Plane Trigonometry

This is a reproduction of a library book that was digitized
by Google as part of an ongoing effort to preserve the

information in books and make it universally accessible.
https://books.google.com
V "i
• J
PLANE
TEIGONOMETEY.
Sonbon: C. J. CLAY and SONS,
CAMBKIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS WAREHOUSE,
AVE MARIA LANE,
ffilaagoto: 263, ARGYLE STREET.
leipjia: F. A. BROCKHAUS.
Ditto Hottt: MACMILLAN AND CO.
4- ;>
PLANE
TKIGONOMETKY
BY
s. l:"loney, M.A.
LATE FELLOW OP SIDNEY SUSSEX COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE,
PROFESSOR AT THE ROYAL HOLLOWAY COLLEGE.
SECOND EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED.
CAMBRIDGE :
AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
1895
[All Rights reserved.]

Cambridge :
PRINTED BY J. & C. ¥. CLAY,
AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
PREFACE.
nnHE following work will, I hope, be found to be a

fairly complete elementary text-book on Plane Trigo
nometry, suitable for Schools and the Pass and Junior
Honour classes of Universities. In the higher portion of
the book I have endeavoured to present to the student,
as simply as possible, the modern treatment of complex
quantities, and I hope it will be found that he will have
little to unlearn when he commences to read treatises of
a more difficult character.
As Trigonometry consists largely of formulae and the
applications thereof, I have prefixed a list of the principal
formulae which the student should commit to memory.
These more important formulae are distinguished in the
text by the use of thick type. Other formulas are sub
sidiary and of less importance.
The number of examples is very large. A selection
only should be solved by the student on a first reading.
vi PREFACE.
On a first reading also the articles marked with an

asterisk should be omitted.
Considerable attention has been paid to the printing
of the book and I am under great obligation to the
Syndics of the Press for their liberality in this matter,
and to the officers and workmen of the Press for the
trouble they have taken.
I am indebted to Mr W. J. Dobbs, B.A., late Scholar
of St John's College, for his kindness in reading and
correcting the proof-sheets and for many valuable sug
gestions.
For any corrections and suggestions for improvement
I shall be thankful.
S. L. LONEY.
Royal Holloway College,
Eoham, Surrey. /
September 12, 1893.
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.
The Second Edition has been carefully revised, and it

is hoped that few serious mistakes remain either in the
text or the answers.
Some changes have been made in the chapters on
logarithms and logarithmic tables, and an additional
chapter has been added on Projections.
• April 25, 1895.
CONTENTS.
PART I.
CHAP. PAGE
I. Measurement of angles. Sexagesimal and Centesimal
Measure 1
Circular, or Radian, Measure 5
II. Trigonometrical Ratios for angles less than a right
angle . 19
Values for angles of 45°, 30°, 60°, 90°, and 0° . . 32
III. Simple problems in Heights and Distances . . 40
IV. Applications of algebraic signs to Trigonometry . 47
Tracing the changes in the ratios .... 52
V. Trigonometrical ratios of angles of any size. Ratios
for -6, 90°-0, 90° + 0, 64
VI. General expressions for all angles having a given
trigonometrical ratio 76
VII. Ratios of the sum and difference of two angles . 87
Product Formulée 93
VIII. Ratios of multiple and submultiple angles . . 105
Explanation of ambiguities 114
Angles of 18°, 36°, and 9° 126
IX. Identities and trigonometrical equations . . 131
X. Logarithms . . . . . . . 146
Tables of logarithms 152
viii CONTENTS.
CHAP. PAGE
XI. Principle of Proportional Parts . . . . 159
XII. Sides and Angles of a triangle 174
XIII. Solution of triangles 189
Given two sides and the included angle . . . 195
Ambiguous Case 201
XIV. Heights and Distances 211
XV. Properties of a triangle 228
The circles connected with a triangle . . . 230
Orthocentre and Pedal triangle .... 238
Centroid and Medians 241
XVI. Quadrilaterals 251
Regular Polygons 257
XVII. Trigonometrical ratios of small angles.
sin0<0<tanfl .... 262
Area of a Circle 268
Dip of the horizon 270
XVIII. Inverse circular functions 273
XIX. Some simple trigonometrical Series . . . 282
XX. Elimination 290
XXI. Projections 295
PART II.
Analytical Trigonometry.
CHAP. PAGE
I. Exponential and Logarithmic Series ... 1
Logarithms to base e 7
Two important limits 11
II. Complex quantities 17
De Moivre's Theorem 20
Binomial Theorem for complex quantities ... 30
CONTENTS. ix
CHAP. PAGE
III. Expansions of sin n8, cos n8, and tan nd . . . 32
Expansions of sin a and cos a in a series of ascending
powers of a 37
Sines and Cosines of small angles .... 40
Approximation to the root of an equation . . . 41
Evaluation of indeterminate quantities ... 43
IV. Expansions of cos" 6 and sin" 8 in cosines or sines of
multiples of 8 54
Expansions of sin n6 and cos nd in series of descend
ing and ascending powers of sin 8 and cos 8 . 60
V. Exponential Series for Complex Quantities ... 74
Circular functions of complex angles ... 77
Euler's exponential values 78
Hyperbolic Functions 80
Inverse Circular and Hyperbolic Functions ... 88
VI. Logarithms of complex quantities .... 93
Value of ax when a and x are complex .... 100
VII. Gregory's Series 106
Calculation of the value of it 109
VIII. Summation of Series ... ... 114
Expansions in Series 126
IX. Factors of x^-Zx" cos n8+l 133
Factors of x* - 1 and xn + 1 139
Resolution of sin 6 and cos 8 into factors . . . 147
sinh 8 and cosh 8 in products 152
X. Principle of Proportional Parts .... 162
XI. Errors of observation 171
XII. Miscellaneous Propositions 178
Solution of a Cubic Equation 178
Maximum and Minimum Values . . . . 180
Geometrical representation of complex quantities . 182
Miscellaneous Examples 188
Answers. Part I i—xvi
„ Part II i—x
THE PRINCIPAL FORMULA IN
TRIGONOMETRY.
PART I.
I. Circumference of a circle = 2jit. (Art. 12.)

[22 355T
Approximations are y- and . (Art. 13.)
A Radian = 57° 1 7' 44-8" nearly. (Art. 16.) -
Two right angles = 1 80° = 200s = tt radians. (Art. 19.)
Angle = x Radian. (Art. 21.)
II. vsin'tf + cos!tf = l;

W.0 = l + tana0;
teosec2 6 = 1 + cota e. (Art. 27. )
III. sinO° = 0; cosO" = l. (Art. 36.)

sin 30" = I ; cos 30° = ^~ . (Art. 34.)
sin 45° = cos 45° = \- . (Art. 33. )
sin 60° = Y~ ; cos 60° = \ . (Art. 35.)

sin 90° = 1 ; cos 90° = 0. (Art. 37.)
sin 15° = ; cos 15° = . (Art. 106.)
sin 18° = "^-^j cos 36° = (Arts. 120, 121.)

THE PRINCIPAL FORMULA IN TRIGONOMETRY. XI
IV. sin (- 6) = - sin 6 ; cos (- 6) = cos ft (Art. 68.)
sin (90° - 6) = cos 6 ; cos (90° - 6) = sin 0. (Art. 69.)
sin (90° + 6) = cos 6 ; cos (90° + 6) = - sin A (Art. 70.)
sin (180° - 6) = sin 0 ; cos (180° - 0) = - cos ft (Art. 72.)
sin (180° + 6) = - sin 6 ; cos (1 80° + 0) = - cos ft (Art. 73.)
V- If sin 0 = sin a, then $ = nir + (- l)"a. (Art. 82.)

1 1 If cos 6 = cos a, then 0 = 2rMr * a. \ (Art. 83.)
If tan 0 = tan a, then 6 = nir + a. ! (Art. 84.)
VI. sin (.4 + B) = sin A cos B + cos .4 sin B.

cos (.4 + B) = cos .4 cos B - sin 4 sin B. (Art. 88.)
sin (A - B) = sin .4 cos 2? — cos A sin 5.
cos (A — B) = cos .4 cos i? 4 sin .4 sin jB. (Art. 90.)
sin C + sin Z> = 2 sin —5— cos —¡.— .
sin (7 — sin ü - i cos —-— sin —^— .

. _ „ G+D C-D
cos C + cos D = 2 cos -5- cos —-— .
C+D C—D
cos Z> -r cos C = 2 sin —^— sin —¿r— . (Art. 94.)
2 sin .4 cos .5 = sin (A + B) + sin (.4 - B).

2 cos A sin i? = sin (A + B)- sin (.4 - B).
2 cos .4 cos B = cos (.4 + B) + cos (.4 - E).
2 sin v4 sin B = cos (4 - B) - cos (.4 + 5). (Art. 97 . )
XU THE PRINCIPAL FORMULA IN TRIGONOMETRY.
, . _. tan A + tan В
,-
= 1 + tan A tan Б v
sin 2.4 = 2 sin .4 eos 4.

eos 2A = eos2 Л - sinM = 1 - 2 sin2 Л = 2 eos2 A - 1. (Art. 105).
. 2 tan Л „il- tana .4 . , . . nn .
sm 24 = ; cos 24 = • (^ 109->
(Arfc-105->
sin ЗЛ = 3 sin Л - 4 sin3 A.
cos 3.4 = 4 cos3 4 — 3.COS A.
., , 3 tan Л - tan3 А
. (Art. 110.)
2 sin - = ± Vi + sin A * s/l - sin Л.

^ _ .__
2 cos -j; = * \/l + sin А т V l — sin A.
2t
VII. log„ mn = loga m + log„ и.
loga mn = и loga m. (Art. 136.)

loga '"* = l°gi> "* x l°g« k (Art. 147.)
THE PRINCIPAL FORMULAE IN TRIGONOMETRY. X1U
VIII. sm^ = sin£ = sinC

a 6 c v '
cos 4 = - -fife a )••• (Art. 164.)
A
. ^?-£n*mJG=!!g=£, (Art. 165.)
■
cos^y^B, (Art. 166.)
2
sin .4 = (« -a)(«- 6) (s - c), . . . (Art. 169.)
a = 6 cos C + ccosB (Art. 170.)
tan^=^cot|, (Art. 171.)
S = Js (s - a) (s - b) (8 — c) = \ be sin .4 =\ ca sin ab sin C.

Jt M M
(Art. 198.)
IX. * = 2 sin .4 2 sin 2? 2 sin £7 -£J?.
45 (Arts.
v 200, 201.)'
r = - = (s-a) tan ^ = ... = ... (Arts. 202, 203.)
r, = = s tan ^ . (Arts. 205, 206. )

a-a 2
Area of a quadrilateral inscribable in a circle

= J (s-a)(s-b)(s-c)(s-d). (Art. 219.)
sin 6
—g— = 1, when 6 is very small. (Art. 228.)
Area of a circle = irr2. (Art. 233.)
XIV THE PRINCIPAL FORMULA IN TRIGONOMETRY.
X. sin a + sin (a + ß) + sin (a + 2/î) + . . . to n terras

| w-lß) .nff
-x . (Art. 241.)
BUI jj
cos о + cos (a + ß) + cos (a + 2/î) + ... to n terms
n-l ) , nß
—^ —. (Art. 242.)
sin^
PART II.
XI. Lt (l + iy = e= 2-71828 (Arts. 2, 3.)
e?= 1 + x + jn +Т5 + ad inf.
3? (loge «)2 + • . • ad inf.

ax = 1 + x log, a + т~ (Art. 5.)
Ë
l 1 з 1 +
loge(l+x) = x-â-¡+^x3-^xi ad mf.
when ж> — 1 and ;j>l. (Art. 8.)

/ • a\"
/ sin - \
Lt feos -V = 1= Lt l \ . (Arts. 14, 15.)
n=« \ »/ n = CO l » l
Vй/
XU. (cos ö + i sin 0)" = cos пв + i sin в. (Art. 21.)
THE PRINCIPAL FORMULA IN TRIGONOMETRY. XV
XIII. . sin nO = n cos'1-1 в sin в

w(w -!)(«-
--v 2) cos"-3.. 6. sin3
¿v -'- . ,.в + .......
1 . ¿t , О
cos пв = cos" о - — -S~~ cos""2 в sin1 в
l . 2t . О . 4:
tan no =
XIV. 8та = а--к+ш- ad inf. (Art. 33.)

11 11
а2 а4
cost^l-т^ + -J-- ...... adinf. (Art. 32.)
j jj ¡4
^ _ e-art e1»* + «-^

sina; = —;p— ; cosa;= -s- . (Art. 62.)
"íl, ¿
XV. Log (a + ßi) = loge JaP + ß1 + i (2rw + в),
where cos в = +-, ____

;—r-^rr=-
Л' and am
+ /З2 сыл\л. sin vв —
= Wa2 + /3a
^- .
(Art. 82.)
1ГТ7Т , . г^ !^ ! 7 j • f
XVI. tan 'e-«-jrf + 5rf-y^+ ad inf.,
where x is numerically not greater than unity. (Art. 95.)

1 1
:s = - ad inf.,
О о
where в lies between ртг — -¡ and ртг + -r . (Art. 96.) .

XVI THE PRINCIPAL FORMULAE IN TRIGONOMETRY.
XVII. x™ - 2aV cos n6 + a2'1
= ~U 1 {a:2 - 2aa; cos ($ + + a2j (Art. 115.)
2 / 2«r \
as" — 1 = (ar2 — 1 ) II (a;2 - 2x cos + 1 ) , (n even)
r=l \ W /
r 2 / 2nr \
and =(a;— 1) n (ar!-2a;cos + 1 ) , (n odd).
r=i \ n /
(Art. 119.)
r_2~ / 2r+l \
*n + 1 = II (x'-2x cos 7t + 1 ) , (n even)
r=o V « /
«.-3
r-_2~ / 2r + 1 \
and =(a;+l) II 1^-20:008 it + 1 ) , (n odd).
(Art. 120.)
8in* = *(l-5)(l-^) (l-£) ad inf. (Art. 122.)

CHAPTER I.
MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES, SEXAGESIMAL, CENTESIMAL,

AND CIRCULAR MEASURE.
, 1. In geometry angles are measured in terms of a

right angle. This, however, is an inconvenient unit of
measurement on account of its size.
2. In the Sexagesimal system of measurement a

right angle is divided into 90 equal parts called Degrees.
Each degree is divided into 60 equal parts called
Minutes, and each minute into 60 equal parts called
Seconds.
The symbols 1°, 1', and 1" are used to denote a degree,
a minute, and a second respectively.
Thus 60 Seconds (60") make One Minute (V),
60 Minutes (60') „ „ Degree (1°),
and 90 Degrees (90°) „ „ Right Angle.
This system is well established and is always used in
the practical applications of Trigonometry. It is not
however very convenient on account of the multipliers 60
and 90.
L. T. 1
2 TRIGONOMETRY.
3. On this account another system of measurement

called the Centesimal, or French, system has been
proposed. In this system the right angle is divided into
100 equal parts, called Grades ; each grade is subdivided
into 100 Minutes, and each minute into 100 Seconds.
The symbols lg, Г, and 1" are used to denote a Grade,
a Minute, and a Second respectively.
Thus 100 Seconds (100") make One Minute (Г),
100 Minutes (100V) „ „ Grade, (P),
100 Grades (100") „ „ Right angle.
4. This system would be much more convenient to
use than the ordinary Sexagesimal System.
As a preliminary, however, to its practical adoption, a
large number of tables would have to be recalculated.
For this reason the system has in practice never been used.
6. To convert Sexagesimal into Centesimal Measure,
and vice versa.
Since a right angle is equal to 90° and also to 100s, we
have
90° = 100".
Hence, to change degrees into grades, add on one-

ninth ; to change grades into degrees, subtract one-tenth.
EX. 36°=(36+|jx36Y=40«,
and
If the angle do not contain an integral number of

degrees, we may reduce it to a fraction of a degree and
then change to grades.
•-•
MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES. 3
In practice it is generally found more convenient to
reduce any angle to a fraction of a right angle. The
method will be seen in the following examples ;
Ex. 1. Reduce 63° 14' 51" to Centesimal Measure.
We have 51" = ~=-85',
and 14' 51"= 14-85'= ^^=-2475°,
л 63°14'51" = 63-2475°=63'^- rt. angle

УО
= -70275 rt. angle
= 70-275« = 70« 27-54 = 70» 271 50' .
Reduce 94» 23" 87" to Sexagesimal Measure.

94s 23' 87" = -942387 right angle
_90
84-81483 degrees
60
48-8898 minutes
_60
53-3880 seconds.
.-. 94« 231 87" = 84° 48' 53-388".
6. Angles of any size.

Suppose АОA' and BOB' to be two fixed lines meeting
at right angles in 0, and suppose
a revolving line OP (turning about
a fixed point at 0) to start from
OA and revolve in a direction
opposite to that of the hands of a
watch.
For any position of the re
volving line between OA and OB,
such as OP1; it will have turned
through an angle AOPlt which is less than a right angle.
1—2
4 TRIGONOMETRY.
For any position between OB and OA', such as ОРг,

the angle AOP2 through which it has turned is greater
than a right angle.
For any position OP3, between OA' and OB', the
angle traced out is AOP3, i.e. AOB + BOA' + A'OP3, i.e.
2 right angles + A'OP3, so that the angle described is
greater than two right angles.
For any position OP4, between OB' and OA, the angle
turned through is similarly greater than three right angles.
When the revolving line has made a complete revo
lution, so that it coincides onbe more with OA, the angle
through which it has turned is4 right angles.
If the line OP still continue to revolve, the angle
through which it has turned, when it is for the second
time in the position OP¡ , is not A OPi but 4 right angles
+ АОРг.
Similarly, when the revolving line, having made two
complete revolutions, is once more in the position OP2,
the angle it has traced out is^8 right angles + АОРг.
7. If the. revolving line OP be between OA and OB,
it is said to be in the first quadrant ; if it be between OB
and OA', it,is in the second quadrant; if between OA' and
OB', it is in the third quadrant ; if it is between OB' and
CM, it is in the fourth quadrant.
/ .
8. Ex. What is the position of the revolving line when it has turned
through (1) 225°, (2) 480°, and (3) 1050° ?
(1) Since 225° =180° + 45°, the revolving line has turned through
45° more than two right angles, and it is therefore in the third quadrant
and halfway between OA' and OB'.
(2) Since 480° = 360° + 120°, the revolving line has turned through
120° more than one complete revolution, and is therefore in the second
quadrant, i.e. between OB and OA', and makes an angle of 30° with ОБ.
CIRCULAR MEASURE. 5
(3) Since 1050°= 11 x 90° + 60°, the revolving line has turned through
60° more than eleven right angles, and is therefore in the fourth
quadrant, i.e. between OB' and OA, and makes 60° with OB'.
EXAMPLES. I.
Express in terms of a right angle the angles
1. 60°. 2. 75° 15'. 3. 63° 17' 25".
4. 130° 30'. 5. 210°30'30". 6. 370° 20' 48".
Express in grades, minutes, and seconds the angles
7. 30°. 8. 81°. 9. 138° 30'. 10. 35° 47' 15".
11. 235° 12' 36". 12. 475° 13' 48".
Express in terms of right angles, and also in degrees, minutes, and
seconds the angles
13. 120«. 14. 45s 35' 24". 15. 39*45' 36' \
16. 255* 8' 9". 17. 7598 0" 5".
Mark the position of the revolving line when it has traced out the
following angles :
18. g4 right angle. 19. 3J right angles. 20. 13i right angles.
21. 120°. 22. 315°. 23. 745°. 24. 1185°. 25. 1508.
26. 4208. 27. 8758.
28. How many degrees, minutes and seconds are respectively passed
over in 11£ minutes by the hour and minute hands of a watch ?
29. The number of degrees in one acute angle of a right-angled
triangle is equal to the number of grades in the other ; express both the
angles in degrees.
30. Prove that the number of Sexagesimal minutes in any angle is
to the number of Centesimal minutes in the same angle as 27 : 50.
31. Divide 44° 8' into two parts such that the number of Sexagesimal
seconds in one part may be equal to the number of Centesimal seconds in
the other part.
Circular Measure.
9. A third system of measurement of angles has
been devised, and it is this system which is used in all
the higher branches of Mathematics.
6 TRIGONOMETRY.
The unit used is obtained thus ;

Take any circle APEE', whose centre is 0, and from
any point A measure off an arc
AP whose length is equal to the
radius of the circle. Join OA and
OP.
The angle AOP is the angle
which is taken as the unit of cir
cular measurement, i.e. it is the
angle in terms of which in this
system we measure all others.
This angle is called A Radian and is often denoted
by Ie.
10. It is clearly essential to the proper choice of a

unit that it should be a constant quantity ; hence we must
shew that the Radian is a constant angle. This we shall
do in the following articles.
11. Theorem. The length of the circumference of a

circle always bears a constant ratio to its diameter.
Take any two circles whose common centre is 0. In
the large circle inscribe a regular
polygon of n sides, ABCD....
Let OA, OB, ОС,... meet the
smaller circle in the points a, b,
c,d... and join ab, be, cd,....
Then, by Eue. vi. 2, abed... is
a regular polygon of n sides in
scribed in the smaller circle.
Since Oa = Ob, and OA = OB,
THE RADIAN. 7
the lines ab and AB must be parallel, and hence

