8194)2 c

 √ 
V̇ (x) ≤ − 1 − 829 β(1.8194)2 c kxk2
βc
 
= − 1− kxk2
0.448

If β < 0.448/c, the origin will be exponentially stable and

Ωc will be an estimate of the region of attraction

– p. 19/5
Remark: The inequality β < 0.448/c shows a tradeoff
between the estimate of the region of attraction and the
estimate of the upper bound on β

– p. 20/5
Application to Linearization

ẋ = f (x) = [A + G(x)]x

∂f


A= (x) , G(x) → 0 as x → 0
∂x x=0
Theorem: The origin of ẋ = f (x) is exponentially stable if
and only if A is Hurwitz

– p. 21/5
Proof Of sufficiency: Suppose A is Hurwitz. Choose
Q = QT > 0 and solve the Lyapunov equation
P A + AT P = −Q for P

Use V (x) = xT P x as a Lyapunov function candidate for

ẋ = f (x)

V̇ (x) = xT P f (x) + f T (x)P x

= xT P [A + G(x)]x + xT [AT + GT (x)]P x
= xT (P A + AT P )x + 2xT P G(x)x
= −xT Qx + 2xT P G(x)x

– p. 22/5
 V̇ (x) ≤ −xT Qx + 2kP k kG(x)k kxk2

For any γ > 0, there exists r > 0 such that

kG(x)k < γ, ∀ kxk < r

xT Qx ≥ λmin (Q)kxk2 ⇔ −xT Qx ≤ −λmin (Q)kxk2

V̇ (x) < −[λmin (Q) − 2γkP k]kxk2 , ∀ kxk < r

Choose
λmin (Q)
γ<
2kP k
The origin of ẋ = f (x) is exponentially stable

– p. 23/5
Proof of Necessity: Suppose the origin of ẋ = f (x) is
exponentially stable. View the system

ẋ = Ax = f (x) − G(x)x

as a perturbation of ẋ = f (x). Recall that

kG(x)k < γ, ∀ kxk < r

Because the origin of ẋ = f (x) is exponentially stable, let

V (x) be the function provided by the converse Lyapunov
theorem over a domain {kxk < r0 }. Use V (x) as a
Lyapunov function candidate for ẋ = Ax.

– p. 24/5
In the domain {kxk < min{r0 , r}}, we have
∂V ∂V ∂V
Ax = f (x) − G(x)x
∂x ∂x ∂x
≤ −c3 kxk2 + c4 γkxk2
= −(c3 − c4 γ)kxk2

Take γ < c3 /c4 , and set λ = (c3 − c4 L) > 0 ⇒

∂V
Ax ≤ −λkxk2 , ∀ kxk < min{r0 , r}
∂x
The origin of ẋ = Ax is exponentially stable

– p. 25/5
Case 2: The origin of the nominal system is asymptotically
stable
∂V ∂V ∂V


V̇ (t, x) = f (x)+ g(t, x) ≤ −W3 (x)+ g(t, x)
∂x ∂x ∂x

Under what condition will the following inequality hold?

∂V



∂x g(t, x) < W3 (x)

Special Case: Quadratic-Type Lyapunov function

∂V ∂V

2
f (x) ≤ −c3 φ (x), ≤ c4 φ(x)
∂x ∂x

– p. 26/5
V̇ (t, x) ≤ −c3 φ2 (x) + c4 φ(x)kg(t, x)k
c3
If kg(t, x)k ≤ γφ(x), with γ <
c4
V̇ (t, x) ≤ −(c3 − c4 γ)φ2 (x)

– p. 27/5
Example
ẋ = −x3 + g(t, x)
V (x) = x4 is a quadratic-type Lyapunov function for the
nominal system ẋ = −x3
∂V  ∂V 
 
3 6  = 4|x|3
(−x ) = −4x , 
∂x ∂x 

φ(x) = |x|3 , c3 = 4, c4 = 4
Suppose |g(t, x)| ≤ γ|x|3 , ∀ x, with γ < 1
V̇ (t, x) ≤ −4(1 − γ)φ2 (x)
Hence, the origin is a globally uniformly asymptotically
stable
– p. 28/5
Remark: A nominal system with asymptotically, but not
exponentially, stable origin is not robust to smooth
perturbations with arbitrarily small linear growth bounds

Example
ẋ = −x3 + γx
The origin is unstable for any γ > 0

– p. 29/5
 Ultimate Boundedness

Definition: The solutions of ẋ = f (t, x) are

uniformly bounded if ∃ c > 0 and for every
0 < a < c, ∃ β = β(a) > 0 such that

kx(t0 )k ≤ a ⇒ kx(t)k ≤ β, ∀ t ≥ t0 ≥ 0

uniformly ultimately bounded with ultimate bound b if

∃ b and c and for every 0 < a < c, ∃ T = T (a, b) ≥ 0
such that

kx(t0 )k ≤ a ⇒ kx(t)k ≤ b, ∀ t ≥ t0 + T

“Globally” if a can be arbitrarily large

Drop “uniformly” if ẋ = f (x)