AB OA _,.
-5—OS' (Eue. vi. 4).
Also the polygon ABGD. . . being regular, its perimeter,
i.e. the sum of its sides, is equal to n . AB. Similarly for
the inner polygon.
Hence we have
Perimeter of the outer polygon _ n . AB _ AB 0A
Perimeter of the inner polygon n . ab ab Oa
(1).
This relation exists whatever be the number of sides
in the polygons.
Let then the number of sides be indefinitely increased
(i.e. let n become inconceivably great) so that finally the
perimeter of the outer polygon will be the same as the
circumference of the outer circle, and the perimeter of the
inner polygon the same as the circumference of the inner
circle.
The relation (1) will then become
Circumference of outer circle _ OA
Circumference of inner circle ~ Oa
Radius of outer circle
Radius of inner circle '
Circumference of outer circle
Hence
Radius of outer circle
Circumference of inner circle
Radius of inner circle
Since there was no restriction whatever as to the sizes
of the two circles, it follows that the quantity
Circumference of a circle
Radius of the circle
is the same for all circles.
8 TRIGONOMETRY.
Hence the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its

radius, and therefore also to its diameter, is a constant
quantity.
12. In the previous article we have shewn that the

Circuinference
ratio is the same for all circles. The value
Diameter
of this constant ratio is always denoted by the Greek
letter tr (pronounced Pi), so that ir is a number.
,,
Hence Circumference , ,
—~ ■ the constant number ir.
Diameter
We have therefore the following theorem ; The cir
cumference of a circle is always equal to tt times
its diameter or Qtt times its radius.
13. Unfortunately the value of ir is not a whole

number, nor can it be expressed in the form of a vulgar
fraction, and hence not in the form of a decimal fraction,
terminating or recurring.
The number ir is an incommensurable magnitude, i.e. a
magnitude whose value cannot be exactly expressed as the
ratio of two whole numbers.
Its value, correct to 8 places of decimals, is
314159265....
22
The fraction -y gives the value of ir correctly for the
22
first two decimal places; for -=- = 3'14285....
The fraction is a more accurate value of ir, being

355
correct to 6 places of decimals; for — =314159203... .
11 o
THE RADIAN. 9
355 may be remembered thus; write down the
[N.B. The fraction j^-
118
first three odd numbers repeating each twice, thus 113355; divide the
number thus obtained into portions and let the first part be divided into
the second, thus 113) 355(.
The quotient is the value of jr to 6 places of deoimals.]
To sum up. An approximate value of ir, correct
33
to 3 places of decimals, is the fraction — ; a more
accurate value is 3-14159...
By division, we can shew that
- = •3183098862....
7T
14. Ex. 1. The diameter of a tricycle wheel it 28 inchet; through
what -distance does its centre more during one revolution of the wheel!
The radius r is here 14 inches.
The circumference therefore = 2 . ir . 14 = 28ir inches.
22 the circumference = 28 x 22 inches =7 ft. 4 inches
If we take r = -y,
approximately.
If we give r the more accurate value 3 •14159265..., the circumference
= 28x3-14159265... inches = 7 ft. 3-96459... inches.
Ex. 3. What must be the radius of a circular running path, round
which an athlete must run 5 times in order to describe one mile t
The circumference must be \ x 1760, i.e. 352, yards.
Hence, if r be the radius of the path in yards, we have 2irr=352,
i.e. r= 176
— yards.
Taking 7r=^, we have r = ^jL* - = 56 yards nearly.
Taking the more accurate value ^ = -31831, we have

r=176x -31831 = 56 02256 yards.
10 TRIGONOMETRY.
EXAMPLES. П.
1. If the radius of the earth be 4000 miles, what is the length of its
circumference?
2. The wheel of a railway carriage is 3 feet in diameter and makes
3 revolutions in a second ; how fast is the train going?
3. A mill sail whose length is 18 feet makes 10 revolutions per
minute. What distance does its end travel in an hour?
4. The diameter of a halfpenny is an inch ; what is the length of a
piece of string which would just surround its curved edge?
5. Assuming that the earth describes in one year a circle, of
92500000 miles radius, whose centre is the sun, how many miles does the
earth travel in a year?
6. The radius of a carriage wheel is 1 ft. 9 ins., and in nth of a

у
second it turns through 80° about its centre, which is fixed; how many
miles does a point on the rim of the wheel travel in one hour ?
15. Theorem. The radian is a constant angle.
Take the figure of Art. 9. Let the arc AB be a
quadrant of the circle, i.e. one quarter of the circum
ference.
ТГТ
By Art. 12, the length of AB is therefore -Q- , where r
^ ¿
is the radius of the circle.
By Eue. VI. 33, we know that angles at the centre of
any circle are to one another as the arcs on which they
stand.
¿AOP excAP £ 2
Hence
¿AOB arc AB тг тг'
= -. ¿AOB.
IT
But we defined the angle АОP to be a Radian.
THE RADIAN. 11
2
Hence a Radian = - . Z. AOB
TT
2
= - of a right angle.
7T
Since a right angle is a constant angle, and since we
have shewn (Art. 12) that ir is a constant quantity, it
follows that a Radian is a constant angle, and is therefore
the same whatever be the circle from which it is derived.
16. Magnitude of a Radian.

By the previous article, a Radian
2 . . 180°
= — x a right angle = —
7T 7T
= 180° x 3183098862... = 57-29577950
= 57° 17' 44-8" nearly.
2
17. Since a Radian = - of a right angle,
therefore a right angle = _- . radians,
so that 180° = 2 right angles = 7r radians,

and 360° = 4 right angles = 2tt radians.
Hence, when the revolving line (Art. 6) has made a
complete revolution, it has described an angle equal to
2tt radians ; when it has made three complete revolutions,
it has described an angle of Gtt radians; when it has made
n revolutions, it has described an angle of 2nir radians.
18. In practice the symbol " c " is generally omitted,

and instead of "an angle irc" we find written "an
angle nr."
12 TRIGONOMETRY.
The student must notice this point carefully. If the

unit, in terms of which the angle is measured, be not
mentioned, he must mentally supply the word " radians."
Otherwise he will easily fall into the mistake of supposing
that 7r stands for 180°. It is true that ir radians (77-0) is
the same as 180°, but ir itself is a number, and a number
only.
19. To convert circular measure into sexagesimal
measure or centesimal measure and vice versa.
The student should remember the relations
Two right angles = 180° = 200 * = tt radians.
The conversion is then merely Arithmetic.
Ex. (1) -45^= -45x180° =81° =908.
(2) 3«=? xv'zz? xl80°=-x200«.
(3) 40° 15' 36" = 40° 15f' =40-26°
= 40-26 x -^=
lot) -2236a- radians,
(4) 40« 15* 36" = 40-1536«=40-1536x radians
= -200768ir radians.
20. Ex. 1. The angles of a triangle are in A. p. and the number of
grades in the least is to the number of radians in the greatest as 40 : w ;
find the angles in degrees.
Let the angles be (x-y)°, x°, and (x + y)°.
Since the sum of the three angles of a triangle is 180°, we have
180 = x - y + x + x + y = 3x,
so that x = 60.
The required angles are therefore
(60-j/)°, 60°, and (60+t/)°.
Now (60-y)°=^x(60-y)»,
and (60 + y)° = x (60 + y) radians.

THE RADIAN. 13
Hence ^(60-30:^(60 + ?):: 40: ir,
20060-ff _40
i.e. у = 40.
The angles are therefore 20°, 60°, and 100°.
Ex. 3. Exprese in the 3 systems of angular measurement the magni
tude of the angle of a regular decagon.
The corollary to Eue. I. 32 states that all the interior angles of any
rectilinear figure together with four right angles are equal to twice as
many right angles as the figure has sides.
Let the angle of a regular decagon contain ж right angles, so that
all the angles are together equal to 10x right angles.
The corollary therefore states that
10s + 4= 20,
о
so that x=-p right angles.
5
But one right angle
= 90° =100» =5 radians.
Hence the required angle
= 144° = 1608=^ radians.
5
EXAMPLES. Ill
Express in degrees, minutes, and seconds the angles,
_c 4irc
1. \. 2. Щ-. 3. 10ж". 4. 1". 5. 8°.
Express in grades, minutes, and seconds the angles,
6. 4f . 7. £ - 8. 10.=.
Express in radians the following angles :
9. 60°. 10. 110° 30'. 11. 175° 46'. 12. 47° 25' 36".
13. 395°. 14. 60«. 15. 110S304. 16. 345«251361\
17. The difference between the two acute angles of a right-angled
о
triangle is v т radians ; express the angles in degrees.
14 TRIGONOMETRY. [Ezs. in.]
18. One angle of a triangle is -x grades and another is 51 degrees,

whilst the third is radians ; express them all in degrees.
75
19. The circular measure of two angles of a triangle are respectively
\ and 5 ; what is the number of degrees in the third angle ?
20. The angles of a triangle are in a. p. and the number of degrees
in the least is to the number of radians in the greatest as 60 to it ; find
the angles in degrees.
21. The angles of a triangle are in a. p. and the number of radians
in the least angle is to the number of degrees in the mean angle as 1 : 120.
Find the angles in radians.
22. Find the magnitude, in radians and degrees, of the interior
angle of (1) a regular pentagon, (2) a regular heptagon, (3) a regular
octagon, (4) a regular duodecagon, and (5) a regular polygon of 17 sides.
23. The angle in one regular polygon is to that in another as 3 : 2 ;
also the number of sides in the first is twice that in the second; how
many sides have the polygons?
24. The number of sides in two regular polygons are as 5 : 4, and
the difference between their angles is 9°; find the number of sides in
the polygons.
25. Find two regular polygons such that the number of their sides
may be as 3 to 4 and the number of degrees in an angle of the first to the
number of grades in an angle of the second as 4 to 5.
26. The angles of a quadrilateral are in a. p. and the greatest is
double the least; express the least angle in radians.
27. Find in radians, degrees, and grades the angle between the
hour-hand and the minute-hand of a clock at (1) half-past three,
(2) twenty minutes to six, (3) a quarter past eleven.
28. Find the times (1) between four and five o'clock when the angle
between the minute-hand and the hour-hand is 78°, (2) between seven and
eight o'clock when this angle is 54°.
21. Theorem. The number of radians in any angle
whatever is equal to a fraction, whose numerator is the arc
which the angle subtends at the centre of any circle, and
ichose denominator is the radius of that circle.
MEASUREMENT OF ANY ANGLE IN RADIANS. 15
Let AOP be the angle which has been described by a

line starting from OA and revolv
ing into the position OP.
With centre 0 and any radius
describe a circle cutting OA and
OP in the points A and P.
Let the angle AOB be a radian,
so that the arc AB is equal to the
radius OA.
By Euc. vi. 33, we have
LAPP /L AOP arc AP ârc AP
A Radian AOB ~ arc AB ~ Radiusi*
so that Z. A OP = ^t^* of a Radian.
Radius
Hence the theorem is proved.
22. Ex. 1. Find the angle subtended at the centre of a circle of
radius 3 feet by an arc of length 1 foot.
The number of radians in the angle = a5° = ~ ,
radius 3
Hence the angle
= -1 radian = 512 2 x 90° = —
. - right angle = =- fifl° = 19
22 .
taking ir equal to —
Ex. 3. In a circle of 5 feet radius what is the length of the arc which
subtends an angle of 33° 15' at the centre 1
If x feet be the required length, we have
%5 = number of radians in 33° 15'
133
-720'-
. . x = 133 183
=-n x 88-.
144 a- feet = 144 —
7 feet nearly
= 2f$ feet nearly.
16 TRIGONOMETRY.
Ex. 3. Assuming the average distance of the earth from the sun to be
92500000 miles, and the angle subtended by the sun at the eye of a person
on the earth to be 32', find the sun's diameter.
Let D be the diameter of the sun in miles.
The angle subtended by the sun being very small, its diameter is very
approximately equal to a small arc of a circle whose centre is the eye of
the observer. Also the sun subtends an angle of 32' at the centre of this
circle.
Hence, by Art. 21, we have
D
92500000 =the number of radians in 32'
i?!
= the number of radians in 16
-A x 180~675'
~15 r - 2t
_ 185000000
D= 675 ' mlles
= 185000000
— x 22 ., approximately
— miles ...
= about 862000 miles.
Ex. 4. Assuming that a person of normal sight can read print at such
a distance that the letters subtend an angle of 5' at his eye, find what is
the height of the letters that he can read at a distance (1) of 12 feet, and
(2) of a quarter of a mile.
Let x be the required height in feet.
In the first case, x is very nearly equal to the arc of a circle, of radius
12 feet, which subtends an angle of 5' at its centre.
Hence ^ = number of radians in 5'
_"12
1_ X jr_
180'
"• x=iiofeet=i8oxyfeetnearly
= ^= x ■=- inches = about ; inch.

MEASUREMENT OF ANY ANGLE IN RADIANS. 17
In the second case, the height y is given by
-rJf—iL
440 x 3 = number of radians in 5'
1 x
~~12 * 180'
11 11 22 _
so that S/ = l8T=l8XT,<*
— about 23 inches.
IV.
1. Find the number of degrees subtended at the centre of a circle by
an arc whose length is -357 times the radius, taking - = -3183.
2. Express in radians and degrees the angle subtended at the centre
of a circle by an arc whose length is 15 feet, the radius of the circle
being 25 feet.
3. The value of the divisions on the outer rim of a graduated circle
is 5' and the distance between successive graduations is '1 inch. Find
the radius of the circle.
4. The diameter of a graduated circle is 6 feet and the graduations
on its rim are 5' apart; find the distance from one graduation to
another.
5. Find the radius of a globe which is such that the distance between
two places on the same meridian whose latitude differs by 1° 10' may be
half-an-inch.
6. Taking the radius of the earth as 4000 miles, find the difference
in latitude of two places, one of which is 100 miles north of the other.
7. Assuming the earth to be a sphere and the distance between
two parallels of latitude, which subtends an angle of 1° at the earth's
centre, to be 69$ miles, find the radius of the earth.
8. The radius of a certain circle is 3 feet; find approximately the
length of an arc of this circle, if the length of the chord of the arc be
3 feet also.
0, What is the ratio of the radii of two circles at the centre of which
two arcs of the same length subtend angles of 60° and 75°?
10. If an arc, of length 10 feet, on a circle of 8 feet diameter
subtend at the centre an angle of 143° 14' 22"; find the value of r
to 4 places of decimals.
L. T. 2
18 TRIGONOMETBY. [Exs. ГУ.]
11. If the circumference of a circle be divided into 5 parts, which are

in л. p., and if the greatest part be 6 times the least, find in radians
the magnitudes of the angles that the parts subtend at the centre of the
circle.
12. The perimeter of a certain sector of a circle is equal to the length
of the arc of a semicircle having the same radius; express the angle of
the sector in degrees, minutes, and seconds.
13. At what distance does a man, whose height is 6 feet, subtend an
angle of 10'?
14. Find the length which at a distance of one mile will subtend
an angle of 1' at the eye.
15. Find approximately the distance at which a globe, 5', inches in
diameter, will subtend an angle of 6'.
16. Find approximately the distance of a tower whose height is
51 feet and which subtends at the eye an angle of nyy'.
17. A church spire, whose height is known to be 100 feet, subtends
an angle of 9' at the eye ; find approximately its distance.
18. Find approximately in minutes the inclination to the horizon of
an incline which rises 3J feet in 210 yards.
19. The radius of the earth being taken to be 3960 miles, and the
distance of the moon from the earth being 60 times the radius of the
earth, find approximately the radius of the moon which subtends at the
earth an angle of 16'.
20. When the moon is setting at any given place, the angle that is
subtended at its centre by the radius of the earth passing through the given
place is ST. If the earth's radius be 3960 miles, find approximately the
distance of the moon.
21. Prove that the distance of the sun is about 81 million geo
graphical miles, assuming that the angle which the earth's radius
subtends at the distance of the sun is 8-76", and that a geographical
mile subtends 1' at the earth's centre. Find also the circumference and
diameter of the earth in geographical miles.
22. The radius of the earth's orbit, which is about 92700000 miles,
subtends at the star Sirius an angle of about -4"; find roughly the
distance of Sirius.
CHAPTER II.
TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS FOR ANGLES LESS THAN

A RIGHT ANGLE.
23. In the present chapter we shall only consider

angles which are less than a right angle.
Let a revolving line OP start from OA and revolve
into the position OP, thus tracing out
the angle AOP. p,
In the revolving line take any
point P and draw PM perpendicular
to the initial line OA. o ■ >.
In the triangle MOP, OP is the
hypothenuse, PM is the perpendicular, and OM is the base.
The trigonometrical ratios, or functions, of the angle
AOP are denned as follows :
, i.e. > 1S called the Sine of the angle AOP ;

OM . Base „ ,
OP*"- Hyp,' " " Cosine
MP . Perp. „
OF'^Bafe' " " Tangent " »
OM . Base
l-e- > » » Cotangent
MP ' Perp
S'îrp? " " C°SeCant
M'^l£-' " » SCCant
2—2
20 TRIGONOMETRY.
The quantity by which the cosine falls short of unity,

i.e. 1 — cos AOP, is called the Versed Sine of AOP ; also
the quantity 1 — sin AOP, by which the sine falls short of
unity, is called the Coversed Sine of A OP.
24. It will be noted that the trigonometrical ratios

are all numbers.
The names of these eight ratios are written, for
brevity,
sin AOP, cos AOP, tan AOP, cot A OP, cosec AOP,
sec AOP, vers AOP, and covers AOP respectively.
The two latter ratios are seldom used.
25. It will be noticed, from the definitions, that the

cosecant is the reciprocal of the sine, so that
cosec A OP = -—-. , , -r, .

sin AOP
So the secant is the reciprocal of the cosine, i.e.
sec AOP = TTTra >

cos A OP
and the cotangent is the reciprocal of the tangent, i.e.
1
cot A0P =
tan AOP'
26. To shew that the trigonometrical ratios are always

the same for the same angle.
We have to shew that, if in
the revolving line OP any other
point P' be taken and P'M be
drawn perpendicular to OA, the
ratios derived from the triangle
TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS. 21
OP'M' are the same as those derived from the triangle

0PM.
In the two triangles, the angle at 0 is common, and
the angles at M and M are both right angles and there
fore equal.
Hence the two triangles are equiangular and therefore,
MP MP1
by Euc. vi. 4, we have -Qp = -QpF > tne sme °f angle
AOP is the same whatever point we take on the revolving
line.
Since, by the same proposition, we have
OM OM MP_M'F
OP ~ OF OM ~ OM '
it follows that the cosine and tangent are the same
whatever point be taken on the revolving line. Similarly
for the other ratios.
If OA be considered as the revolving line, and in it be taken any
point P" and P"M" be drawn perpendicular to OP, the functions as
derived from the triangle OP'M" will have the same values as before.
For, since in the two triangles OPM and OP'M", the two angles
P'OM" and OM"P" are respectively equal to POM and OMP, these
two triangles are equiangular and therefore similar, and we have
M"P' _ MP OM" _ OM
OP' ~ OP ' OP' ~ OP "
27. Fundamental relations between the trigonometrical
ratios of an angle.
We shall find that if one of the trigonometrical ratios
of an angle be known, the numerical magnitude of each of
the others is known also.
Let the angle AOP (Fig., Art. 23) be denoted by 0.
In the triangle AOP we have, by Euc. I. 47,
MP+OMÔP2 (1).
22 TRIGONOMETRY.
Hence, dividing by OP2, we have

(MPV [OMy_
{ OP) + [OP J ~ L'
i.e. (sm0y + (coa6y = l.

The quantity (sin #)2 is always written sin2 0, and so for
the other ratios.
Hence this relation is
sin20+cos20 = 1 (2).
Again, dividing both sides of equation (1) by OM3, we
have
,mpv.+ 1 = /op.v
\0MJ + 1 \0M) '
i.e. (tan 6)3 + 1 = (sec 0)3,
so that sec20 = 1 + tan2 6 (3).
Again, dividing equations (1) by MP3, we have
(OM\3_(OP\3
+ \MP) ~ \MP) '
i.e. 1 + (cot 0y> = (cosec 6)\
so that cosec2 0 = 1 + cot20 (4).
ai • a MP a a 0M
Also, since sin 0 = and cos 0 — ,
sin 0 MP OM MP A .
we nave 7. = 7=775 -4- -777, = 77; , = tan a.
cos0 OP OP OM
Hence tan 6 = S*n f
cost;
Similarly cot 6 = ££fi? (6).

sin a
38. Bx.1. Prove that ./^~со*А=соиееА-со1А.

V 1 + cosA
We have
1 - cos A 1 - cos A
by relation (2) of the last article,
= __ - cot A.
sin Л Bin 4
Ex. 2. Prove i/iat

= tan A + cot A.
We have seen that
and
so that «/sec2 A + oosec2 A = tan 4 + cot A .
Ex. 3. Prove
(co«ec 4 - sin A) (sec A - coi A) (tan A + cot A ) = 1.
The given expression
1-sinM 1-cosM sin2 A + eos8 ^

sin A ' eos A " sin A cos 4
cos24 sin2 Л 1
sin Л ' сов Л sin Л сов Л
1.
24 TRIGONOMETRY.
EXAMPLES. V.
Prove the following statements.
1. co8M-8inM + l = 2cos2.<l.
2. (sin A +cos A) (1 - sin A cos.4) = 8inM + co83.4.
sin A 1 + cos A „
3. t~.
1 + cos A3 + —=—7—
em A = 2 oosec A.
4. cos6 .4 + sin6 .4 = 1 -3 sin2.4 cosPA.
5. .At- 8m ^ =seo .4 - tan .4.
V l + sin.4
cosec.4 cosec .4 „ , .
oosec A-lr+ cosec .4; +; j-=2secM.
1
_ oosec A , \
7. —t—;
cot ^ + 7tan 4, = 008.4./'
'
8. (sec^l + cos.4) (sec .4 - cos .4 )= tan2 4 + sin2 ^.
9. —i
cot A. +—itan A;=sin.4cos4.
10. sec .47—7
- tan A3= sec 4 + tan 4.
1 - tan A _ cot ^1 - 1
11. 1 + tan A ~ cot A + 1 '
1 + tanM _ sin2 A
12. 1 + cotM ~cos2^'
sec A — tan A
13. sec.4-.—t
+ tan.4 =1 - 2 sec .4 tan A + 2 tan2 .4.
,. tan A cot A , , „
14. ,1 - cott—;A + ^—;
1 - tan 4; = sec A cosec 4 + 1.
,, cos A sin A . ,
15. i—t
1 - tan Ar+i1 - cot7-,=sin.4
A + cos.4.
16. (sin /I +cos4) [cotA + tanA) = aeoA + co8ecA.
17. sec4 4 - sec24 = tanM + tan24.
[ESS. V.] TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS. 25
18. cot4 A + cot2 A = cosec4 A - cosec2 J.
19. <Jcosec2 A - 1 = cos A cosec A .
20. see2 A cosec* 4 = tan2 A + cot2 A + 2.
21. tan' A - sin2 A = sin4 A sec2 A .
22. (1 + cot A - cosec A ) (1 + tan A + seo A ) = 2.
i ii i
> 23. cosec A - cot A sin A sin A cosec X + cot A
cot ^ cos A _ cot A - cos A
24 cot A + cos A — cot A cos A
„_ coti A„ + tanB
25. cot . ..
B + itan A = cot A tan B.
„„
26. (/\8ec2o-cos2a
—= 1 1- + cosecJz a1- sin" aJ\ cos'. a sin2 . . a = 1- cos2s—a sin2 a
2 + cos2 a sin' a .
27. sin8 A - cos8 A = (sin2 A - cos2 A) (1 - 2 sin* A cos2 A).
„_ cos A cosec A -sin A sec A . .
28. cos A, + sin
.—-A. =cosec A - seo A.
tan A + seoA-l_ 1 + sinA
tan A - sec A + 1 — cos A
30. (tan a + cosec £)2 - (cot /3 - sec a)2 = 2 tan a cot /3 (cosec a + sec .
31. 2 sec2 a - sec4 a - 2 cosec2 a + cosec4 o= cot4 o- tan4 o.
32. (sin « + cosec a)2 + (cos a + sec o)2= tan2 a + cot2 a + 7.
33. (cosec A + cot A) covers A - (sec A + tan .4) vers A
= (cosec A - sec A) (2 - vers A covers
„. i . » / • . .> seoA cosecA
34. (l
1 + cot A + tan A) 1(sin A -cos A)= cosec2 A: sec25-r- A .
35. 2 versin A + cos2 .4 = 1 + versin' A.
29. Limits to the values of the trigonometrical ratios.

From equation (2) of Art. 27, we have
sin2 0 + cos2 0= 1.
26 TRIGONOMETRY.
Now sin20 and cos2 0, being both squares, are both

necessarily positive. Hence, since their sum is unity,
neither of them can be greater than unity.
[For if one of them, say sin2 0, were greater than unity, the other,
cos2 d, would have to be negative, which is impossible.]
Hence neither the sine nor the cosine can be numeri

cally greater than unity.
Since sin 0 cannot be greater than unity, therefore
cosec 0, which equals , cannot be numerically less
than unity.
So sec 0, which equals ^ „ , cannot be numerically
less than unity. '
30. The foregoing results follow easily from the figure

of Art. 23.
For, whatever be the value of the angle AOP,
neither the side OM nor the side MP is ever greater
than OP.
MP
Since MP is never greater than OP, the ratio is
never greater than unity, so that the sine of an angle is
never greater than unity.
Also, since OM is never greater than OP, the ratio
is never greater than unity, i.e. the cosine is never greater
than unity.
31. We can express the trigonometrical ratios of an

angle in terms of any one of them.
The simplest method of procedure is best shewn by
examples.
Ex. 1. To express all the trigono
metrical ratios in terms of the sine.
Let AOP be any angle 8.
Let the length OP be unity and let
the corresponding length of MP be s.
By Euc. L 47, OM = VOP" - MP1 = Vl - a2.
tt • a MP s
Hence sin 8 = = J=S>
cos 8 = -—.eVT^* = Vl-sin'tf,
.
tan &a ■ MP s sinfl
OM Vl-s2 Vl-sina0'
.a OM vT^ Vl-sin»0
cot 0 =
il/P s sin^
OP .1 = J_
cosec # =
ilfP a sinfl'
OP 1 1
and sec 8 = OM Vl-s3 Vl-sina0"
The last five equations give what is required.
Ex. 2. To express all the trigonometrical relations in

terms of the cotangent.
Taking the usual figure, let the
length MP be unity, and let the corre
sponding value of OM be x.
By Euc. I. 47,
op = voip + mp1 = viT^r
28 TRIGONOMETRY.
тт , ,, ОМ X
Hence cot в = -г = - = х,
. a MP 1
n'-TO-
„ (Ж ж
cos0 = ^p =
tan 0,, = ЖР
-ñu = -l = —---a
l ,
д _~ OP _ _
cotö '
, a OP VTTâs2 ,--—,
and cosec в = „ = — — = v l + cot20.
The last five equations give what is required.

It will be noticed that, in each case, the denominator
of the fraction which defines the trigonometrical ratio was
MP
taken equal to unity. For example, the sine is -^^ , and
hence in Ex. 1 the denominator OP is taken equal to
unity.
The cotangent is ^p , and hence in Ex. 2 the side MP
is taken equal to unity.
Similarly suppose we had to express the other ratios
in terms of the cosine, we should, since the cosine is equal
to -frp > Pu* OP equal to unity and OM equal to c. The
working would then be similar to that of Exs. 1 and 2.
In the following examples the sides have numerical
values.
Ex. 8. If cos 8 equal g , find the values of the other ratios.

Along the initial line OA take OM equal to 3, and erect a perpen
dicular MP.
Let a line OP, of length 5, revolve round 0 until its other end meets
this perpendicular in the point P. Then A OP is the angle 8.
ByEuc. i. 47, MP= j'OP*- OiP= Ji?^lP=i.
Hence clearly
4 tan 0 = 4- , cot0=T,
3 5 5
sin0=v,5 3 4 cosec 8=-4 , and sec0 = s.
6
Ex. 4. Supposing 8 to be an angle whose sine it \o , to find the numeri-

cal magnitude of the other trigonometrical ratios.
Here sin 0=|> so that the relation (2) of Art. 27 gives
t.«. CO820=l-g = g,
i.e. cos0 = -|-.
„ „ sintf = 1 - —.-
J2
Hence tan 8= cos 8 2J2 4 ,
COt"=tanl = 2-/2>
. 1 8 = 3,
cosec 8= sin
._ 1 3 3^/2
860 cos0-2V2~ 4 '
vers 0=1 - cos 0 = 1 —2j- ,
and 1 32 .
covers 0=1 - Bin 0=1 --=
30 TRIGONOMETRY.
I I
1% 111. I* * oca
o CD oCD
O too OCD cbCO
$CO 09o ou
s S
5 JJ
,1
I 1> I
I'D I*S3 I*
cjCP CD OCO o0 CDOCO
DO
000) QQ
l>
ll* 1*1
oCJ QO I* oCJ * i OCJ
43 oCJ
oo + OCJ 1+ 1IrH
+
1+ l|H
> >
0 a'
I
.+3 ae3 a.
+ + + +
i—l rH
> >
II* ll*
* p * * I* q
OQO CJ oc
o I 5o I
1—1
l>
I*, I* I*
M II*
M
a c» ■l-JCO act ■ arHCO
a B a
s 'go i I "3
l-H i-H
>
43 CJ
oCJ
EXAMPLES. VI.
1. Express all the other trigonometrical ratios in terms of the cosine.
2. Express all the ratios in terms of the tangent.
3. Express all the ratios in terms of the cosecant.
4. Express all the ratios in terms of the secant.
5. The sine of a certain angle is j ; find the numerical values of the
other trigonometrical ratios of this angle.
6. If sin 8 = 12 , find tan 9 and, versin 8.
7. If 8in^ = H,
Dl find tan v4, cos A, and sec^l.
8. If cos 9 = 4-=, find sinff and cot 0. i
5
9. If cos A = jjg , find tan A and cosec A.
10. If tan 9= 7g , find the sine, cosine, versine and cosecant of 9.

ii
11. m
If tan 9a = -i=
icjiv i ofr cosec2 9 - sec2=-„9 .
, find the value '
s/1 cosec2 9 + sec2 9
12. If cot 9 =— 15
o , find cos 9 and cosec 9.
13. If sec A = 3~,
a find tan A and cosec A.
14. If 2 sin 8 = 2 -cos 9, find sine.
15. If 8 sin 9 = 4 + cos 9, find sin 9.
16. If tan0 + sec0=l-5, find sinfl.
17. If cot 9 + cosec 9 = 5, find cos 9.
18. If 3 sec4 0 + 8 = 10 sec2 9, find the values of tan 9.
19. If tan2 9 + sec 9 = 5, find cos 9.
20. If tan 9 + cot 8 = 2, find sin 8.
21. If sec2 8 = 2 + 2 tan 8, find tan 8.
2x (x + X) , find sin 8 and cos 8.
22. If tan 8=-~—=-£
2x + l
32 TRIGONOMETRY.
Values of the trigonometrical ratios in

some useful cases.
33. Angle of 45°.
P
Let the angle AOP traced out
be 45°.
Then, since the three angles of
a triangle are together equal to
/45° \
two right angles, to
Z OPM =180° -Z POM- A PMO
= 180° - 45° - 90° = 45° = Z POM.
.: 0M = MP.
If OP be called 2a, we then have
4a2 = 0P*= 0M*+ MP2 = 2 . 0M\ ■
so that 0M = as/2.
■ ako MP a 1
sin 45 = ttk = -rs-
. a ~ V2 '
,.o OM 1
COS 40 = y-yr =
a~ V2'
and tan 45° = 1.
34. Angle of SO".
Let the angle AOP traced
out be 30°.
Produce PM to P' making
M
MP' equal to PM.
The two triangles OMP and
OMF have their sides OM and
MP' equal to OM and MP and
also the contained angles equal.
Therefore OP' = OP, and Z OP'P = zOPP' = 60°, so
that the triangle P'OP is equilateral.
•'
TRIGONOMETRICAL BATIOS. 33
:
-, .
Hence, if OP be called 2a, we have
Also OM = = \/4a2-a2 = сц/3.

MP _l
.-. sin 30° =
OP~~ 2
cosSOo__
cos 30 ___
sin 30°^ 1
and tan 30° =
cos 30° * V3
36. Angle of 60°.

Let the angle .a OP traced
out be 60°.
Take a point N on OA, so
that
MN=OM=a(sa.y).
The two triangles OMP and
NMP have now the sides ОЖ"
and MP equal to JOf and MP
respectively, and the included
angles equal, so that the triangles are equal.
. •. PN = OP, and z PNM = z P03f = 60°.
The triangle OPN is therefore equilateral, and hence
. • . MP = VOP2~- ОЛ/2 = V4a2-a2 = A/3 . a.

L. т. 3
34 TRIGONOMETRY.
„ . 0 MP *J3a V3
Hence sm 60 = OP = ^ = T '
„„ OM a 1
cos 60 =op = ^ = 2,
and tan60° = ^|^ = V3.

cos 60
36. Angle of 0°.
Let the revolving line OP have turned through a very
small angle, so that the angle
MOP is very small. P
The magnitude of MP is Q " ^
then very small, and initially,
before OP had turned through an angle large enough to
be perceived, the quantity MP was smaller than any quan
tity we could assign, i.e. was what we denote by 0.
Also, in this case, the two points M and P very nearly
coincide, and the smaller the angle AOP the more nearly
do they coincide.
Hence, when the angle AOP is actually zero, the two
lengths OM and OP are equal and MP is zero.
MP 0
Hence sin 0° = -^p = = 0, ,
no OM OP _
cosO =0p = o7> = l.
and tan0°=f = 0.
Also cot 0° = the value of when M and P coincide
MP
= the ratio of a finite quantity to something infinitely
small
= a quantity which is infinitely great.
Such a quantity is usually denoted by the symbol oo .
Hence cot 0° i 00 .
no OP .
Similarly cosec 0 = j^-p = oo also.
And sec 0° OM ■
37. Angle of 90°.

Let the angle AOP be very nearly, but
not quite, a right angle.
When OP has actually described a
right angle, the point M coincides with 0,
so that then OM is zero and OP and MP OM
are equal.
MP _0P_
Hence sin 90° >
' 0P~0P~1,
0M_ 0 .
cos 90° : OP OP " •
tan 90° = — a finite quantity

0M an infinitely small quantity
= a number infinitely large = oo ,
OM _ 0
cot 90°
'MP MP~ '
OP
sec 90° = Qjr= oo , as in the case of the tangent,
0M
and cosec 90 =^=£p = l.
38. Complementary Angles. Def. Two angles

are said to be complementary when their sum is equal
to a right angle. Thus any angle 0 and the angle
90° — 6 are complementary.
3—2
36 TRIGONOMETRY.
39. To find the relations between the trigonometrical

ratios of two complementary angles.
Let the revolving line, starting from OA, trace out
any acute angle AOP, equal to
0. From any point P on it Re
draw PM perpendicular to OA. /J
Since the three angles of a
triangle are together equal to
two right angles, and since OMP ye
is a right angle, the sum of the O
two angles MOP and OPM is a
right angle.
They are therefore complementary and
zOPM = 90° -0.
[When the angle OPM is considered, the line PM is
the " base " and MO is the " perpendicular."]
We then have
sin (90° - 6) = sin MPO = S = cos A0P = cos 6,
PM
cos (90° - f) = cos MPO = = sin A OP = sin 6,
tan (90° - 0) = tan MP0 = ^= cot ,4 OP = cot 0,
PM = tan A OP = tan 0,
cot (90° - 0) = cot il/PO = —
PO = sec .4 OP - sec 0,
cosec (90° — 0) = cosec MPO =tt>,
MU
PO = cosec J. OP = cosec 0.
and sec (90° — 0) = sec MPO = -pn
Hence we observe that

the Sine of any angle = the Cosine of its complement,
the Tangent of any angle = the Cotangent of its comple
ment,
and the Secant of an angle = the Cosecant of its comple
ment.
From this is apparent what is the derivation of the
names Cosine, Cotangent, and Cosecant.
40. The student is advised before proceeding any
further to make himself quite familiar with the following
table. [For an extension of this table, see Art. 76.]
Angle 0° 30° 45° 60° 90°
1 1 73
Sine 0 1
\ 72 . 2 f
<
1 n
Cosine 1 72 0
9
1" 1 - 00
Tangent < 0 73
73
Cotangent oo 1 1 0
73
Cosecant 00 72 2
2 1
73
2 00
Secant 1 72 2
73
If the student commits accurately to memory the

portion of the above table included between the thick
lines, he should be able to easily reproduce the rest.
38 TRIGONOMETRY.
For
(1) the sines of 60° and 90° are respectively the
cosines of 30° and 0°. (Art. 39.)
(2) the cosines of 60° and 90° are respectively the
sines of 30° and 0°. (Art. 39.)
Hence the second and third lines are known.
(3) The tangent of any angle is the result of dividing
the sine by the cosine.
Hence any quantity in the fourth line is obtained by
dividing the corresponding quantity in the second line by
the corresponding quantity in the third line.
(4) The cotangent of any angle is the reciprocal of
the tangent, so that the quantities in the fifth row are the
reciprocals of the .quantities in the fourth row.
(5)
w Since cosec 6 = sin
— 0, , the sixth row is obtained
by inverting the corresponding quantities in the second
row.
(6)
x ' Since sec#= cos
—^75,
8 the seventh row is similarly
J
obtained from the third row.
EXAMPLES. VII
1. If 4 = 30°, verify that
(1) cos 24 = cos2 .4 -sin2 ,4 = 2 cos2 .1-1,
(2) sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A,
(3) cos34 = 4ooss4-3cos4,
(4) sin34 = 3gin4-4sin34,
2 tan A
and (5) tan 24 = ^^.
. Vu.] TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS. 39
2. If Л =45°, verify that

(1) sin 24 = 2 sin A cos A,
(2)
and (3)
Verify that
3. sin2 30° + sin2 45° + sin' 60°= JL
¿i
4. tan2 30° + tan2 45° + tan» 60° = 4J.

5. sin 30° cos 60° + cos 30° sin 60°= 1.
6. cos 45° cos 60° - sin 45° sin 60°= -

7. Í cot" 30° + 3 sin2 60° - 2 cosec2 60° - f tan2 30° = 3J.
8. cosec2 45° . sec2 30° . sin3 90° . cos 60° = 1J.
9. 4 cot2 45° -sec2 60° + sin3 30° = 4.
CHAPTER III.
SIMPLE PROBLEMS IN HEIGHTS AND DISTANCES.
41. One of the objects of Trigonometry is to find the

distances between points, or the heights of objects,
without actually measuring these distances or these
heights.
42. Suppose 0 and P to be two points, P being at a

higher level than 0.
Let OM be a horizontal line
drawn through 0 to meet in M
the vertical line drawn through
P.
The angle MOP is called
the Angle of Elevation of
the point P as seen from 0.
Draw PN parallel to MO, so that PN is the hori
zontal line passing through P. The angle NPO is the
Angle of Depression of the point 0 as seen from P.
48. Two of the instruments used in practical work are the Theodo
lite and the Sextant.
The Theodolite is used to measure angles in a vertical plane.
The Theodolite, in its simple form, consists of a telescope attached
to a flat piece of wood. This piece of wood is supported by three legs
and can be arranged so as to be accurately horizontal.
HEIGHTS AND DISTANCES. 41
This table being at 0 and horizontal, and the telescope being initially
pointing in the direction Oil, the latter can be made to rotate in a
vertical plane until it points accurately towards P. A graduated scale
shews the angle through which it has been turned from the horizontal,
i.e. gives us the angle of elevation MOP.
Similarly, if the instrument were at P, the angle NPO through which
the telescope would have to be turned, downward from the horizontal,
would give us the angle NPO.
The instrument can also be used to measure angles in a horizontal
plane.
44. The Sextant is used to find the angle subtended by any two
points D and £ at a third point F. It is an instrument much used on
board ships.
Its construction and application are too complicated to be here
considered.
45. We shall now solve a few simple examples in
heights and distances.
Bx, 1. A vertical flagstaff stands on a horizontal plane ; from a point
distant 150 feet from its foot, the angle of elevation of its top is found to
be 30°; find the height of the flagstaff.
Let MP (Fig. Art. 42) represent the flagstaff and 0 the point from
which the angle of elevation is taken.
Then OM= 150 feet, and l MOP = 30°.
Since PMO is a right angle, we have
^£=tan
OM MOP= tan 30°= s/3
i (Art.
v 34).'
Now, by extraction of the square root, we have

V3 = 173205....
Hence MP=50 x 1-73205... feet = 86-6026... feet.
Ex. 3. A man wishes to find the height of a church spire which stands
on a horizontal plane; at a point on this plane he finds the angle of
elevation of the top of the spire to be 45° ; on walking 100 feet toward the
tower he finds the corresponding angle of elevation to be 60°; deduce the
height of the tower and also his original distance from the foot of the
spire.
42 TRIGONOMETRY.
Let P be the top of the spire and A and В the two points at which
the angles of elevation are taken. Draw
PM perpendicular to AB produced and
let MP be x.
We are given ЛВ = 100 feet,
¿MAP = 45°,
and ¿МБР = 60°.
We then have
60'
AM A 100 В
= cot 45°, M
and —
X
= cot60°=4b-
*J о
Hence A3I=x, and B3I = —r= .

Va
=5 -
= 50[3 + l-73205...] = 236-6... feet.

Also AM- .г, во that both of the required distances are equal to
236-6... feet.
Ex. a. From the top of a cliff, 200 feet high, the angles of depression
of the top and bottom of a tower are observed to be 30° and 60° ; find the
height of the tower.
Let A be the point of observation and BA the height of the cliff and
let CD be the tower.
Draw AE horizontally, so that ¿EA С =30° and E A'
¿EAD = 60°. -
Let x feet be the height of the tower and produce
DC to meet AE in E, so that CE = AB-x = 200- x. С
Since ¿ADB= ¿DAE = 60° (Eue. i. 29), 200
200
= 73'
Also
so that x = 200- — = 133J feet.

A
Ex. 4. A man observes that at a point due south of a certain tower its
angle of elevation is 60° ; he then walks 300 feet due west on a horizontal
plane and finds that the angle of elevation is 30°; find the height of the
tower and his original distance from it.
Let P be the top, and Pil the height, of the tower, A the point due
south of the tower and B the point due west of A.
The angles PMA, PMB, and MAB are therefore all right angles.
For simplicity, since the triangles PAM, PBM, and ABM are in
different planes, they are reproduced in the second, third, and fourth
figures and drawn to scale.
We are given ^£ = 300 feet, L PAM=&0°, and lPBM=S0°.
Let the height of the tower be x feet.
From the second figure,
so that
From the third figure,
—
x = cot 30° =,73,
so that BM=JA.x.
44 TRIGONOMETRY.
From the last figure, we have
BM*=AAP + ABi,
i.e. 3x»= 1^ + 300*.
.-. 8zs=3 x 3002.
= 75x2-44949... = 183-71... feet.