– p. 30/5
Lyapunov Analysis: Let V (x) be a cont. diff. positive
definite function and suppose that the sets

Ωc = {V (x) ≤ c}, Ωε = {V (x) ≤ ε}, Λ = {ε ≤ V (x) ≤ c}

are compact for some c > ε > 0

Ωε
Ωc

– p. 31/5
Suppose
∂V
V̇ (t, x) = f (t, x) ≤ −W3 (x), ∀ x ∈ Λ, ∀ t ≥ 0
∂x
W3 (x) is continuous and positive definite

Ωc and Ωε are positively invariant

k = min W3 (x) > 0

x∈Λ

V̇ (t, x) ≤ −k, ∀ x ∈ Λ, ∀ t ≥ t0 ≥ 0
V (x(t)) ≤ V (x(t0 )) − k(t − t0 ) ≤ c − k(t − t0 )
x(t) enters the set Ωε within the interval [t0 , t0 + (c − ε)/k]

– p. 32/5
Suppose

V̇ (t, x) ≤ −W3 (x), ∀ µ ≤ kxk ≤ r, ∀ t ≥ 0

Choose c and ε such that Λ ⊂ {µ ≤ kxk ≤ r}

Bµ

Ωε
Ωc
Br

– p. 33/5
Let α1 and α2 be class K functions such that

α1 (kxk) ≤ V (x) ≤ α2 (kxk)

V (x) ≤ c ⇒ α1 (kxk) ≤ c ⇔ kxk ≤ α−1

1 (c)

c = α1 (r) ⇒ Ωc ⊂ Br
kxk ≤ µ ⇒ V (x) ≤ α2 (µ)
ε = α2 (µ) ⇒ Bµ ⊂ Ωε
What is the ultimate bound?

V (x) ≤ ε ⇒ α1 (kxk) ≤ ε ⇔ kxk ≤ α−1

1 (ε) = α−1
1 (α2 (µ))

– p. 34/5
Theorem (special case of Thm 4.18): Suppose

α1 (kxk) ≤ V (x) ≤ α2 (kxk)

∂V
f (t, x) ≤ −W3 (x), ∀ kxk ≥ µ > 0
∂x
∀ t ≥ 0 and kxk ≤ r , where α1 , α2 ∈ K, W3 (x) is
continuous & positive definite, and µ < α−12 (α1 (r)). Then,
for every initial state x(t0 ) ∈ {kxk ≤ α−1
2 (α1 (r))}, there is
T ≥ 0 (dependent on x(t0 ) and µ) such that

kx(t)k ≤ α−1
1 (α2 (µ)), ∀ t ≥ t0 + T

If the assumptions hold globally and α1 ∈ K∞ , then the

conclusion holds for any initial state x(t0 )
– p. 35/5
Remarks:
The ultimate bound is independent of the initial state

The ultimate bound is a class K function of µ; hence,

the smaller the value of µ, the smaller the ultimate
bound. As µ → 0, the ultimate bound approaches zero

– p. 36/5
Example

ẋ1 = x2 , ẋ2 = −(1 + x21 )x1 − x2 + M cos ωt, M ≥0

With M = 0, ẋ2 = −(1 + x21 )x1 − x2 = −h(x1 ) − x2

1 1
 
2 2 Z x1
V (x) = xT  x + 2 (y + y 3
) dy (Example 4.5)
 

1 0
2 1
3 1
 
2 2
1 4 def T 1 4
V (x) = xT  x + x = x P x + 2 x1
 
 2 1
1
2
1

– p. 37/5
 λmin (P )kxk2 ≤ V (x) ≤ λmax (P )kxk2 + 12 kxk4

α1 (r) = λmin (P )r 2 , α2 (r) = λmax (P )r 2 + 12 r 4

V̇ = −x21 − x41 − x22 + (x1 + 2x2 )M cos ωt

2 4
√
≤ −kxk − x1 + M 5kxk
2 4 2
√
= −(1 − θ)kxk − x1 − θkxk + M 5kxk
(0 < θ < 1)
2 4
√ def
≤ −(1 − θ)kxk − x1 , ∀ kxk ≥ M 5/θ = µ

The solutions are GUUB by

s
−1 λmax (P )µ2 + µ4 /2
b = α1 (α2 (µ)) =
λmin (P )