Also his original distance from the tower
= zcot 60°= 4j = 75xv/2
= 75 x (1-4142. ..) = 106-065... feet.
EXAMPLES. VIII.
1. A person, standing on the bank of a river, observes that the angle
subtended by a tree on the opposite bank is 60° ; when he retires 40 feet
from the bank he finds the angle to be 30° ; find the height of the tree
and the breadth of the river.
2. At a certain point the angle of elevation of a tower is found to be
such that its cotangent ia 3-; on walking 32 feet directly toward the tower
its angle of elevation is an angle whose cotangent is 2■= . Find the height
5
of the tower.
3. At a point A, the angle of elevation of a tower is found to be such
that its tangent is ; on walking 240 feet nearer the tower the tangent
of the angle of elevation is found to be - ; what is the height of the
tower?
4. Find the height of a chimney when it is found that, on walking
towards it 100 feet in a horizontal line through its base, the angular
elevation of its top changes from 30° to 45°.
5. An observer on the top of a cliff, 200 feet above the sea-level,
observes the angles of depression of two ships at anchor to be 45° and 30°
respectively ; find the distances between the ships if the line joining them
points to the base of the cliff.
[ElS. VIII.] HEIGHTS AND DISTANCES. 45
6. From the top of a cliff an observer finds that the angles of

depression of two buoys in the sea are 39° and 26° respectively; the
buoys are 300 yards apart and the line joining them points straight
at the foot of the cliff ; find the height of the cliff and the distance of the
nearest buoy from the foot of the cliff, given that cot 26° = 2-0503, and
cot 39°= 1-2349.
7. The upper part of a tree broken over by the wind makes an angle
of 30° with the ground, and the distance from the root to the point where
the top of the tree touches the ground is 50 feet ; what was the height of
the tree?
\ 8. The horizontal distance between two towers is 60 feet and the
angular depression of the top of the first as seen from the top of the
second, which is 150 feet high, is 30° ; find the height of the first.
9. The angle of elevation of the top of an unfinished tower at a
point distant 120 feet from its base is 45° ; how much higher must the
tower be raised so that its angle of elevation at the same point may be
60"?
10. Two pillars of equal height stand on either side of a roadway
which is 100 feet wide ; at a point in the 'roadway between the pillars the
elevations of the tops of the pillars are 60° and 30° ; find their height and
the position of the point.
11. The angle of elevation of the top of a. tower is observed to be
60° ; at a point 40 feet above the first point of, observation the elevation
is found to be 45° ; find the height of the tower and its horizontal
distance from the points of observation.
12. At the foot of a mountain the elevation of its summit is found
to be 45°; after ascending one mile up a slope of 30° inclination the
elevation is found to be 60°. Find the height of the mountain.
13. What is the angle of elevation of the sun when the length of the
shadow of a pole is three times the height of the pole ?
14. The shadow of a tower standing on a level plane is found to be
60 feet longer when the sun's altitude is 30° than when it is 45°. Prove
that the height of the tower is 30 (1 + ^/3) feet.
15. On a straight coast there are three objects A, B, and С such
that AB = BC = 2 miles. A vessel approaches B in a line perpendicular
to the coast and at a certain point AC is found to subtend an angle of
60° ; after sailing in the same direction for ten minutes A G is found to
subtend 120° ; find the rate at which the ship is going.
46 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. VIII.]
16. Two flagstafis stand on a horizontal plane. A and B are two
points on the line joining the bases of the flagstafis and between them.
The angles of elevation of the tops of the flagstaffs as seen from A are
30° and 60° and, as seen from B, they are 60° and 45°. If the length AB
be 30 feet, find the heights of the flagstaffs and the distance between
them.
17. P is the top and Q the foot of a tower standing on a horizontal
plane. A and B are two points on this plane such that AB is
32 feet and QAB is a right angle. It is found that cot P4Q = 2g and
cot P£Q=|;
find the height of the tower.
18. A square tower stands upon a horizontal plane. From a point
in this plane, from which three of its upper corners are visible, their
angular elevations are respectively 45°, 60°, and 45°. Shew that the
height of the tower is to the breadth of one of its sides as (^/5 + 1)
to 4.
19. A lighthouse, facing north, sends out a fan-shaped beam of
light extending from north-east to north-west. An observer on a steamer,
sailing due west, first sees the light when it is 5 miles away from the
lighthouse and continues to see it for 30^/2 minutes. What is the
speed of the steamer?
20. A man stands at a point X on the bank XY of a river with
straight and parallel banks and observes that the line joining X to a
point Z on the opposite bank makes an angle of 30° with XY. He then
goes along the bank a distance of 200 yards to Y and finds that the angle
ZYX is 60°. Find the breadth of the river.
21. A man, walking due north, observes that the elevation of a
balloon, which is due east of him and is sailing toward the north-west,
is then 60° ; after he has walked 400 yards the balloon is vertically over
his head ; find its height supposing it to have always remained the same.
CHAPTER IV.
APPLICATION OF ALGEBRAIC SIGNS TO TRIGONOMETRY.
46. Positive and Negative Angles. In Art. 6, in

treating of angles of any size, we spoke of the revolving
line as if it always revolved in a direction opposite to that
in which the hands of a watch revolve, when the watch is
held with its face uppermost.
This direction is called counter-clockwise.
When the revolving line turns in this manner it is said
to revolve in the positive direction and to trace out a
positive angle.
When the line OP revolves in the opposite direction,
i.e. in the same direction as the hands of the watch, it is
said to revolve in the negative direction and to trace out
a negative angle. This negative direction is clockwise.
47. Let the revolving line start from OA and revolve

until it reaches a position OP, which
lies between OA' and OB' and which
bisects the angle A'OB'.
If it has revolved in the positive a'
direction, it has traced out the positive ^
angle whose measure is + 225°.
48 TRIGONOMETRY.
If it has revolved in the negative direction, it has

traced out the negative angle — 135°.
Again, suppose we only know that the revolving line is
in the above position. It may have made one, two, three
... complete revolutions and then have described the
positive angle + 225°. Or again, it may have made
one, two, three... complete revolutions, in the negative
direction and then have described the negative angle
- 135°.
In the first case, the angle it has described is either
225°,i.e.
or 225°,
360° +or225°,
585°,oror2 945°,
x 360°or+1305°....
225°, or 3 x 360° + 225°
In the second case, the angle it has described is — 135°,

or _ 360°
i.e. -- 135°,
135°, or - 495°,
2 x 360°
or -855°,
- 135°, or
or -1215°....
- 3 x 360° - 135°
48. Positive and Negative Lines. Suppose that

a man is told to start from a given milestone on a straight
road and to walk 1000 yards along the road and then to
stop. Unless we are told the direction in which he
started, we do not know his position when he stops. All
we know is that he is either at a distance 1000 yards on
one side of the milestone or at the same distance on the
other side.
In measuring distances along a straight line it is
therefore convenient to have a standard direction ; this
direction is called the positive direction and all distances
measured along it are said to be positive. The opposite
direction is called the negative direction, and all distances
measured along it are said to be negative.
The standard, or positive, directions for lines drawn
parallel to the foot of the page is towards the right.
POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE LINES. 49
The length OA is in the positive direction. The
length OA' is in the
negative direction. If g g A
the magnitude of the
distance OA or OA' be a, the point A is at a distance
+ a from 0 and thé point A' is at a distance — a from 0.
All lines measured to the right have then the positive
sign prefixed ; all lines to the left have the negative sign
prefixed.
If a point start from 0 and describe a positive distance
OA, and then a distance AB back again toward 0, equal
numerically to b, the total distance it has described
measured in the positive direction is OA + AB,
i.e. + a+ (— b), i.e. a — b.
49. For lines at right angles to AA', the positive
direction is from 0 towards the top of the page, i.e. the
direction of OB (Fig. Art. 47). All lines measured from
0 towards the foot of the page, i.e. in the direction OB',
are negative.
50. Trigonometrical ratios for an angle of any magni
tude.
Let OA be the initial line (drawn in the positive
direction) and let OA be drawn in
the opposite direction to OA.
Let BOB' be a line at right
angles to OA, its positive direction
being OB.
Let a revolving line OP start
from OA and revolving in either
direction, positive or negative, trace
L. T.
50 TRIGONOMETRY.
out an angle of any magnitude whatever. From a

point P in the revolving line draw PM perpendicular
to AOA'.
[Four positions of the revolving line are given in the figure, one in
each of the four quadrants, and the suffixes 1, 2, 3 and 4 are attached to
P for the purpose of distinction.]
We then have the following definitions, which are the

same as those given in Art. 23 for the simple case of an
acute angle :
MP
-Qp is called the Sine of the angle AOP,
OM
Cosine
OP
MP
Tangent
OM
OM
Cotangent
MP
OP
Secant
OM
OP
Cosecant
MP
The quantities 1— cos A OP, and 1 — sin AOP are
respectively called the Versed Sine and the Coversed
Sine of A OP.
51. In exactly the same manner as in Art. 27 it may

be shewn that, for all values of the angle AOP (= 9), we
have
ANGLES OF ANY MAGNITUDE. 51
sec20=l+tan20,
and cosec20 = 1 + cot20.
. 52. Signs of the trigonometrical ratios.
First quadrant. Let the revolving line be in the first
quadrant, as OPa. This revolving line is always positive.
Here OM1 and MJ3^ are both positive, so that all the
trigonometrical ratios are then positive.
Second quadrant. Let the revolving line be in the
second quadrant, as OP2. Here M2P2 is positive and ОМг
is negative.
The sine, being equal to the ratio of a positive quantity
to a positive quantity, is therefore positive.
The cosine, being equal to the ratio of a negative
quantity to a positive quantity, is therefore negative.
The tangent, being equal to the ratio of a positive
quantity to a negative quantity, is therefore negative.
The cotangent is negative.
The cosecant is positive.
The secant is negative.
Third quadrant. If the revolving line be, as OP3, in
the third quadrant, we have both M3P3 and OM3 negative.
The sine is therefore negative.
The cosine is negative.
The tangent is positive.
The cotangent is positive.
The cosecant is negative.
The secant is negative..
4—2
52 TRIGONOMETRY.
Fourth quadrant. Let the revolving line be in the

fourth quadrant, as OPt. Here Mft is negative and
OMt is positive.
The sine is therefore negative.
The cosine is positive.
The tangent is negative.
The cotangent is negative.
The cosecant is negative.
The secant is positive.
The annexed table shews the signs of the trigono
metrical ratios according to the quadrant in which lies
the revolving line, which bounds the angle considered.
sin + Sill +
cos - cos +
tan - tan •]
cot cot +
cosec + cosec +
sec - sec +
A' 0 A
sin — sin —
COS - COS -i-
tan + tan -
cot + cot -
cosec - cosec -
sec sec +
B'
63. Tracing of the changes in the sign and magnitude

of the trigonometrical ratios of an angle, as the angle
increases from 0° to 360°.
Let the revolving line OP be of constant length a.
CHANGES IN THE TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS. 53
When it coincides with OA, the

length 0MX is equal to a and,
when it coincides with OB, the
point M1 coincides with 0 and OM,
vanishes. Also, as the revolving a'
line turns from OA to OB, the dis
tance OM-i decreases from a to
zero.
Whilst the revolving line is in
the second quadrant and is revolving from OB to OA', the
distance 0M2 is negative and increases numerically from
0 to a [i.e. it decreases algebraically from 0 to — a].
In the third quadrant, the distance 0M3 increases
algebraically from — a to 0, and, in the fourth quadrant,
the distance 0Mt increases from 0 to a.
In the first quadrant, the length M^P^ increases from
0 to a ; in the second quadrant, M,Pt decreases from a to
0; in the third quadrant, M3P3 decreases algebraically
from 0 to — a; whilst in the fourth quadrant M4Pt
increases algebraically from — a to 0.
54. Sine.In the first quadrant, as the angle in-

MP 0
creases from 0 to 90°, the sine, i.e. ——1 , increases from -
a a
to — , i.e. from 0 to 1.
a
In the second quadrant, as the angle increases from
90° to 180°, the sine decreases from - to - , i.e. from 1 to 0.
a a
In the third quadrant, as the angle increases from 180°
to 270°, the sine decreases from - to — , i.e. from 0 to — 1.
a a
54 TRIGONOMETRY.
In the fourth quadrant, as the angle increases from

*~" (h 0
270° to 360°. the sine increases from — to - , i.e. from
a a
- 1 to 0.
55. Cosine. In the first quadrant the cosine, which
is equal to QM. decreases from - to - , i.e. from 1 to 0.
^ a a a
In the second quadrant, it decreases from - to —>,i.e.
a a
from 0 to — 1.
In the third quadrant, it increases from —- to -, i.e.
a a
from — 1 to 0.
In the fourth quadrant, it increases from - to -. i.e.
a a
from 0 to 1.
56. Tangent.In the first quadrant, MlP1 increases

MP
from 0 to a and 0M, decreases from a to 0, so that ','
continually increases (for its numerator continually in
creases and its numerator continually decreases).
When 0PX coincides with OA, the tangent is 0; when
the revolving line has turned through an angle which is
slightly less than a right angle, so that OPj nearly
coincides with OB, then MXP^ is very nearly equal to
MP
a and OM^ is very small. The ratio is therefore very
large, and the nearer OPj gets to OB the larger does the
ratio become, so that, by taking the revolving line near
enough to OB, we can make the tangent as large as we
please. This is expressed by saying that, when the angle
is equal to 90°, its tangent is infinite.
The symbol oo is used to denote an infinitely great

quantity. ,
Hence in the first quadrant the tangent increases from
0 to oo .
In the second quadrant, when the revolving line has
described an angle A0P3 slightly greater than a right
angle, MJ?z is very nearly equal to a and OM, is very
small and negative, so that the corresponding tangent is
very large and negative.
Also, as the revolving line turns from OB to OA ', MJPx
decreases from a to 0 and 0M2 is negative and decreases
from 0 to — a, so that when the revolving line coincides
with OA' the tangent is zero.
Hence, in the second quadrant, the tangent increases
from — x to 0.
In the third quadrant, both M3P3 and 0M3 are negative,
and hence their ratio is positive. Also, when the revolving
line coincides with OS, the tangent is infinite.
Hence, in the third quadrant, the tangent increases
from 0 to oo .
In the fourth quadrant, MtPt is negative and 0Mt is
positive, so that their ratio is negative. Also, as the
revolving line passes through OB' the tangent changes
from + oo to — oo [just as in passing through OB].
Hence, in the fourth quadrant, the tangent increases
from — oo to 0.
57. Cotangent. When the revolving line coincides

with OA, is very small and 0MX is very nearly
equal to a, so that the cotangent, i.e. the ratio > ^
infinite to start with. Also, as the revolving line rotates
56 TRIGONOMETRY.
from OA to OB, the quantity increases from 0 to a

and 0Ml decrease^ from a to 0.
Hence, in the first quadrant, the cotangent decreases
from ao to 0.
In the second quadrant, Jkf2P2 is positive and 0M%
negative, so that the cotangent decreases from 0 to — - ,
i.e. from 0 to — oo .
In the third quadrant, it is positive and decreases from
00 to 0 [for as the revolving line crosses OB' the cotangent
changes from — oo to oo ].
In the fourth quadrant, it is negative and decreases
from 0 to — oo .
58. Secant. When the revolving line coincides with
OA the value of 0MX is a, so that the value of the secant
is then unity.
As the revolving line turns from OA to OB, 0MX
decreases from a to 0, and when the revolving line
coincides with OB the value of the secant is ^ , i.e. oo .
Hence, in the first quadrant, the secant increases from
1 to oo .
In the second quadrant, 0M3 is negative and decreases
from 0 to — a. Hence, in this quadrant, the secant in
creases from — oo to — 1 [for as the revolving line crosses
OB the quantity 0MX changes sign and therefore the
secant changes from + oo to — oo ].
In the third quadrant, 0MZ is always negative and
increases from —a to 0; therefore the secant decreases
from — 1 to — oo . In the fourth quadrant, 0M1 is always
positive and increases from 0 to a. Hence, in this quad
rant, the secant decreases from oo to + 1.
59. Cosecant. The change in the cosecant may be

traced in a similar manner to that in the secant.
In the first quadrant, it decreases from oo to + L
In the second quadrant, it increases from +1 to + oo .
In the third quadrant, it increases from — oo to — 1.
In the fourth quadrant, it decreases from — 1 to — oo .
60. The foregoing results are collected in the annexed

table.
In the second quadrant, the In the first quadrant, the

sine decreases from 1 to 0 sine increases from 0 to 1
cosine decreases from Oto-1 cosine decreases from 1 to 0
tangent increases from - oo to 0 tangent increases from 0 to oo
cotangent decreases fronwO to-oo cotangent decreases from oo to 0
secant increases from -.90' to -1 secant increases from lto oo
cosecant increases from 1 to cosecant decreases from oo to 1
In the third quadrant, the In the fourth quadrant, the

sine decreases from Oto-1 Bine increases from - 1 to 0
cosine increases from- 1 to 0 cosine increases from 0 to 1
tangent increases from 0 to oo tangent increases from-oo to 0
cotangent decreases from oo to 0 cotangent decreases from 0 to-oo
secant decreases from - I to-oo secant decreases from oo to 1
cosecant increases from - oo to - 1 cosecant decreases from - 1 to - oo
61. Periods of the trigonometrical functions.

As an angle increases from 0 to 2ir radians, i.e. whilst the
revolving line makes a complete revolution, its sine first
increases from 0 to 1, then decreases from 1 to — 1, and
finally increases from —1 to 0, and thus the sine goes
through all its changes, returning to its original value.
58 TRIGONOMETRY.
Similarly, as the angle increases from 2ir radians to

4nr radians, the sine goes through the same series of
changes.
Also, the sines of any two angles which differ by four
right angles, i.e. 2tt radians, are the same.
This is expressed by saying that the period of the
sine is 2tt.
Similarly, the cosine, secant, and cosecant go through
all their changes as the angle increases by 2tt.
The tangent, however, goes through all its changes as
the angle increases from 0 to ir radians, i.e. whilst the
revolving line turns through two right angles. Similarly
for the cotangent.
The period of the sine, cosine, secant and cosecant is
therefore 2w radians; the period of the tangent and
cotangent is ir radians.
Since the values of the trigonometrical functions
repeat over and over again as the angle increases, they
are called periodic functions.
#62. The variations in the values of the trigono
metrical ratios may be graphically represented to the eye
by means of curves constructed in the following manner.
—"p--..
Ri' R3 R4./
* j
B,' B3
Sine-Curve.
Let OX and 0 Y be two straight lines at right angles
SINE-CURVE. 59
and let the magnitudes of angles be represented by-

lengths measured along OX.
Let R, R,, R,... be points such that the distances
OR, RR2, RR3,... are equal. If then the distance ORi
represent a right angle, the distances OR, OR, 0Rtl...
must represent two, three, four,... right angles.
Also, if P be any point on the line OX, then OP
represents an angle which bears the same ratio to a right
angle that OP bears to OR.
[For example, if OP be equal to \ OR1 , then OP would represent one-

third of a right angle; if P bisected RsRit then OP would represent 3J
right angles.]
Let also 0Rl be so chosen that one unit of length
represents one radian; since 0R3 represents two right
angles, i.e. ir radians, the length OR must be tr units of
length, i.e. about 3| units of length.
In a similar manner, negative angles are represented
by distances OR', OR',... measured from 0 in a negative
direction.
At each point P erect a perpendicular PQ to represent
the sine of the angle which is represented by OP ; if the
sine be positive, the perpendicular is to be drawn parallel
to OF in the positive direction; if the sine be negative,
the line is to be drawn in the negative direction.
[For example, since OR1 represents a right angle, the sine of which is
1, we erect a perpendicular R1B1 equal to one unit of length ; since 072;.
represents an angle equal to two right angles, the sine of which is zero,
we erect a perpendicular of length zero ; since 0R3 represents three right
angles, the sine of which is - 1, we erect a perpendicular equal to - 1,
i.e. we draw B^Bg downward and equal to a unit of length ; if OP were
equal to one-third of 0RV it would represent i of a right angle, i.e. 30°,
60 TRIGONOMETRY.
the sine of which is s , and so we should erect a perpendicular PQ equal

to one-half the unit of length.]
The ends of all these lines, thus drawn, would be

found to lie on a curve similar to the one drawn above.
It would be found that the curve consisted of portions,
similar to OBxR^Bi, placed side by side. This corre
sponds to the fact that each time the angle increases by
2tt, the sine repeats the same value.
#63. Cosine-Curve.
Q
R3'
- Ra' j \Hi R2
/R1' O P
v
The Cosine-Curve is obtained in the same manner as

the Sine-Curve, except that in this case the perpendicular
PQ represents the cosine of the angle represented by OP.
The curve obtained is the same as that of Art. 62 if in
that curve we move 0 to R1 and let OF be drawn along
#64. Tangent-Curve.
In this case, since the tangent of a right angle is

infinite and since OR^ represents a right angle, the per
pendicular drawn at iij must be of infinite length and
the dotted curve will only meet the line R^L at an infinite
distance.
TANGENT-CURVE. 61
Since the tangent of an angle slightly greater than a

right angle is negative and almost infinitely great, the
R,' RI /RS K3
dotted curve immediately beyond LRJL' commences at an

infinite distance on the negative side, i.e. below, OX,
The Tangent-Curve will clearly consist of an infinite
number of similar but disconnected portions, all ranged
parallel to one another. Such a curve is called a Discon
tinuous Curve. Both the Sine-Curve and the Cosine-
Curve are, on the other hand, Continuous Curves.
#65. Cotangent-Curve. If the curve to represent
the cotangent be drawn in a similar manner, it will be
found to meet О Т at an infinite distance above 0 ; it will
pass through the point Jij and touch the vertical line
through jR2 at an infinite distance on the negative side of
OX. Just beyond R2 it will start at an infinite distance
above Д,, and proceed as before.
The curve is therefore discontinuous and will consist
of an infinite number of portions all ranged side by side.
62 TRIGONOMETRY.
*66. Cosecant-Curve.
Y ! Í
\ /
R2* Ri'
4/
TBi
i
[
° RI R2
Ra
1
' /-ВЗЧ
/ \ /
/ \ / \
/ \ / \
5 ',
/ \
When the angle is zero, the sine is zero, and the

cosecant is therefore infinite.
Hence the curve meets O Y at infinity.
When the angle is a right angle, the cosecant is unity,
and hence J^Bi ig equal to the unit of length.
When the angle is equal to two right angles its
cosecant is infinity, so that the curve meets the perpen
dicular through R2 at an infinite distance.
Again, as the angle increases from slightly less to
slightly greater than two right angles, the cosecant
changes from + oo to — oo .
Hence just beyond A¡ the curve commences at an
infinite distance on the negative side of, i.e. below, OX.
#67. Secant-Curve. If, similarly, the Secant-Curve
be traced it will be found to be the same as the Cosecant-
Curve would be if we moved O Y to
ANGLES OF ANY SIZE. 63
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES. IX.

1. In a triangle one angle contains as many grades as another con
tains degrees, and the third contains as many centesimal seconds as
there are sexagesimal seconds in the sum of the other two ; find the
number of radians in each angle.
2. Find the number of degrees, minutes, and seconds in the angle at
the centre of a circle, whose radius is 5 feet, which is subtended by an arc
of length 6 feet.
3. To turn radians into seconds, prove that we must multiply by
206265 nearly, and to turn seconds into radians the multiplier must be
■0000048.
4. If sin 0 equal %— find the values of cos 8 and cot 0.
x2+y3
■ n m? + 2mn
5- K 8mg=m» + 2m« + 2„-"
m«+2mn
prove
r that tan 0 = 2mn + 2n2
^-s .
6. If cos 0 - sin e = ,j2 sin 0,
prove that cos 8 + sin 8 = cos 0.
7. Prove that
cosec6 a - cot8 a = 3 cosec2 a cot2 a + 1.
8. Express 2 sec2 A - sec4 A - 2 cosec2 A + cosec4 A
in terms of tan A .
9. Solve the equation 3 cosec2 0 = 2 sec 0.
10. A man on a cliff observes a boat at an angle of depression of
30°, which is making for the shore immediately beneath him. Three
minutes later the angle of depression of the boat is 60°. How soon will
it reach the shore ?
11. Prove that the equation sin 0 = x + ^ is impossible if x be real.
12. Shew that the equation sec2 e = |~j~p is only possible when
x=y.
CHAPTER V.
TRIGONOMETRICAL FUNCTIONS OF ANGLES OF ANY

SIZE AND SIGN.
[On a first reading of the subject, the student is recommended

to confine his attention to the first of the four figures given in
Arts. 68, 69, 70, and 72.]
68. To find the trigonometrical ratios of an angle
{ — &) in terms of those of 6, for all values of 8.
ANGLES OF ANY SIZE AND SIGN. 65
Let the revolving line, starting from OA, revolve

through any angle в and stop in the position OP.
Draw PM perpendicular to OA (or OA produced) and
produce it to P1, so that the lengths of PM and MP' are
equal.
In the geometrical triangles MOP and MOP", we have
the two sides OM and MP equal to the two OM and
MP, and the included angles OMP and OMP' are right
angles.
Hence (Eue. I. 4), the magnitudes of the angles MOP
and MOP' are the same, and OP is equal to OP'.
In each of the four figures, the magnitudes of the
angle AOP (measured counter-clockwise) and of the angle
AOP' (measured clockwise) are the same.
Hence the angle A OP (measured clockwise) is
denoted by —в.
Also MP and MP' are equal in magnitude but are
opposite in sign. (Art. 49.) We have therefore
. . д. MP -MP . a
sin ( - 0) = = ~- = - sin в,
ом ом
tan ( - в) = 7Ш- =^7TW = - tan в,

OM OM
OM OM
cosec ( - 0) = OP OP = - cosec 0,
-.™ = —^
and
L. T.
66 TRIGONOMETRY.
[In this article, and the following articles, the values of the last four
trigonometrical ratios may be found, without reference to the figure,
from the values of the first two ratios.
tan(-*> = ^=^=-tan*,
cos(- 9) COS0
cos (- »)_ COS ff
sin ( - 0) - sin B
1 1
sin ( - 6)~ -sinfl
1 1
and sec(-0) = cos (-
») cos0 —
Eu sin(-30°)= -sin30°= -|,
tan ( - 60°) = - tan 60° =->J3,
and cos (-45°) = 008 45°=-^.
69. To find the trigonometrical ratios of the angle

(90° — 6) in terms of those of 9, for all values of 8.
The relations have already been discussed in Art. 39,
for values of 6 less than a right angle.
any angle AOP denoted by 6.
To obtain the angle 90° — 6, let the revolving line
rotate to B and then rotate from B in the ' opposite
direction through the angle 6, and let the position of the
revolving line be then OP'.
The angle AOP is then 90° - d.
Take OF equal to OP, and draw P'M' and PM per
pendicular to OA, produced if necessary. Also draw P'N'
perpendicular to OB, produced if necessary.
In each figure, the angles AOP and BOP are numeri

cally equal, by construction.
Hence, in each figure,

/. MOP = z N'OP' = z OPM,
since OA7"' and MP' are parallel.
Hence the triangles MOP and M'P'O are equal in all
respects, and therefore OM=M'P numerically,
and OM = MP numerically.
Also, in each figure, OM and MP' are of the same
sign, and so also are MP and OM',
i.e. 0M = + MP, and 0M = + MP.
5—2
es TRIGONOMETRY.
Hence
sin (90° - в) = sin A OP = ~ = ^p
cos (90° - B) = cos A OP = ~ = ^ = sin в,
tan (90° - ff) = tan A OP = ~ = = cot 0,
cot (90° -0) = cot vl OP' = ~> = = tan 0,

OP' OP
sec (90° - ff) = sec ¿ OP' = - = = cosec 0,
OP' op
and cosec (90° — 0) = cosec A OP' = тггт™ = тут> = *
70. To find the trigonometrical ratios of the angle

(90° + в) in terms of those of в, for all values of в.
\ B
p
M' M 'X
s
; О
M'
\

any angle 0 and let OP be the position of the revolving
line then, so that the angle AOP is 0.
Let the revolving line turn through a right angle from
OP in the positive direction to the position OP', so that
the angle AOP' is (90° + 0).
Take OF equal to OP and draw PM and PM
perpendicular to AO, produced if necessary. In each
figure, since POP' is a right angle, the sum of the angles
MOP and P'OM' is always a right angle.
Hence ^ MOP = 90° - Z POM' = /. 0PM.
The two triangles MOP and MPO are therefore equal
in all respects.
Hence OM and M'P are numerically equal, as also
MP and OM' are numerically equal.
In each figure, OM and MP have the same sign,
whilst MP and OM' have the opposite sign, so that
MP' = + OM, and OM' = - MP.
We therefore have
sin (90° + 0) = sin AOP = ^ = ^= cob 6,
(cos 90° + 0) = cos A0P = ^p, = =^ = - Bin 0,
tan (90° + 0) = tan A OP = ^~ = f^p = - cot 0,
OM —MP
cot (90° + 0) = cot 40P* = = = - tan 0,
OP OP
sec (90° + 0) = sec J. OP' = = _j^p — — cosec 0,
OP' OP
and cosec (90° + 0) = cosec 4 OP = jgTp = ^jjf = sec 0.
70 TRIGONOMETRY.
cos 135°= eos (90= + 45e) =- sin 45== - ^v

v»
and tan 120°= tan (90° + 30=)= -cot 30== -^
71 Supplementary Angles.
Two angles are said to be supplementary when their
sum is equal to two right angles, i.e. the supplement of
any angle в is 180° - в.
•Ex*. The supplement of 30°= 180° - 30== 150°.
The supplement of 120= = 180° - 120°= «P.
The supplement of 275= = 180= - 275= = - 96°.
The supplement of - 126° = 180= - ( - 126°) = 306°.
72. To find the values of the trigonometrical ratios of
the angle (180° — 0) in terms of those of the angle в, for all
values of в.
\„ /
7f\-
Ai-
M О. M'
p'
\
I
Let the revolving line start from OA and describe any
angle АОP (= в).
To obtain the angle 180° - 6, let the revolving line

start from OA and, after revolving through two right
angles (i.e. into the position OA'), then revolve back
through an angle 6 into the position OP', so that the angle
A' OP" is equalin magnitude but opposite in sign to the
angle AOP.
The angle AOP is then 180° - 6.
Take OP' equal to OP, and draw PM" and PM
perpendicular to AOA'.
The angles MOP and MOP' are equal, and hence the
triangles MOP and M'OP are equal in all respects.
Hence OM and OM' are equal in magnitude, and so
also are MP and M'P.
In each figure, OM and OM' are drawn in opposite
directions, whilst MP and M'P are drawn in the same
direction, so that
OM' = - OM, and MP = + MP.
Hence we have
sin (18O°-0)=sin,l 0P'=^ = ^ = sin 6,
cob (ISO0 -6) = cos A OP' _ ^ - -~ = - cos 6,
M'P' MP
tan (180° - 6) = tan A OP = = _ ^ = - tan 0,
cot (180° - 0) = cot A0P= = ~°p =-cot0,
OP' OP
sec (180° - 0) = sec 4 OP' = g=^, = = - sec 0,
OP' OP
and cosec (180° — 0) = cosec .4 OP = j^rp = -^p = cosec 8.
72 TRIGONOMETRY.
Ex.. sin 120° = sin (180° - 60°) = sin 60° = ^ ,
cos 135°= cos (180° - 45°)= - cos 45°= - 4s -
and tan 150°= tan (180° -30°)= -tan30°=-4a-

v3
73. To find the trigonometrical ratios of (180° + 0) in
terms of those of 6, for all values of 0.
The required relations may be obtained geometrically,
as in the previous articles. The figures for this propo
sition are easily obtained and are left as an example for
the student.
They may also be deduced from the results of Art. 70,
which have been proved true for all angles. For putting
90° + 0 = B, we have
sin ( 1 80° + 6) = sin (90° + B) = cos B (Art. 70)
= cos (90° + 0) = -sin 6, (Art. 70)
and cos(18O° + 0)=cos(9O°+B) = -sinJB (Art. 70)
= - sin (90° + 0) = - cos 6. (Art. 70).
So tan (180° + 0) = tan (90° + B) = - cot B

= - cot (90° + d) = tan d,
and similarly cot (180° + 0) = cot 0,
sec (180° + 0) = - sec 0,
and cosec (180° + 0) = — cosec 0.
74. To find the trigonometrical ratios of an angle

(360° + 9) in terms of those of 0, for all values of 0.
In whatever position the revolving line may be when

it has described any angle d, it will be in exactly the same
position when it has made one more complete revolution
in the positive direction, i.e. when it has described an
angle 360° + 6.
Hence the trigonometrical ratios for an angle 360° + 0
are the same as those for 0.
It follows that the addition or subtraction of 360°, or
any multiple of 360°, to or from any angle does not alter
its trigonometrical ratios.
75. From the theorems of this chapter it follows that

the trigonometrical ratios of any angle whatever can be
reduced to the determination of the trigonometrical ratios
of an angle which lies between 0° and 45°.
For example,
sin 1765° = sin [4 x 360° + 325°] =» sin 325° (Art. 74)
= sin (180° + 145°) = - sin 145° (Art. 73)
= - sin (180° - 35°) = - sin 35° (Art. 72);
• tan 1190° = tan (3 x 360° + 110°) = tan 110° (Art. 74)
= tan (90° + 20°) = - cot 20° (Art. 70) ;

and cosec ( — 1465°) = — cosec 1465° (Art. 68)
= - cosec (4 x 360° + 25°) = - cosec 25° (Art. 74).
Similarly any other such large angles may be treated.
First, multiples of 360° should be subtracted until the
angle lies between 0° and 360° ; if it be then greater than
180°, it should be reduced by 180° ; if then greater than
90°, the formulae of Art. 70 should be used, and finally, if
necessary, the formulae of Art. -69 applied.
74 TRIGONOMETRY.
76. The table of Art. 40 may now be extended to

some important angles greater than a right angle.
Angle lor 30° 45° 60° 90° 120° 135° 150° 180°
Sine 1 1 73 73 1 1
0 1 0
2 2 2 72 2
Cosine l i 1 1 1
2 0 -1
, 2, 2 V2 2
Tangent 0 1 1
i N/3 00 -v/3 -1 0
73
Cotangent 00 i 1 1
V3 0 -1 -73 00
V3 V3
r
Cosecant 00 2 2 2
1 n/2 2 00
73 78
Secant 1 2 2
n/2 2 00 -2 -72 -1
i x/3 75
EXAMPLES. X.
Prove that
1. Bin 420° cos 390° + cos ( - 300°) sin ( - 330°) = 1.
2. cos 570° sin 510° - sin 330° cos 390° = 0.
and 3. tan 225° cot 405° + tan 765° cot 675° =0.
What are the values of cos A- sin A and tan A+ cot A when A has
the values
4. 3, 5. T, 6. T. 7. T and 8. 3 f
[Exs. X.] EXAMPLES. 75
What values between 0° and 360° may A have when
9. smA = j2> 10. cosA = -~, 11.
12. cot4 = -v/3, 13. sec .4= —-щ and 14. cosec^=-2?
Express in terms of the ratios of a positive angle, which is less than
45°, the quantities
15. sin (-66°). 16. cos (-84°). 17. tan 137°.
18. sin 168°. 19. cos 287°. 20. tan (-246°).
21. sin 843°. 22. cos (-928°). 23. tan 1145°.
24. cos 1410°. 25. cot (-1054°). 26. sec 1327° and
27. cosec ( - 756°).
What sign has sin A + cos A for the following values of A ?
28. 140°. 29. 278°. 30. -356° and 31. -1125°.
What sign has sin A — cos A for the following values of A ?
32. 215°. 33. 825°. 34. -634° and 35. -457°.
36. Find the sines and cosines of all angles in the first four quadrants
whose tangents are equal to cos 135°.
Prove that
37. sin (270° + A) = - cos A, and tan (270° + A) = - cot A.
38. сов(270°-Л)=-8шЛ, and cot (270° -A) = tan A.
40. sec (270° - A) sec (90° - A) + tan (270° -A) tan (90° + A) + 1 = 0.
41.
CHAPTER VI.
GENERAL EXPRESSIONS FOR ALL ANGLES HAVING A

GIVEN TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIO.
77. To construct the least positive angle whose sine is

equal to a, where a is a proper fraction.
Let OA be the initial line, and let OB be drawn in the
positive direction perpendicular to OA.
Measure off along OB a distance
ON which is equal to a units of length. •' ^
[If a be negative the point N will lie in , ^_ ,.A
BO produced.]
Through N draw NP parallel to OA. With centre 0,
and radius equal to the unit of length, describe a circle
and let it meet NP in P.
Then AOP will be the required angle.
Draw PM perpendicular to OA, so that
MP ON a
The sine of AOP is therefore equal to the given

quantity, and hence AOP is the angle required.
ANGLES HAVING A GIVEN COSINE. 77
78. To construct the least positive angle whose cosine
is equal to b, where b is a proper fraction.
Along the initial line measure off a distance OM equal
to b and draw MP perpendicular to OA.
[If b be negative, M will lie on the other
side of 0 in the line АО produced.]
With centre 0, and radius equal to
unity, describe a circle and let it meet
MP in P.
Then AOP is the angle required. For
.nv OM b ,
cos AOP = -rrf; = Y = b.
79. To construct the least positive angle whose tangent

is equal to c.
Along the initial line measure off
OM equal to unity, and erect a per
pendicular MP. Measure off MP
equal to c. M
Then
MP
so that AOP is the required angle.

80. It is clear from the definition given in Art. 50,
that, when an angle is given, so also is its sine. The
converse statement is not correct ; there is more than one
angle having a given sine ; for example, the angles 30°,
150°, 390°, - 210°,... all have their sine equal to £.
Hence, when the sine of an angle is given, we do not
definitely know the angle ; all we know is that the angle
is one out of a large number of angles.
78 TRIGONOMETRY.
Similar statements are true if the cosine, tangent, or

any other trigonometrical function of the angle be given.
Hence, simply to give one of the trigonometrical
functions of an angle does not determine it without
ambiguity.
81. Suppose we know that the revolving line OP
coincides with the initial line OA. All we know is that
the revolving line has made 0, or 1, or 2, or 3,... complete
revolutions, either positive or negative.
But when the revolving line has made one complete
revolution, the angle it has described is (Art. 17) equal to
2w radians. <
Hence, when the revolving line OP coincides with the
initial line OA, the angle that it has described is 0, or 1,
or 2, or 3... times 27r radians, in either the positive or
negative directions, i.e. either 0, or + 2tt, or + 4tir, or ± Sir. . .
radians.
This is expressed by saying that when the revolving
line coincides with the initial line the angle it has de
scribed is 2n7r, where n is some positive or negative
integer.
82. Theorem. To find a general expression to in
clude all angles which have the same sine.
Let AOP be any angle having the given sine, and
let it be denoted by a.
Draw PM perpendicular to OA
and produce MO to M, making , ")f
OM' equal to MO, and draw M'P' ( \
parallel and equal to MP. a'TP m~!a
As in Art. 72, the angle AOP'
is equal to ir — a.
ANGLES HAVING THE SAME SINE. 79
When the revolving line is in either of the positions

OP or OP", and in no other position, the sine of the angle
traced out is equal to the given sine.
When the revolving line is in the position OP, it has
made a whole number of complete revolutions and then
described an angle a, i.e., by the last article, it has described
an angle equal to
2r-rr + a (1)
where r is zero or some positive or negative integer.
When the revolving line is in the position OP', it has,
similarly, described an angle 2rir + AOP", i.e. an angle
2nr + 7r — a,
i.e. (2r+l)7r-a (2)
All these angles will be found to be included in the
expression
mr+{- l)»a (3),
where n is zero or a positive or negative integer.
For, when n = 2r, since (— 1)^ = + 1, the expression (3)
gives 2rv + a, which is the same as the expression (1).
Also, when n = 2r + 1, since (— 1)^+' = — 1, the expres
sion (3) gives (2r + 1)tt — a, which is the same as the
expression (2).
Cor. Since all angles which have the same sine have
also the same cosecant, the expression (3) includes all
angles which have the same cosecant as a.
83. Theorem. To find a general expression to in
clude all angles which have the same cosine.
Let AOP be any angle having the given cosine, and
let it be denoted by a.
80 TRIGONOMETRY.
Draw PM perpendicular to OA and pro

duce it to P', making PM equal to MP'.
When the revolving line is in the position
OP or OP', and in no other position, then, as
in Art. 78, the cosine of the angle traced out
is equal to the given cosine.
When the revolving line is in the position OP, it has
described an angle a, i.e. it has described an angle 2nir + a,
where n is zero or some positive or negative integer.
When the revolving line is in the position OP', it has
described an angle — a, i.e. it has described an angle 2mr— or.
All these angles are included in the expression
2n7r + a (1)
Cor. The expression (1) includes all angles having

the same secant as a.
84. Theorem. To find a general expression for all

angles which have the same tangent.
Let A OP be any angle having the given tangent,
and let it be denoted by a.
Produce PO to F, making OP' x „
equal to OP, and draw PM' per- /
pendicular to OM'. I
As in Art. 73, the angles AOP it*'
and AOP' have the same tangent; I
also the angle A OP' = it + a. f\
When the revolving line is in
ANGLES HAVING THE SAME TANGENT. 81
the position OP, it has described a whole number of

complete revolutions and then turned through an angle
a, i.e. it has described an angle
2nr + a (1),
When the revolving line is in the position OP', it has
similarly described an angle 2nr + (ir + a),
i.e. (2r + 1) ir + a (2).
All these angles are included in the expression
rnr + a (3),
For, when n is even, (= 2r say), the expression (3)
gives the same angles as the expression (1).
Also, when n is odd, (= 2r + 1 say), it gives the same
angles as the expression (2).
Cor. The expression (3) includes all angles which
have the same cotangent as a.
85. In Arts. 82, 83, and 84 the angle a is any angle

satisfying the given condition. In practical examples it
is, in general, desirable to take a as the smallest positive
angle which is suitable.
Ex. 1. Write down the general expression for all angles,
/g ,
(1) whose sine is equal to ~-
(2) whose cosine is equal to - | ,
and (3) whose tangent is equal to i .