– p. 38/5
 Perturbed Systems: Nonvanishing Perturbation

Nominal System:

ẋ = f (x), f (0) = 0

Perturbed System:

ẋ = f (x) + g(t, x), g(t, 0) 6= 0

Case 1: The origin of ẋ = f (x) is exponentially stable

c1 kxk2 ≤ V (x) ≤ c2 kxk2

∂V ∂V

2

f (x) ≤ −c3 kxk , ≤ c4 kxk
∂x ∂x

∀ x ∈ Br = {kxk ≤ r}

– p. 39/5
Use V (x) to investigate ultimate boundedness of the
perturbed system
∂V ∂V
V̇ (t, x) = f (x) + g(t, x)
∂x ∂x
Assume
kg(t, x)k ≤ δ, ∀ t ≥ 0, x ∈ Br

V̇ (t, x) ≤ −c3 kxk2 + ∂V kg(t, x)k

∂x
≤ −c3 kxk2 + c4 δkxk
= −(1 − θ)c3 kxk2 − θc3 kxk2 + c4 δkxk
0<θ<1
def
≤ −(1 − θ)c3 kxk2 , ∀ kxk ≥ δc4 /(θc3 ) = µ

– p. 40/5
Apply Theorem 4.18
c1
r
kx(t0 )k ≤ α−1
2 (α1 (r)) ⇔ kx(t0 )k ≤ r
c2

δc4 c1 c3 c1
r r
µ< α−1
2 (α1 (r)) ⇔ <r ⇔ δ< θr
θc3 c2 c4 c2
c2 δc4 c2
r r
−1
b = α1 (α2 (µ)) ⇔ b = µ ⇔ b=
c1 θc3 c1
p
For all kx(t0 )k ≤ r c1 /c2 , the solutions of the perturbed
system are ultimately bounded by b

– p. 41/5
Example

ẋ1 = x2 , ẋ2 = −4x1 − 2x2 + βx32 + d(t)

β ≥ 0, |d(t)| ≤ δ, ∀ t ≥ 0
3 1
 
2 8
T T
V (x) = x P x = x  x
 
1 5
8 16

2 1 5 2
2βx22


V̇ (t, x) = −kxk + 8 x1 x2 + 16 x2
1 5


+ 2d(t) x +
8 1
x
16 2
√ √
2 29 29δ
≤ −kxk + βk22 kxk2 + kxk
8 8
– p. 42/5
 √
k2 = max |x2 | = 1.8194 c
xT P x≤c

√
Suppose β ≤ 8(1 − ζ)/( 29k22 ) (0 < ζ < 1)
√
29δ
V̇ (t, x) ≤ −ζkxk2 + 8
kxk
√
29δ def
≤ −(1 − θ)ζkxk2 , ∀ kxk ≥ 8ζθ
= µ
(0 < θ < 1)
If µ2 λmax (P ) < c, then all solutions of the perturbed
system, starting in Ωc , are uniformly ultimately bounded by
√ s
29δ λmax (P )
b=
8ζθ λmin (P )

– p. 43/5
Case 2: The origin of ẋ = f (x) is asymptotically stable

α1 (kxk) ≤ V (x) ≤ α2 (kxk)

∂V ∂V

f (x) ≤ −α3 (kxk), ≤k
∂x ∂x

∀ x ∈ Br = {kxk ≤ r}, αi ∈ K, i = 1, 2, 3

V̇ (t, x) ≤ −α3 (kxk) + ∂V
∂x kg(t, x)k

≤ −α3 (kxk) + δk
≤ −(1 − θ)α3 (kxk) − θα3 (kxk) + δk
0<θ<1
−1 δk def
 
≤ −(1 − θ)α3 (kxk), ∀ kxk ≥ α3 θ
= µ

– p. 44/5
Apply Theorem 4.18
δk
 
µ< α−1
2 (α1 (r)) ⇔ α−1
3 < α−1
2 (α1 (r))
θ

θα3 (α−1
2 (α1 (r))) c3 c1
r
⇔ δ< Compare with δ < θr
k c4 c2
Example
x
ẋ = −
1 + x2
∂V x 4x4
 
V (x) = x4 ⇒ − 2
=−
∂x 1+x 1 + x2
4|x|4
α1 (|x|) = α2 (|x|) = |x|4 ; α3 (|x|) = 2
; k = 4r 3
1 + |x|
– p. 45/5
The origin is globally asymptotically stable

θα3 (α−1
2 (α1 (r))) θα3 (r) rθ
= =
k k 1 + r2
rθ
→ 0 as r → ∞
1+ r2
x
ẋ = − + δ, δ>0
1+ x2
1
δ> 2 ⇒ lim x(t) = ∞
t→∞