V8
(1) The smallest angle, whose sine is is 60°, i.e. ^ .
L. T. 6
82 TRIGONOMETRY.
Hence, by Art. 82, the general expression for all the angles which
have this sine is
fW+(-l)»g.
(2) The smallest positive angle, whose cosine is - ^ ,
is 120°, i.e.2—.
о
have this cosine is
(3) The smallest positive angle, whose tangent is —= ,

Vd
is 30°, i.e. ~ .
have this tangent is
Ex, a. What is the most general value of в satisfying the equation

1?
Here we have sin 8= ± - .

¿
Taking the upper sign,
Taking the lower sign,
Putting both solutions together, we have
or, what is the same expression,

EXAMPLES. 83
Ex. 3. What is the most general value of в which satisfies both of the
equation* sin в = - д and tan 0= -= ?
¿ \J>>
Considering only angles between 0° and 360°, the only values of в,
when sin 9= - s , are 210° and 330°. Similarly, the only values of в, when
SI
tan^-^, are 30° and 210°.
Kja
The only value of 0, between 0° and 360°, satisfying both conditions

is therefore 210°, i.e. ^ .
b
The most general value is hence obtained by adding any multiple
of four right angles to this angle, and hence is 2mr + - - , where n is any
positive or negative integer.
EXAMPLES. XI.
What are the most general values of 0 which satisfy the equations,
1. sin0=5. 2. sm0=-x~. 3. sin0 = -75.
4. C080=-l. 5. COS0=^p. 6. 4/2'

7. tan0=V3. 8. tan0= -I. 9. cot 0=1.
2
10. sec 0 = 2. 11. cosec0= -7^.
V3
12. sin20=l.
1
13. cos -^. 14. tan20=i. 15. 4 sin2 0=3.
16. 2cot20 = coseos0. 17.
v
18. What is the most general value of 0 that satisfies both of the
•equations
cos0= - -jñ and tan0 = l?
19. What is the most general value of 0 that satisfies both of the
•equations
cot0= -V3 and cosec0= -2?
6—2
84 TRIGONOMETRY. [ExS. XL]
20. H cos (A - B) = ^ , and sin (A + B) = i , find the smallest positive

values of A and B and also their most general values.
2 , find the smallest positive
21. If tan (A - B) = 1, and sec (A + B) = -j-
values of A and B and also their most general values.
22. Find the angles between 0° and 360° which have respectively (1)
their sines equal to ^j- , (2) their cosines equal to - - , and (3) their tan-
gents equal to .
23. Taking into consideration only angles less than 180°, how many
values of x are there if (1) sinx = =5 , (2) eosx=j,
1 (3) cosx = --,
4
to o
(4)tanx=-,2 and (5) cotx=-7?
24. Given the angle x construct the angle y if (1) sin y = 2 sin x,
(2) tan y — 3 tan x, (3) cos y = | cos x, and (4) sec y = cosec x.
25. Shew that the same angles are indicated by the two following
formulae : (1) (2« - 1) ^ + ( - l)n ^ , and (2) 2nx ± ~ , n being any integer.
26. Prove that the two formulae

(1) ^2re+|jx±o and (2) jmt+(-1)» (|-«)
denote the same angles, n being any integer.
Illustrate by a figure.
27. If fl-o=7iir+(-l)"jS, prove that 0=2mir + a + jS or else that
0=(2m + l)ir + a-/S, where m and n are any integers.
28. If cos p0 + cos q6=0, prove that the different values of 8 form two
arithmetical progressions in which the common differences are 2ir and
2tt respectively.
p~q
29. Construct the angle whose sine is ^j-—w .
EQUATIONS. 85
86. An equation involving the trigonometrical ratios

of an unknown angle is called a trigonometrical equation.
The equation is not completely solved unless we
obtain an expression for all the angles which satisfy it.
Some elementary types of equations are solved in the
following article.
87. Ex. 1. Solve the equation 2 sin2x + ^3 cos x + 1 = 0.
The equation may be written
2 - 2 cos2 ж + v/3 cos ж + 1 = 0,
i.e. 2 cos2 ж -^3 cos ж -3 = 0,
i.e. (cos 3-
/3 .
The equation is therefore satisfied by cos x = д/3, or cos x = — ~-
2
Since the cosine of an angle cannot be numerically greater than unity,
the first factor gives no solution.
The smallest positive angle, whose cosine is - ^-, is 150°, i.e. -^ .
Hence the most general value of the angle, whose cosine is - ~ /3 ,
a
is 2mr±y . (Art. 83.)
This is the general solution of the given equation.
Ex. Я. fiolvc the equation tan 59 = cot 20.
Now the most general value of the angle, that has the same tangent as
I -29, is, by Art. 84, nir+|-20,
•where n is any positive or negative integer.
The most general solution of the equation is therefore
where n is any integer.

86 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XII.]
EXAMPLES. XII.
Solve the equations
1. cos2 0- sin 0-^=0.
4 2. 2sin20 + 3cos0 = O.
3. 2^3 cos2 0 = sin 0. 4. cos 0 + cos2 0=1.
5. 4 cos 0 - 3 sec 0 = 2 tan 0. 6. sin20-2co80 + j=O.
7. tan2 0 - (1 + V3) tan 0 + J3 . =0.
8. cot20 + (V3 + J3) 004 9 + 1 = 0.
D. cot 0 - 06 tan 0 = a - 6. 10. tan2 0 + cot2 0 = 2.
11. sec0-l = (V2-l)tan0. 12. 3(sec20 + tan20) = 5.
13. cot0 + tan0=2cosec0. 14. 4 cos2 0 + V3 = 2 (^3 + 1) cos 9.
15. 3sin20-2sin0 = l. 16. sin 50=-L.
17. sin 90 = sin 0. 18. sin 30 = sin 20.
19. cosm0 = eosn0. 20. Bin 20 = cos 30.
21. cos 50= cos 40. 22. cosm0=sinn0.
23. cot 0 = tan 80. 24. cot 0= tan n0.
25. tan 20= tan 25. 26. tan20tan0=l.
V
27. tan2 30 = cot2 a. 28. tan 30 = cot 0.
29. tan2 30= tan2 a. 30. 3 tan2 0 = 1.
31. tan mx+eotnx = V. 32. tan {it cot 0) = cot (w tan 0) .
1
33. sin(0-0)=|, and cos(0 + 0) = 2"
34. cos (2x + 3j/) = g , and cos (3x + 2y) = ^- .

35. Find all the angles between 0° and 90° which satisfy the equation
seo2 0 cosec2 0 + 2 cosec2 0 = 8.
36. If tan2 0= j , find versin 0 and explain the double result.
37. K tb-6 coversin of an angle be ^ , find its cosine and cotangent.
CHAPTER VII.
TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS OF THE SUM AND DIFFERENCE

OF TWO ANGLES.
88. Theorem. To prove that

sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B,
and cos (A +B) = cos A cos B — sin A sin B.
Let the revolving line start from OA and trace out

the angle A OB (=A), and then trace out the further
angle BOO (= B).
In the final position of the revolving line take any
point P, and draw PM and PN perpendicular to OA and
OB respectively; through N draw NR parallel to A 0 to
meet MP in R, and draw NQ perpendicular to OA.
The angle
RPN = 90° - Z PNR = Z .RifO = Z iWQ = 4.
88 TKIGONOMETKY.
tt ■ (a , m • aht> MP MR+RP
Hence sin {A + B) = sin J. OP = jyp = —gp—
_QN RP_QNON RPNP
~ 0P + OP ON OP + NP OP
= sin A cos B + cos RPN sin B.
:. sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B.
<a m ,nD 01 OQ-MQ
Again cos(^l + P) = cos J. OP = Qp = gp
= 0^_BN^qQON_RNNP fv.
OP OP OiV OP NP OP . ;
= cos J. cos £ — sin PPiV sin P.
.'. cos (A + B) = cos A cos B — sin A sin B.
89. The figures in the last article have been drawn only for the case
in which A and B are acute angles.
The same proof will be found to apply to angles of any size, due
attention being paid to the signs of the quantities involved.
The results may however be shewn to be true of all angles, without
drawing any more figures, as follows.
Let A and B be acute angles, so that, by Art. 88, we know that the
theorem is true for A and B.
Let A^W+A, so that, by Art. 70, we have
sin A1 = aoa A, and cosA1— - sin A.
Then sin (41 + B) = sin {90° + (^ + B)} =cos {A + B), by Art. 70,
=cos A cos B- sin A sin B = smA1 cos B + cos AJ sinB.
Also cos (A-l + B) = cos [90° + (A + B)] = - sin (A + B)
= - sin A cos B - cos A sin B = cos A1 cos B - sin A1 sin B.
Similarly, we may proceed if B be increased by 90°.
Hence the formulae of Art. 88 are true if either A or B be increased
by 90°, i.e. they are true if the component angles lie between 0° and
180°.
Similarly, by putting Ai=Q0° + A1, we can prove the truth of the
theorems when either or both of the component angles have values
between 0° and 270°.
By proceeding in this way, we see that the theorems are true uni
versally.
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION FORMULA. 89
90. Theorem. To prove that

sin (A — B) = sin A cos B — cos A sin B,
and cos (A — B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin 5.
Let the revolving line starting from the initial line
OA trace out the angle
AOB (= A), and then, re
volving in the opposite di
rection, trace out the angle
BOG, whose magnitude is
B. The angle A 0G is there
fore A—B.
Take a point P in the Q-
final position of the revolv
ing line, and draw PM and PN perpendicular to OA and
OB respectively ; from N draw NQ and NR perpendicular
to OA and MP respectively.
The angle RPN= 90°- Z PNR= Z RNB= z Q0N=A.
Hence
■ ,a m ■ i/m MP MR-PR QN PR
sin (A-B) = smAOC=Qp-= Qp 0P~0P
_QN0N _ PRPN
~0N 0P PN OP
= sin A cos B — cos RPN sin 5,
so that sin (A — B) = sin A cos B — cos A sin B.
n, OM OQ + QM OQ^NR
Also cos (A - B) = oT = = op + op
OQ ON NR NP . D . ..„„ . n
= op + ]yp op = c°s -4 cos iJ + sin JMPR sin if,
so that cos (A - B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B.

90 TRIGONOMETRY.
91. The proofs of the previous article will be found to apply to
angles of any size, provided that due attention be paid to the signs of
the quantities involved.
Assuming the truth of the formulae for acute angles, we can shew
them to be true universally without drawing any more figures.
For, putting vl1 = 90°+.4, we have,
(since sin A^= cos A, and cos At= -AaA),
sin (î - B) = sin [90° + (A - B)] = cos (A - B) (Art. 70)
= cos.4 cos 2? + sin A sinB
= sin A1 cos B - cos Ar sin B.
Also cos {A1 - B) = cos [90° + {A -B)]=- sin (4 - B) (Art. 70)
= - sin A cos B + cos A sin B
= cos^1cos-B + sin41sinS.
Similarly we may proceed if B be increased by 90°.
Hence the theorem is true for all angles which are not greater than
two right angles.
So, by putting .42 = 90° + .A1, we may shew the theorems to be true for
all angles less than three right angles, and so on.
Hence, by proceeding in this manner, we may shew that the theorems
are true for all angles whatever.
92. The theorems of Arts. 88 and 90, which give

respectively the trigonometrical functions of the sum and
differences of two angles in terms of the functions of the
angles themselves, are often called the Addition and
Subtraction Theorems.
93. Ex. 1. Find the values of sin 75° and cos 75°.
sin 75° = sin (45° + 30°) = sin 45° cos 30° + oos 45° sin 30°
-_L 1 1->J3 + 1
~V2 " 2 2" 2^2 '
and cos 75° = cos (45° + 30°) = cos 45° cos 30° - sin 45° sin 30°
_ 1 V3 _ 1 1 _ y/3-1
~V2 2 V2 2~ 2^2 '
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION FORMULAE. 91
Ex. 3. Prove that sin (A + B) sin {A - B)= sin- A -«t'n2B,
and cos (A + B) cos (A -B) = cos1 A - tin1 B.
By Arts. 88 and 90, we have
sin (A + B). Bin (A -B) = (sin.4cosB + cos.<l sinB)(sin.dcosB -oos^sinB)
= sin2 A cos2 B - cos2 A sin2 B = sin2 A (1 - sin2 B) - (1 - sin2 A) . sin2 B
= sin3 .4- sin2 B.
Again, by the same articles, we have
cos (A + B) cos [A - B) = (cos A cos £ - sin A sin B) (cos A cos B + sin .4 sin B)
= cos2 ^ cos2 B - sin2 4 sin2 B =cos2 A {I- sin2 B) - (1 - cos2 A) sin2 B
= cos2 .4 - sin2 B.
Ex. 3. Assuming the formulae for sin (x + y) and cos (x + y), deduce
the formulae for sin (a: - y) and cos (x - y).
We have
sin x = sin {(x-y) + y} = sin(x -y) cosy +cos (x-y) sin y (1),
and cos x = cos {(x-y) + y} = cos (x- y)coay - sin (x -y) siny (2).
Multiplying (I) by cosy and (2) by sin y and subtracting, we have
sin x cosy - cos x sin y = sin (x-y) {cos2y + sin2y} = sin (x-y).
Multiplying (1) by sin y and (2) by cos y and adding, we have
sin xsiny + cos xoos y = cos (x-y) {cos2y + sin2y} = cos (x-y).
Hence the two formulae required are proved.
These two formulae are true for all values of the angles, since the
formnlae from which they are derived are true for all values.
EXAMPLES. XIII.
1. If sin a==3 and cos/S= jt,

9 find the value of Bin (a-8)andeos(a + S).
2. If sina = ^ 53 and sin 3 = ft,

od find the values of sin (a -8) and
sin (a+8).
3. If sin a = 15 12 , find the values of sin (a + 8) , cos (a - 8) ,
j= and cos 8 = ^
and tan (a + 8).
Prove that
4. cos (45° - A) cos (45° - B) - sin (45° - A) sin (45° - B) = sin (A + B).
92 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. HE]
5. sin (45° + A) oos (45° - B) + cos (45° + A) sin (45° - B) = cos (A - B).
sin(A-B) ain(B-C) | sin(C-^)_Q
cos A cos B cos B cos C cos G cos .4 —
7. sin 105° + cos 105° = cos 45°.
8. sin 75° -sin 15° = cos 105° + cos 15°.
9. cos a cos (7 - a) - sin a sin (7 - a) = cos 7.
10. cos (o+/3) COS7-COS (|3 + 7)cosa=sin/3sin (7-0).
11. sin (n + 1) A sin (n - 1) A + cos (n + 1) A cos (n - 1) A = cos 2A.
12. sin (re + 1) A sin (n + 2) 4 + cos (n + 1) A cos (n + 2) A = cos 4 .
94. From Arts. 88 and 90, we have, for all values of

A and B,
sin {A + B) = sin J. cos 5 + cos A sin 5,
and sin (A — B) = sin A cos jB — cos .4 sin 5.
Hence, by addition and subtraction, we have
sin (A+B) + sin (A - B) = 2 sin .4 cos £ (1),
and sin (A + B) - sin (A - B) = 2cos 4 sin B (2).
From the same articles we have, for all values of A
and B,
cos (A + B) = cos A cos B — sin J. sin 5,
and cos (4. — B) = cos .4 cos B + smA sin 5.
Hence, by addition and subtraction, we have
cos (A + B) + cos (A - B) = 2 cos A cos 5 (3),
and cos (A - B) - cos (A + B) = 2 sin J. sin £ (4).
Put 4 + B = 0, and A - B = Z>, so that
, C+D , D G-D
PRODUCT FORMULAE. 93
On making these substitutions, the relations (1) to (4)

( become, for all values of С and D,
sin С + sin D = a sin C + D cos C-
—-— ——• D ...... I,
sin С - sin D = a cos ——— sin ——- ......II,

C+D С—D
cos С + cos D = 2 cos ——- cos III,
and cos D — cos С =-3 sin • sin . . . IV.

[The student should carefully notice that the left-hand
member of IV is cos D — cos G and not cos G — cos D.]
95. These relations I to IV are extremely important
and should be very carefully committed to memory.
On account of their great importance we give a geo
metrical proof for the case when С and D are acute angles.
Let А ОС be the angle С and АОD the angle D.
Bisect the angle COD by the straight line OE. On OE
take a point P and draw QPR perpendicular to OP to
meet ОС and OD in Q and R respectively.
Draw PL, QM, and RN perpendicular to OA, and
through R draw RST perpendicular to PL or QM to
meet them in S and T respectively.
Since the angle DOC is С — D, each of the angles
Q _ T\
DOE and EOG is , and also
Z AOE= Z A OD + ¿. DOE = D + °-
Since the two triangles POR and POQ are equal in
all respects, we have OQ = OR, and PR = PQ, so that
TRIGONOMETRY.
Hence QT= 2PS, and RT = 2RS, i.e. MN = 2ML.

Therefore MQ + NR=TQ + 2LS= 2SP + 2LS= 2LP.
Also OM + ON = 20M + MN = 20M + 2ML = 20L.
. „ . _. MQ NR MQ + NR
Hence sm C + sm D = -q^ + qj^ :
OR
a
//
/ R
A /
//>
M N
= 2 sin —g— cos —g— •

. . . _ . n MQ NR MQ-NR TQ
Again, sm(7-sinJD = -^-öl= —m ^
OR OR
. 2 U = 2^ . §J = 2 cos SPR sin POP
C+D . C-P
= 2 cos —s— sin —»— ,
C+D~
for Z SPR= 90° -^8P0 = Z LOP =
2
n „ OM ON OM+ON
Also, cos 0 + cos D = ^ + m = 0E
~ 0R~ OPOR
= 2 cos ZOP cos POR = 2 cos ^4r? cos .
PRODUCT FORMULA. 95
„. „ cosJ)-cos(7
n _ = ^--^=
ON OM ON-OM
Finally, QR
SR _ 2SR PR
~OR~ Oß~TÄ ОД
= 2 sin SPR . sin РОЕ
. c+D . C-D
= 2 sin -g- sin -^-.
96. The student is strongly urged to make himself

perfectly familiar with the formulae of the last article and
to carefully practise himself in their application; perfect
familiarity with these formulae will considerably facilitate
his further progress.
The formulae are very useful, because they change
sums and differences of certain quantities into products of
certain other quantities, and products of quantities are, as
the student probably knows from Algebra, easily dealt
with by the help of logarithms.
We subjoin a few examples of their use.
Ex. 1. sin ев + sin 40 = 2 sin cos =2 sin 50 cosö.
Ex. 3. cos 30 - cos 16 = 2 sin sin 7g~39 = 2 sin 50 sin 20.

¿t ¿
75° + 15° . 75° -15°

sin75°-Binl5°= 2 Bm 2
*' ' cos 75° + eos 15° ~ „ 75° +15° 75° -15°
2 cos -g- cos ---
2 cos 45° sin 30° t )A 1 JB
= 2coS45°cos30°=tan 3° =V3 = X = '
[This is an example of the simplification given by these formulae ; it
would be a very long and tiresome process to look out from the tables the
values of sin 75°, sin 15°, cos 75C, and cos 15°, and then to perform the
division of one long decimal fraction by another.]
96 TKIGONOMETRY.
Ex. 4. Simplify the expression

(cos в - cos 30) (sin 89 + sin 20)
(sin 58 - sin в) (cos 40 - cos 60) '
On applying the formulae of Art. 94, this expression
„ . 0 + 30 . 30-0 . . 80 + 20 80-20
2 sm —=— sm —ñ— x 2 sin —5— cos —5—
¿ ¿ ел
=„ 50 + 0 . 50-0 „ . 40 + 60 . 60-40
2 cos —¡г— sm —f:— x 2 sm —5— sin —5—
а я л а
_ 4 . sin 20 sin 0 . sin 50 cos 30 _
~ 4 . cos 30 sin 20 . sin 50 sin в~
EXAMPLES. XIV.
Prove that
sin 70 -sin 50 , „ „ cos 60 -cos 40
L
3.
. ——¿n-:—гг7
sin 7A - sin ¿1 = cos 44 sec 54
. .
4.
sm 8A - sm 24
cos 25 + cos 24
sin 2A + sin 2Д _
61 sin 2Л - sin 2Б ~ йдр - В) '
n sin 4 + sin 24 — Cut 4 л sin 54 - sin 34 "
cos4-eos24 2' ' eos 34 + cos 54"
cos 25 - cos 24
v*
10. cos (4 + 5) + sin (4 - 5) = 2 sin (45° + 4 ) cos (45° + B) .

cos 34 - eos 4 cos 24 - eos 44 _ sin 4
sin 34 - sin 4 sin 44 - sin 24 ~ eos 24 cos 34 '
sin (44 -25) + sin (45 -24)
12> cos (44 - 25) + cos (45 - 24)~ta И ' ''
tan 50 + tau 30 .
13. ^r—:—^
i0' tan 50 - tan 30 = 4 cos 20 cos 40.
[ElS. XIV.] PRODUCT FORMULAE. 97
,, cos 30 + 2 cos 50 + cos 16 ,, , ,„,

14. - .,----„ — -ST:— - ^ = cos 20 -sin 20 tan 30.
„ sin Л + sin 34 + sin 54 + sin 74 _

1 cos 4 + cos 34 + cos 54 + cos 74 ~
COs(0+0)-2cOS0 + COS(0-
sin Л + 2 sin 34 + sin SA _ sin ЗА

sin 34 + 2 sin 54 + sin 74 ~ sin 54 '
,g sin (4 - g) + 2 sin 4 + sin (4 + C) _ sin 4
sin (B - C) + 2 sin В + sin (B + C)~ ¿n~.fi '
sin 4 - sin 54 + sin 94 - sin 134 _
cos 4 - cos 54 - cos 94 + cos 134 ~ '
ял 8Ín4+einB 4+J3 ^4-B
20-
COS4 + COSB 4+Б 4-_В

cosfi-cos4 2 2
„„
22.
sin 4 -sin В А+В

23-
„.
sin (4 +B + С) + sin ( - 4 + В + CJ - sin (4 - В + G) + sin (4 +Ь -С)
=eoiB.
25. «os 34 + cos 54 + cos 74 + cos 154 = 4 cos 44 cos 54 cos 64.
26. со8(
= 4 сов 4 cos B cos C.
27. sin 50° - sin 70° + sin 10° = 0.
28. sin 10° + sin 20° + sin 40° + sin 50° = sin 70° + sin 80°.
29. ein o + sin 2a + sin 4a + sin So = 4 cos - cos -g- sin За.
Simplify
30. cos
31. sin
L. T.
98 TRIGONOMETRY.
97. The formulae (1), (2), (3), and (4) of Art. 94 are
also very important. They should be remembered in the
form
2 sin A cos B = sin (A + B) + sin (A - B)...(l),
2cosAsinB= sin (A + B) - sin (A-B)...(2),
2 cos A cos B = cos (A+B) + cos (A-B)...(3),
2 sin A sin B = cos (A - B) - cos (A + B)...(4).
They may be looked upon as the converse of the
formulae I—IV. of Art. 94.
Ex. 1. 2 sin 39 cos 0—ain 49 + sin 20.
Ex. a. 2 sin 50 sin 30= cos 20- cos SO.
Ex.3. 2 cos 110 cos 20 = cos 13d + cos 90.
Ex. 4. Simplify
sin 80 cos 0 - sin 60 cos 30
cos 20 cos 0 - sin 30 sin 40 '
By the above formulae, the expression
g [sin 90 + sin 70] - 1 [sin 90 + sin 30]
^ [cos 30 + cos 0] - 5 [cos 0 - cos 791
sin 79 - sin 30
"cos 39 + cos 79
2 cos 59 sin 29
2 cos 59 cos 29 , by the formulae of Art. 94,
= tan 29.
[The student should carefully notice the artifice of first employing
the formulae of this article and then, to obtain a further simplification,
employing the converse formulae of Art. 94. This artifice is often
successful in simplifications.]
EXAMPLES. XV.
Express as a sum or difference the following :
1. 2 sin 59 sin 79. 2. 2 cos 79 sin 59.
3. 2 cos 119 cos 39. 4. 2 sin 54° sin 66°.
[EXS. XV.] TANGENT OF THE SUM OF TWO ANGLES.
Prove that
c sin
5. . =6 sin
. —10 + 8111-^-
. 38 sin. 118
-5- = sin.„„.-„
29 bid 59.
8 95 58
6. cos 28 00s - - cos 38 cos — = sin 58 sin — .
7. sin 4 sin (4 + 2B)- sin B sin (B + 24) = sin (4 -B) sin (4 + B).
8. (sin 3A + sin 4) sin A + (cos 3A - cos A) cos A = 0.
2 sin (4 - C) oos C - sin (A - 2C) _ sin A
9. 2 sin (B - C) cos C - sin (B - 2C) sin B '
sin .4 sin 2A +sin 34 sin 64 + sin 44 sin 13.4 .
sin A oos 24 + sin 3A cos 6J + sin iA oos 18.4
11 . cos 2A cos 347 - cos 2A
——r~r-■—o „ . cos
. ■-7/1. —r
+ cos A cos 104 = cot. „64, cot. .54, .
sin iA sin 34 - sin 24 sin 54 + sin 44 sin 74
12. cos (36° - 4 ) cos (36° + 4) + oos (54° + 4 ) cos (54° - 4) = cos 24 .
13. cos 4 sin (B - C) + cosBsin (C-4) + cosC sin (4 -B) = 0.
14. sin (45° + 4) sin (45° -4)= I cos 24.
15. versin (4 + B) versin (4 - B) = (cos 4 - cos B)a.
16. sin (/3 - 7) cos (o - J) + sin (7 - o) oos (/3 - S) + sin (o - jS) oos (7 - J) = 0.
,17.
_ 2008J3COSJ3
_ x 9x +00*^ 3ir + 008^ 5t = 0. ^
98. To prove that tan + B) = itanA+ tan ^ and

'1 -tan A tan 5
. Dx tan 4 — tan £
tan v(.4 - £)' = 1t —7—
+ tan 4fttan B
D.
By Art. 88, we have, for all values of A and B,
. . sin M + 5) sin A cos 5 + cos .4 sin £
tan (A + 5) = ; . , „- = -. 5 :—7—.—=,
cos (A + B) cos A cos B - sin A sin £
sin J. sin B
cos A cos S , ,. ... , „
= ^ 8m4 1 . 8inB
. a, , by J dividing
° both
cos J. cos B
numerator and denominator by cos A cos B.
tan A + tan B
.-. tan A + B = -—-—±—
' 1 -tan A tan B
• , 7—2
100 TRIGONOMETRY.
Again, by Art. 90,

t n CA B) — (-^ — _ s^n cos B — cos J. sin B
^ cos (.A — B) cos -4 cos B + sin J. sin B
sin 4. sin J5
cos A cosJ5 , ,. .,. . „
= , sin A. sin
. B ^ , by
J dividing
s as before.
1 + cos AA cos BD
_. tan A — tan B
.-. tan (A - B) = -— ——— .
' ' 1+tanAtanB
99. The formulae of the preceding article may be obtained geometri
cally from the figures of Arts. 88 and 90.
(1) Taking the figure of Art. 88, we have
tan (A+B) = MP QN+RP
OM OQ-RN
ON
OQ + RP t . + RP
OQ tanA OQ
RN RP'
1 OQ 1 RP OQ
But, since the angles RPN and QON are equal, the triangles RPN and
QON are similar, so that
RP_0Q
PN~ ON'
RP PN
and therefore -prp.
OQ = -p^-.=
ON tan B.
, , _. tan^ + tanB tan4 + tan5
Hence tan (^+B) = 1_tan RPN = i_imA ^ ■
(2) Taking the figure of Art. 90, we have
tanU-B) = MP _QN-PR
^0M_= OQ + NR
QN PR
OQ-QQ tanÔg tan A t*'PR
. ,
"nW = _ ,NRPR'
TANGENT OF THE SUM OF TWO ANGLES. 101
7? P i")O
But, since the angles RPN and NOQ are equal, we have =^. = --^ ,
PR PN
and therefore ^r^ = 7^r. = tan B.
OQ ON
^, tan A- tan В tan ^4- tan В
Hence tan (A - B) =
100. As particular cases of the preceding formulae,

we have, by putting Б equal to 45°,
/л л cox tan .a + 1 1 + tan A
tan (A + 45 ) = ^--- . = — —; ,
1 — tan Л 1 — tan-4
i / л л -o\ tan -4 — 1
and tan (Л — 4э ) = q-3 .
l + tan A
Similarly, as in Art. 98, we may prove that
cotx (A
/ A T>\ Cut J. Cut Б - 1
+ B) = - - . --•=
4 ' cot A + cot В
COt В + 1
andj
1+4.
+
= 2 + 1-73205. .. = 3-73205....
..„,. tan 45° -tan 30°
EX. a.
!__!
1 jy/3 + 1 3—1
+ 7/3
= 2-1-73205. .. = -26795....
102 TRIGONOMETRY.
EXAMPLES. XVI.
1. If tan A = | and tanB = -, find the values of tan (ЪА+В) and
2. If tan A = 47^73 and tan Б = - , prove that
3. If tan A = -- and tan В = , find tan (A + B).
4. If tan o = s and ta.nß=^ , prove that

Prove that
5. t
6. cot + e cot
A A
7. 1 + tan A tan — = tan A cot jr- - 1 = sec A .
¿ л
102. As further examples of the use of the formulae
of the present chapter we shall find the general value of
the angle which has a given sine, cosine, or tangent. This
has been already found in Arts. 82—84.
Find the general value of all angles having a given sine.
Let a be any angle having the given sine, and в any
other angle having the same sine.
We have then to find the most general value of в
which satisfies the equation
sin в = sin a,
i.e. sin в — sin a = 0.
This may be written
, в + а. . в-а.
2 cos —^- sin —¿r— = 0,
ANGLES HAVING A GIVEN COSINE. 103
and it is therefore satisfied by

0+a a a-u ■ A
cos = 0, and by sin —^ = 0,
i.e. by - ^ a = any odd multiple of
0— a
and by —^ = any multiple of ir
i.e. by 6 = — a. + any odd multiple of it (1),

and 6 = o + any even multiple of 7r (2),
i.e. 6 must = (— 1)" a + rwr, where n is any positive or
negative integer.
For, when n is odd, this expression agrees with (1), and,
when n is even, it agrees with (2).
103. Find the general value of all angles having the

same cosine.
The equation we have now to solve is
cos 6 = cos a,
i.e. cos a — cos 6 = 0,
_ . 6+a . 0-tt
i.e. 2 sin —^— sin — = 0,
and it is therefore satisfied by
sin —g- = 0, and by sin —^ = 0,
i.e. by = any nmltiple of 7r,
#—a
and by —— = any multiple of tt,
r
104 TRIGONOMETRY.
i.e. by 0 = — a + any multiple of 2ir,

and by 0 = a + any multiple of 2-rr.
Both these sets of values are included in the solution
6 = 2nir + a, where n is any positive or negative integer.
104. Find the general value of all angles having the

same tangent.
The equation we have now to solve is
tan 0 — tan a = 0,
i.e. sin 0 cos a — cos 0 sin a = 0,
i.e. sin(0 — a) = 0.
.". 0 — a= any multiple of it
= ntr, where n is any positive or
negative integer,
so that the most general solution is 0 = nir + a.
CHAPTER VIII.
THE TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS OF MULTIPLE AND

SUBMULTIPLE ANGLES.
105. To find the trigonometrical ratios of an angle ZA

in terms of those of the angle A.
If in the formulae of Art. 88 we put В = A, we have
sin 2A =• sin A cos A + cos A sin A = 2 sin A cos A,
cos 2A = cos A cos A — sin A sin A = cos2 A — sin2 A
= (1 - sin2 A)- sin2 A = 1 -2sin2A,
and also
= cos2^ - (1 - cos2 A) = 2 cos2 A - 1 ;
and
_.
ТЯ.П Q Д
tan A +" tan A . 2 tan A
1 — tan A . tan A 1 — tan2 A '
Now the formulae of Art. 88 are true for all values of
A and В ; hence any formulae derived from them are true
for all values of the angles.
In particular the above formulae are true for all values
of A,
106 TRIGONOMETRY.
106. An independent geometrical proof of the formulae

of the preceding article may be given for values of A
which are less than a right angle.
Let QCP be the angle 2A.
With centre 0 and radius CP
describe a circle, and let QO meet
it again in 0.
'Join OP and PQ, and draw PN
perpendicular to OQ.
By Eue. III. 20, the angle
and the angle

Hence
NP ^_ NP_ NP OP
sin 2A = T^T =
20Q~ OQ~ OP' OQ
= 2 sin NOP cos POQ, since OPQ is a right angle,
= 2 sin A cos .4 ;
also
,GN_ 2CN _ (OC+GN)-(OC - ON)
cos ¿A - cp - O~Q = щ
ON-NQ_ ON OP _ NQ PQ
= OQ ~ OP OQ PQ OQ
= cos2 A — sin2 A ;
ЖР
ЖР _ 2NP z ОЛГ
and tan 1A =
CN~ON-NQ~ NQ PN
PNÖN
2 tan Л
! 1 - tan2 A '
MULTIPLE ANGLES. 107
Ex. To fina the value» of ein 15° and cos 15°

Let the angle 2.1 be 30°, so that A is 15°.
Let the radius CP be 2«, so that we have
and NP=2asm30°-a.
Hence <W=OC + CN=a(2+V3)>
and NQ = CQ-CN=a(2-JS).
.: 0^=0^.0^ = 0(2 + ^/3) x4a (Ene. vi. 8),
во that OP=aJ2 (,/3 + 1),
and PQ2=QW.QO=o(2-V3)x4a,
so that PQ
107. To find the trigonometrical functions of SA in

terms of those of A.
By Art. 88, putting В equal to 2A, we have
sin ЗА = sin (A + 2-4) = sin A cos 2.a + cos A sin 24
= sin A (1 — 2 sin* A) + cos Л . 2 sin J. cos A,
by Art. 105,
= sin A (1 - 2 sin2 .4) + 2 sin A (1 - sin2 A).
Hence Bin3A = 3sinA-4sinsA ......... (1).
So
cos ЗА = cos (A + 2A) = cos A cos 2J. — sin A sin 2Л
= cos A (2 cos2 J. — 1) — sin A . 2 sin A cos Л
= cos A (2 cosa A - 1) - 2 cos A (1 - cos2 ^1).
Hence cos ЗА = 4 cos3 A - 3 cos A .........(2).
108 TRIGONOMETRY.
Also
2 tan A
tan A +
1 - tan" A _ tan A (1 - tan2 ^1) + 2 tan A
2 tan ,4 (1 -tan2 A) - 2 tan2 A
1 — tan A .
' 1 - tan2 A
Hence
[The student may find it difficult to remember, and distinguish
between, the formulae (1) and (2), which bear a general resemblance to
one another, but have their signs in a different order. If in doubt, he
may always verify his formula by testing it for a particular case, e. g. by
putting 4 = 30° for formula (1), and by putting A = 0° for formula (2).]
108. By a process similar to that of the last article,

the trigonometrical ratios of any higher multiples of 0
may be expressed in terms of those of 0. The method is
however long and tedious. In a later chapter better
methods will be pointed out.
As an example, let us express cos 50 in terms of cos 8.
We have
cos 50 = cos (£0+20)
= cos 30 cos 20 - sin 30 sin 20
= (4 cos3 0 - 3 cos 0) (2 cos2 0-1)
- (3 sin 0 - 4 sins 0) . 2 sin 0 cos 0
= (8 cos5 0-10 cos8 0 + 3 cos 0)
- 2 cos 0 . sin2 0 (3 - 4 sin2 0)
= (8 cos5 0 - 10 cos3 0 + 3 cos 0)
- 2 cos 0 (1 - cos2 0) (4 cos2 0 - 1)
= (8 cos5 0-10 cos3 0 + 3 cos 0)
- 2 cos 0 (5 cos2 0-4 cos4 0-1)
= 16 cos5 0 - 20 cos' 0 + 5 cos 0.
»
MULTIPLE ANGLES. 109
EXAMPLES. XVII.
1, Find the value of sin 2a when

/n cosa = 3g, (2)
(1) «» sma
- = jg,
12 andj (3)
,ы . 16
tana=^.
2. Find the value of cos 2o, when

(1) С08а = ^=, (2) sina = -, and (3)
3. If tan в = - , find the value of a cos 20 + 6 sin 20.

Prove that
. sin 1A , sin ЧА
4. ;-T-;=tan^.
;-T-;. 5.. i-rr-7
1 + cos 24 1- cos 24
6. i~o = tan84. 7.
1+COS24
8. tan4-cot/l= -2cot24. 9.
- .- _ A B
10> 1 + cos A - cos В - cos (Л +Б)~ *" 2~ C° 2 '
1L ___-tan ±'
a
sino + sin^ " 2
sin a - sin a ~ a-à
-c
16.
18.
110 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XVII.]
sin0 + sin20 „ „„ l + sin0-cos0 , 0
19- l+coBg+oog2g=taa* 20- l + sin0 + cos0 = ta°2-
2j sin (n + 1) A - sin (n - 1) 4 _ tan ^
cos(n + l)4 + 2coBn4 + cos(ji- l)A 2
sin (n + 1) A + 2 sin n4 + sin (» - 1) A A
22. cmV- Í)T- cos (n + 1) 4 - co* 2 •
23. sin (2n + 1) A sin 4 = sin2 (n + l)A- sin2 n4.
„. sin(4 + 3.B) + sin (3A + B)
24. • 24
sin ni—+ sin 2B—— - 2 cos (4 1 + B).'
25. sin 34 + sin 24 - sin 4 = 4 sin 4 cos — cos .
26. tan 24 = (sec 24 + 1) N/sec24-l.
27. coas 29 + 3 cos 20 = 4 (cos6 0 - sin6 0).
28. 1 + cos2 20 =2 (cos4 0 + sin4 0).
29. sec24(l + seo24) = 2sec24.
30. cosec 4 - 2 cot 24 cos 4 = 2 sin 4 .
31. cot 4 = i ^cot ~ - tan .
32. Bin a sin (60° - a) sin (60° + a) = , sin 3a.
33. cos a cos (60° - o) cos (60° + a) = j cos 3a.

34. cot a + cot (60° + a) - cot (60° - a) =3 cot 3a.
35. cos 20° cos 40° cos 60° cos 80° = i .
lo
36. Bin 20° sin 40° sin 60° sin 80° =JL
37. cos4a = l-8cos2a + 8cos4a.
38. sin 44 = 4 sin 4 cos3 4 - 4 cos 4 sin3 4 .
39. cos 6a = 32 cos6 a - 48 cos4 a + 18 cos2 a - 1.
40. tan 34 tan 24 tan 4 = tan 34 - tan 24 - tan 4 .
41. 22°coTe + l = (2 008 9 " (2 008 2e ~ x) (2 cos 2! 0 - 1)
.,....(2cos2»-10-l).
SUBMULTIPLE ANGLES. Ill
Subinultiple angles.
109. Since the relations of Art. 105 are true for all
values of the angle A, they will be true if instead of A
we substitute , and therefore if instead of 2A we put
2.^, i.e. A.
Hence we have the relations
A A
sin A = 2 sin — cos — (1),
cos A = cos2 ^ - sin2 ^
= 2 cos2 ^ - 1 = 1-2 sin2 ^ (2),
o* A
2 tan —
and tan A = ;r (3).
l-tan2£
From (1), we also have
. . A A
2 sin -~- cos g-
SmA= A —
cos2 2" + sin'
2 ' 2
A
2 tan
■ , by dividing numera-
1 +tan8|
tor and denominator by cos8

2
r
112 TRIGONOMETRY,
.A . ,A
cos -g — sin -g
So cos A = . .
cos2 + sin2
l-tan24
l+tan2^
110. To express the trigonometrical ratios of the angle

~ in terms of cos A.
From equation (2) of the last article, we have
cos A = 1 — 2 sin2^,
so that 2 sin3 — = 1 — cos A,
and therefore sin ^ = + - — (1).
A
Again, cos A = 2 cos2 g- — 1,
so that 2cos2 2- = l+cos-4,
and therefore cos ^ = ± ^ - — (2).
. J.
. SUl 77 /r J
Hence, tan ^-
2 = At = ~
+ V
a / 1= + cos Aj (3).
w
cos2
RATIOS OF ~ IN TERMS OF COS A. 113
111. In each of the preceding formulae it will be

noted that there is an ambiguous sign. In any particular
case the proper sign can be determined as the following
examples will shew.
Ex. 1. Given cos 45°= -i , find the values of sin 224° and cos 22$°.
The equation (1) of the last article gives, by putting A equal to 45°,
sin 22J0
2
Now sin 22£° is necessarily positive, so that the upper sign must be
taken.
Hence sin 224° = \2 V2 - V2-
So cos 224°=^-^=, J*±fi=±\^-,

also cos 224° is positive ;
... 0O822ic=V!+2?
Ex. 2. Given cos 330° = ^— , find the values of sin 165° and cos 165°.
The equationn \i)
(1) gives
sin 165'
~ 2^2 *
Also
cos 165°
~ 2^/2 *
L. T.
114 TRIGONOMETRY.
Now 165° lies between 90° and 180°, so that, by Art. 52, its sine is
positive and its cosine is negative.
Hence sin 165° = ,
and cos 165°= - ^pi* .