– p. 46/5
 Input-to-State Stability (ISS)

Definition: The system ẋ = f (x, u) is input-to-state stable if

there exist β ∈ KL and γ ∈ K such that for any initial state
x(t0 ) and any bounded input u(t)
!
kx(t)k ≤ β(kx(t0 )k, t − t0 ) + γ sup ku(τ )k
t0 ≤τ ≤t

ISS of ẋ = f (x, u) implies

BIBS stability

x(t) is ultimately bounded by a class K function of

supt≥t0 ku(t)k

limt→∞ u(t) = 0 ⇒ limt→∞ x(t) = 0

The origin of ẋ = f (x, 0) is GAS

– p. 47/5
Theorem (Special case of Thm 4.19): Let V (x) be a
continuously differentiable function such that

α1 (kxk) ≤ V (x) ≤ α2 (kxk)

∂V
f (x, u) ≤ −W3 (x), ∀ kxk ≥ ρ(kuk) > 0
∂x
∀ x ∈ Rn , u ∈ Rm , where α1 , α2 ∈ K∞ , ρ ∈ K, and
W3 (x) is a continuous positive definite function. Then, the
system ẋ = f (x, u) is ISS with γ = α−11 ◦ α2 ◦ ρ

Proof: Let µ = ρ(supτ ≥t0 ku(τ )k); then

∂V
f (x, u) ≤ −W3 (x), ∀ kxk ≥ µ
∂x
– p. 48/5
Choose ε and c such that
∂V
f (x, u) ≤ −W3 (x), ∀ x ∈ Λ = {ε ≤ V (x) ≤ c}
∂x
Suppose x(t0 ) ∈ Λ and x(t) reaches Ωε at t = t0 + T . For
t0 ≤ t ≤ t0 + T , V satisfies the conditions for the uniform
asymptotic stability. Therefore, the trajectory behaves as if
the origin was uniformly asymptotically stable and satisfies

kx(t)k ≤ β(kx(t0 )k, t − t0 ), for some β ∈ KL

For t ≥ t0 + T ,

kx(t)k ≤ α−1
1 (α2 (µ))

– p. 49/5
 kx(t)k ≤ β(kx(t0 )k, t − t0 ) + α−1
1 (α2 (µ)), ∀ t ≥ t0

!
kx(t)k ≤ β(kx(t0 )k, t − t0 ) + γ sup ku(τ )k , ∀ t ≥ t0
τ ≥t0

Since x(t) depends only on u(τ ) for t0 ≤ τ ≤ t, the

supremum on the right-hand side can be taken over [t0 , t]

– p. 50/5
Example
ẋ = −x3 + u
The origin of ẋ = −x3 is globally asymptotically stable
V = 12 x2

V̇ = −x4 + xu
= −(1 − θ)x4 − θx4 + xu
 1/3
≤ −(1 − θ)x4 , ∀ |x| ≥ |u|
θ
0<θ<1
The system is ISS with

γ(r) = (r/θ)1/3

– p. 51/5
Example
ẋ = −x − 2x3 + (1 + x2 )u2
The origin of ẋ = −x − 2x3 is globally exponentially stable
V = 12 x2

V̇ = −x2 − 2x4 + x(1 + x2 )u2

= x4 − x2 (1 + x2 ) + x(1 + x2 )u2
≤ −x4 , ∀ |x| ≥ u2
The system is ISS with γ(r) = r 2

– p. 52/5
Example

ẋ1 = −x1 + x22 , ẋ2 = −x2 + u

Investigate GAS of ẋ1 = −x1 + x22 , ẋ2 = −x2

V (x) = 12 x21 + 14 x42

1 2 2 1
−x21 x1 x22 x42 x42


V̇ = + − = −(x1 − 2 x2 ) − 1− 4

Now u 6= 0, V̇ = − 12 (x1 − x22 )2 − 12 (x21 + x42 ) + x32 u

≤ − 12 (x21 + x42 ) + |x2 |3 |u|

V̇ ≤ − 12 (1 − θ)(x21 + x42 ) − 12 θ(x21 + x42 ) + |x2 |3 |u|

(0 < θ < 1)

– p. 53/5
 − 12 θ(x21 + x42 ) + |x2 |3 |u| ≤ 0
2
2|u| 2|u| 2|u|

if |x2 | ≥ or |x2 | ≤ and |x1 | ≥
θ θ θ
s
2
2|u| 2|u|

if kxk ≥ 1+
θ θ
s
2
2r 2r

ρ(r) = 1+
θ θ

V̇ ≤ − 12 (1 − θ)(x21 + x42 ), ∀ kxk ≥ ρ(|u|)

The system is ISS

– p. 54/5