From the above examples it will be seen that, when the angle A and
its cosine are given, the ratios for the angle ^ may be determined without
any ambiguity of sign.
When, however, only oos A is given, there is an ambiguity in finding
sin A— and cos A^ . The explanation of this ambiguity is given in the next
article.
* #112. To explain why there is ambiguity when cos
and sin ~- are found from the value of cos A.
We know that, if n be any integer,

cos A = cos (2tt7r + A) = k (say).
Hence any formula which gives us cos in terms of k,

should give us also the cosine of ^W?r ~ — .
„ 2nir + A I A\
Now cos 1 = cos ( W7T + -_- 1
= cos 7wr cos

>g + sin utt sin — = cos
- - ntr
- cos
it 22 22
A
= ± cos -g- ,
2
according as n is even or odd.
RATIOS OF ~ IN TERMS OF SIN A. 115
Similarly, any formula, giving us sin -= in terms of k,

2mr ± A
should give us also the sine of
. 2mr±A . / A\
Also sin 1 = sin I n-ir ± g-J
.4 A A
= sin »wr cos y.- ± cos wtt sin ~- = ± cos nir sin —
= ±sm 2'
Hence, in each case, we should expect to obtain two

A A
values for cos and sin ^- , and this is the number which
the formulae of Art. 110 give.
[The student may illustrate this article geometrically by drawing the

angles —^ ^ , i.e. nir±^. The bounding line for these angles will
have four positions, two inclined to the positive direction of the initial
line at angles -5A and - —
A , and two inclined at A? and - A- to the negative
direction of the initial line. It will be clear from the figure that there
are two values for cos —A and two for sin A .]
113. To express the trigonometrical ratios of the angle

Y in terms of sin A.
A A
2 sin -g cos = sin A (1).
A A
Also sin2 -g + cos2 = 1, always (2).
8—2
116 TRIGONOMETRY.
First adding these equations, and then subtracting

(1) from (2), we have
sin2 ~ + 2 sin ^ cos + cos2 ~ = 1 + sin A,
and sin2 ^ - 2 sin ^ cos ~ + cos2 ^ = 1 — sin A ;
/ . J.4 -4Y
4V , • A
i.e. I sin -g + cos ) = 1 + sin 4,
and ^sin ~ — cos ^j = 1 — sin A ;
so that sin + cos = + Vl + sin A (3),
A a
and sin — cos = + Vl — sin A (4).
By adding, and then subtracting, we have
2 sin — = ± V 1 + sin A ± Vl -sin A (5),
and 2 cos — = ± V 1 + sin A + V 1 - sin A (6).
The other ratios of ^ are then easily obtained.
114. In each of the formulae (5) and (6) there are

two ambiguous signs. In the following examples it is
shewn how to determine the ambiguity in any particular
case.
Ex. 1. Given that sin 30° is ^, find the values of sin 15° and cos 15°.
a
Putting 4 = 30°, we have from relations (3) and (4),
RATIOS OF IN TERMS OF SIN A. 117
sin 15° + cos 15°= ± ¿1 + ашЗО°= ± ,

V2
sin 15° - cos 15°= ± Jl- sin 30° = ± -.. .
v¿
Now sin 15° and cos 15° are both positive, and cos 15° is greater than
sin 15°. Hence the expressions sin 15° + cos 15° and sin 15° - eos 15° are
respectively positive and negative.
Hence the above two relations should be
and sin 15° - cos 15° = - -- .
Hence sinlo0—, and cos 15° =
Ex. 2. Given that sin 570° is equal to - -= , ßnd the values of sin 285°
¿
and cos 285°.
Putting A equal to 570°, we have
°±4s.
v«
and sin 285° - cos 285° = ± ^1 - sin 570° = ±
Now sin 285° is negative, cos 285° is positive, and the former is
numerically greater than the latter, as may be seen by a figure.
Hence sin 285° + cos 285° is negative, and sin 285° -cos 285° is also
negative.
.-. sin 285° + cos 285° = - -70 ,
and sin 285° - cos 285° = - ^5 .
Hence sin 285°= ->™^,
and cos 285° =*n ~ .

118 TRIGONOMETRY.
# #115. To explain why there is ambiguity when sin ^-
and cos — are found from the value of sin A.
We know that, if n be any integer,

sin [nir + (- 1)" A} = sin A = k (say). (Art. 82.)
Hence any formula which gives us sin ■_- in terms of k,
should give us also the sine of W7r"*"^ ^ — .
First, let n be even and equal to 2m. Then

. nir + (-\)nA . ( A\
sm ^g—^ = sin I mir + J
= sin mir cos

)S + cos mir sin g- = cos mir sm y
4
= ± sin. ,
according as m is even or odd.
Secondly, let n be odd and equal to 2p + L
Then
. nir + (-l)nA . 2pir + ir-A . T 7r-A~|
sm ~2— — = sin — ^ = sin pir H ^—
it — A . it — A A
= smpir cos — h cos sin -—^— = cos P"" cos -_-
A
= +cos 2,
according as is even or odd.

Hence any formula which gives us sin in terms of
sin A should be expected to give us, in addition, the
values of
. A A A
— sm , cos g- and — cos ,
RATIOS OF IN TERMS OF SIN A. 119
i.e. 4 values in all. This is the number of values which

we get from the formulae of Art. 1 13, by giving all possible
values to the ambiguities.
A
In a similar manner it may be shewn that when cos
is found from sin J., we should expect 4 values.
[If the angles ——^ ^ - , i.e. + , be drawn geometri-
cally for the oase when — is an acute angle, it will be fonnd that there
are four positions of the bounding line, two in the first quadrant inclined
at angles A and ir- - A- to the initial line, and two in the third quadrant
inclined at A— and ir^ - A to the negative direction of the initial line. It
will be clear from the figure that we should then expect four values for
sin A- and four for cos A- . Similarly for any other value of A— .]
116. In any general case we can shew how the

ambiguities in relations (3) and (4) of Art. 113 may be
found.
We have
. A A (1 . A 1 A\
sin ¥ + cos ¥ = V2 sin ^ + - cos jJ
,a T . A 7T A . 7rl . (IT A\
= a/2 sin -g cos ^ + cos sin ^ = »/2 sin I -j + I .
The right-hand member of this equation is positive if

7T A
-j -(- -jj- lie between 2mr and 2wr + tt,
i.e. if ^ lie between 2ri7r — % and 2m7r + -r .

2 4 4
120 TRIGONOMETRY.
A A A
Hence sin + cos is positive if lie between
2nir — ^ and 2rMr + ;

it is negative otherwise.
Similarly we can prove that
. A A Ia . (A ir\
8in__C0S_ = V2Sin^-5J.
A A
Therefore sin — cos — is positive if
— y ^ lie between 2?wr and 2nir + -jr.

\2 *J
i.e. if -rr lie between 2jmt + ~ and 2/i7r + -j- •
2 4 4
It is negative otherwise.
The results of this article are shewn graphically in the
following figure.
IB
sin A.fr+ cos-^

A. is- | sin g +C0Sg is+
\l sln J2 COS A- 18
. - A
. A +, COS Ag
sin2
. >
18-
. J COS .4
8m2"
.
IS-
B'
0-4 is the initial line, and OP, OQ, OR and OS bisect
RATIOS OF ^ IN TERMS OF TAN A. 121
the angles in the first, second, third and fourth quadrants

respectively.
Example. Within what limits mint ^ lie if
2 «tn^ = -Jl + sinA- *J\-tinA1
In this case the formulae of Art. 113 must clearly be
sia^ + cos ^= - Jl + eiaA (1),
and sin- -cos - ^\ - sin A (2).

For the addition of these two formulae gives the given formula.
From (1) it follows that the revolving line which bounds the angle ^
must be between OQ and OR or else between OR and OS.
From (2), it follows that the revolving line must lie between OR and
OS or else between OS and OP.
Both these conditions are satisfied only when the revolving line lies
between OR and OS, and therefore the angle —A lies between
2ror-^
4 and 2nw-^.
4
117. To express the trigonometrical ratios of g- in
terms of tan A.
2 tan
. tan A = ——
1 - tan2
.-. 1 - tan2
=- j tan .
tan A2 2
A 2 A 1 1
Hence tan2 + ——s tan -r + ——, = 1 +
2 tan A 2 tan2 J. tan2 J.
1 + tan2 A
tan2 4 '
122 TRIGONOMETRY.
A 1 . V~
tan
A + Vl + tanM-1 ,.,
/. tan-¿r = =----.- ............ (1).
2 tan A
118. The ambiguous sign in equation (1) can only
be determined when we know something of the magnitude
of A.
Ex. Given ian 15° = 2 - V3, find tan 7$°.
Patting 4 = 15° we have, from equation (1) of the last article,
m
( ''
"2-V3 2-,/3
Now tan 7£° is positive, so that we must take the upper sign.
Hence
15°
Since tan 15° = tan 195°, the equation which gives us tan —a
in terms•
195°
of tan 15° may be expected to give us tan ——- in terms of tan 195°. In
¿
fact the value obtained from (1) by taking the negative sign before the
л- i is
radical - tan
< 195°
—- .
2
so that -cot7ic = tan97i°= -(V3 + V2) («/2 + 1).
^
# #119. Го explain why there is ambiguity when tan -=-
2
is found from the value of tan A.
We know, by Art. 84, that, if n be any integer,
tan (ntr + A) = tan A = k (say).
EATIOS OF ^ IN TERMS OF SIN A. 123
A
Hence any equation which gives us tan ^- in terms of k
may be expected to give us tan ——5- — also.
First, let n be even and equal to 2m.

Then
nir + A ± Imir + A
tan =— = tan = = tanl(m,r + l)
= tan -jr , as in Art. 84.
Secondly, let w be odd and equal to 2p + 1.
Then tan^-tan*^-^
+ , TT + il
tan (jpTr + —^— ^ = tan —^— (Art. 84)
= -cot^. (Art. 70.)
Hence the formula which gives us the value of tan
should be expected to give us also the value of — cot g- .

An illustration of this is seen in the example of the
last article.
EXAMPLES. XVIJI.
1. If sin 0 = ^ and sin0=^, find the values of sin (6 + <p) and

sin (29 + 20).
2. The tangent of an angle is 2-4. Find its cosecant, the cosecant of
half the angle, and the cosecant of the supplement of double the angle.
124 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XVIII.]
3. If oosa = ^r and sin/S=^, find the values of sin2"^-^ and

bl 5 2
cos2 ^— , the angles a and /3 being positive acute angles.
a
4. If coso = | andcos/3=|, find the value of cos^-~, the angles
a and |3 being positive acute angles.
5. Given sec 6 = 1J, find tan - and tan 6.
6. If cos A = -28, find the value of tan — , and explain the resulting
ambiguity.
7. Find the values of (1) sin7i°, (2) cos7i°, (3) tan22J°, and
(4) tan lli°.
Q J
8. If sin 0 + sin0 = a and cos 6 + cos <t>=b, find the value of tan —~ .
Prove that
9. (cos a + cos /3)2 + (sin a - sin /3)2 = 4 cos2 .
ct — piS .
10. (cos a + cos ;3)2 + (sin a + sin /S)2= 4 cos2 —^
11. (cos a - cos j3)2 + (sin a - sin /3)2= 4 sin2 .

2tan^ 1-tan2^
12. sin .4 = ———— . 13. cos A =
l + tan2| l + tan2g
14. sec (j + 0^ sec - 0 ^ = 2 sec 16.
yi5. tan(450+^) = v/gg=Sec^+tan^.
16. ^(| + |)-sin2(|-^) = -Lsin,.
17. cos2 o + cos2 (o + 120°) + cos2 (a - 120°) = |a .

,_ Air .Sir . 5tt . 7tt 3
18. cos4 - + cos4 — + cos4 — + cos4 -g- = g •
[Exs. XVHL] EXAMPLES. 125
19. sin* - + Bin4 — + Bin* g- + Bin4 — = - .

20. cos 20 cos 2<f> + sina (0 - <p) - sin8 (0 + <t>) = oos (20 + 2<f>).
21. (tan 44 + tan 24) (l-tans34tan,4)=2tan3J nec2A.
22. ^1 + tan^-Be0|) ^l + tan^ + seo|^ = sin oseo"
Find the proper signs to be applied to the radicals in the three follow
ing formulae.
23. 2 oos ~ = ± s/l - sin A ± Vl+sSTS , when ^ = 278°.
24. 2 sin ^= ± x/l - sin A ± ^1 + sin A, when ^ = .

2 ^ 2 11
25. 2cos^=±,s/l-sin4=fc ^1 + sin J, when - = -140°.
26 . If 4 = 340°, prove that
. .
2 sin ^2= - vl + sin + V _ sin j4,
and 2 cos -= - ^/l + sin A - >J\ - sin 4.

27. If 4 = 460°, prove that
a
2cos-= -v'l + sin 4 + ^1 -sin 4.
28. If 4 = 580°, prove that
2 sin—a = - ^l + sin.4- */l-sin.d.
29. Within what respective limits must A— lie when

(1) 2 sin g = sj\ + sin A + ^/l - sin .4 ,
(2) 2sin- = - ^l + sin.4 + *Ji-ainA,
(3) 2sin^= + ^/l + sin.4 - ^l-sin^,
and ^
(4) 2cos-jr= *Jl + sinA - ^/l-sin/.
126 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XVIII.]
30. In the formula
2cos- = i^l + sinî^/l-sin.4,
find within what limits ^ must lie when
(1) the two positive signs are taken,
(2) the two negative „ ,, „
and (3) the first sign is negative and the second positive.
31. Prove that the sine is algebraically less than the cosine for any
angle between 2mr - and 2nir + j where n is any integer.
32. If sin —A be determined from the equation
sin A = 3 sin A
- - 4 sin3 A^ ,
prove that we should expect to obtain also the values of
. ir-A
sin —— . . r+A
o and - sin —-o
Give also a geometrical illustration.
33. If cos be found from the equation
cos A =4 cos3 ^
a - 3 cos \3 ,
prove that we should expect to obtain also the values of
cos 2ir-^ , 2t + A
—5—
o ana cos --o —.
Give also a geometrical illustration.
120. By the use of the formulae of the present
chapter we can now find the trigonometrical ratios of
some important angles.
To find the trigonometrical functions of an angle of 18°.
Let 6 stand for 18°, so that 26 is 36° and 30 is 54°.
Hence 26 = 90° - 30,
and therefore
sin 26 = sin (90° - 30) = cos 36.
;. 2 sin 6 cos 6 = 4 cos3 6 - 3 cos 6 (Arts. 105 and 107).
ANGLES OF 18° AND 36°. 127
Hence, either cos 0 = 0, which gives в = 90°, or

2 sin в = 4 cos2 в - 3 = 1 - 4 sin" в.
л 4 sin2 0 + 2 sin 0 = 1.
By solving this quadratic equation, we have
In our case sin в is necessarily a positive quantity.

Hence we take the upper sign, and have
sin 18°
4
Hence
COS I» = V l —
~ 4 '
The remaining trigonometrical ratios of 18° may be
now found.
Since 72° is the complement of 18°, the values of the
ratios for 72° may be obtained by the use of Art. 69.
121. To find the trigonometrical functions of an angle
o/36°.
Since cos 20 = 1 - 2 sin3 в, (Art. 105),
.-. cos 36° = 1 - 2 sin2 18° = 1 - 2 6 ~Ь
so that cos 36° =

Hence
sin 36° = VT- cos2 365 =
128 TRIGONOMETRY.
The remaining trigonometrical functions of 36° may

now be found.
Also, since 54° is the complement of 36°, the values of
the functions for 54° may be found by the help of Art. 69.
122. The value of sin 18° and cos 36° may also be
found geometrically as follows.
Let ABC be a triangle constructed,
as in Euc. iv. 10, so that each of the
angles B and C is double of the angle
A. Then
180° = A + B + C=A + 2A + 2A,
so that A = 36°.
Hence, if AD be drawn perpendicu
lar to BG, we have
Z BAD = 18°.
By Euclid's construction we know that BG is equal to
AX where X is a point on AB, such that
AB.BX=AX\
Let AB = a, and AX = x.
This relation then gives
a (a — x) = x2,
i.e. a? + ax = a",
i.e. x = a-V5-1
2
BD 1 BG
Hence sin 18° = sin BAD =
BA~2BA
1x */5 — l
2a 4
ANGLES OF 9° AND 81°. 129
Again, (by Eue. iv. 10), we know that AX and XG are

equal; hence, if XL be perpendicular to AC, then L
bisects AC.
Hence
AL a 1
cos 36 0 =
AX 2
V5 +
123. To find the trigonometrical functions for an angle

o/9°.
Since sin 9° and cos 9° are both positive, the relation
(3) of Art. 113 gives
-
2
...............(1).
Also, since cos 9° is greater than sin 9° (Art. 53), the
quantity sin 9° — cos 9° is negative. Hence the relation
(4) of Art. 113 gives _
in 9° - cos 9° = - Vl - sin 18° -- y/1 - ^-~
sn
... ........(i).
By adding (1) and (2), we have
. Q0 \/3 + V5 - V5~^V5
Sin 9 = -!-;--—
4
and, by subtracting (2) from (1), we have
4
The remaining functions for 9° may now be found.
L. T. 9
130 TRIGONOMETRY. [Ezs. XIX.]
Also, since 81° is the complement of 9°, the values of
the functions for 81° may be obtained by the use of
Art. 69.
EXAMPLES. XIX.
Prove that
1. sin272°-sin260°=^pi.
O
2. cos' 48° - sin3 12° =""^±1.
o
3. cos 12° + cos 60° + cos 84° = cos 24° + cos 48°.
.ir.2ir.3x.47r
4. sin - sin -=- sin •=- sin — = ^ 5 .
5 5 5 5 lb
. ir + sm1Q=-2.
5. smi5 . 13ir 1 - «ni5«nIir=-i.
6. i 13ir 1
7. ten 6° tan 42° tan 66° tan 78° = 1.

_8. COS jg
ir COS 2ir
jg COS Sir
jg COS 4ir
- COS 5ir
- COS 6ir
jg COS 7ir
jg = p1 .
„9. ,„
16 cos 2ir
r?cos 4ir
i-^cos 8tt
=-= 14ir = ,1.
15 15 15 cos —-
15
10. Two parallel chords of a circle, which are on the same side of the
centre, subtend angles of 72° and 144° respectively at the centre. Prove
that the perpendicular distance between the chords is half the radius of
the circle.
11. In any circle prove that the chord which subtends 108° at the
centre is equal to the sum of the two chords which subtend angles of 36°
and 60°.
12. Construct the angle whose cosine is equal to its tangent.
13. Solve the equation
sin 50 cos 30 = sin 90 cos 70.
CHAPTER IX.'
IDENTITIES AND TRIGONOMETRICAL EQUATIONS.
124. The formulae of Arts. 88 and 90 can be used to

obtain the trigonometrical ratios of the sum of more than
two angles.
For example
sin (A + B + C) = sin (A + B) cos C + cos (A + B) sin C
= [sin A cos B + cos A sin B] cos C
+ [cos A cos B — sin A sin B] x sin G
= sin A cos B cos C + cos A sin B cos C
+ cos .á cos B sin (7 — sin 4 sin sin C.
So
cos (4 + B + C) = cos (A + £) cos C - sin (A + B) sin C
= (cos .4 cos B — sinA sin i?) cos C
— (sin ^1 cos B + cos vi sin B) sin 0
= cos A cos 5 cos O — cos A sin 5 sin C — sin J. cos B sin (7
— sin A sin £ cos C.
9—2
132 TRIGONOMETRY.
a1
Also * /(Aa +. B
tan d + C)
n\ = -—
tan (A+B)
v / + tan
—^ C
7 1 — tan (J. + 5) tan (7
tan J. + tan B ^
_ 1 — tan J. tan i?
j _ tan J. +tani? ~
1 — tan J.tanfi
_ tan A + tan B + tan G - tan J. tan B tan C
1 — tan B tan 0 — tan G tan J. — tan A tan 5 '
125. The last formula of the previous article is a

particular case of a very general theorem which gives the
tangent of the sum of any number of angles in terms of
the tangents of the angles themselves. The theorem is
tan (Aj + Aj + Aj + ... + AJ
_ *1 ~ s3 + S5 ~ S7 + »«* ^j)
where
Sj = tan A1 + tan A2 + ... + tan An
= the sum of the tangents of the separate angles,
s„ = tan A^ tan Aa + tan Ax tan As+ ...
= the sum of the tangents taken two at a time,
s3 = tan A1 tan A2 tan As + tan A2 tan A3 tan At + ...
= the sum of the tangents taken three at a time, and so
on.
Assume the relation (1) to hold for n angles, and add
on another angle An+l.
Then tan (Ax + As + . . . + An+1)
= tan [(^1, + A3 + . . . + An) + An+1]
_ tan(J.1 + ^2+...+^n) + tan^n+1
— 1 — tan (Ai + A3 + . . . + An) . tan An+1
TANGENT OF THE SUM OF ANGLES. 133
t AI — ÄS -1- «5 ... .
l—= tan An+1
Let tan A!, tan A2, ... tan An+1 be respectively called
tj, Í2)... (71+1-
Then tan (^! + Аг + . . . + An+1)
_ (fr + ¿n+i) - fa + «2 tn+1) + Q5

1 - («j + «! tn+1) + (S4 + S3 ín+I) - (S. + S6 tn+l) ..."
But «!+«„+!=(*!+ <2+ ... tn) +tn+1
= the sum of the (n + 1) tangents,
= the sum, two at a time, of the (n+ 1) tangents.
= the sum three at a time of the (n + 1) tangents

and so on.
Hence we see that the same rule holds for (w+1)
angles as for n angles.
Hence, if the theorem be true for n angles, it is true
for (n+ 1) angles.
But, by Arts. 98 and 124, it is true for 2 and 3 angles.
Hence the theorem is true for 4 angles; hence for
5 angles .... Hence it is true universally.
Cor. If the angles be all equal, and there be n of
them, and each equal to в, then
$2 = 4/2 tan-0; ss = nCt tan80, ......
134 TRIGONOMETRY.
Ex. Write down the value of tan 40.

Here tan40 = ^^- * ^tan fl-^tan»0
4tan0-4tan3fl
Ex. Prove that tan 50 =

l-
126. By a method similar to that of the last article

it may be shewn that sin (A¡ + A2+ ...+ An)
= cos Al cos Аг . . . cos An ($г — s¡ + s5 — .. .),
and that cos (Al + A^+ ... + An)
= COS-ájCOS-d-j ... COS An(\ — S2+S4— ...),
where slt s2, s3, ... have the same values as in that article.
127. Identities holding between the trigono

metrical ratios of the angles of a triangle.
When three angles A, B, and C, are such that their
sum is 180°, many identical relations are found to hold
between their trigonometrical ratios.
The method of proof is best seen from the following
examples.
Ex. 1. If A + В + C= 180°, to prove that
sin 2 .-( -i sin 2Б + sin 2C = 4 ein A sin B sin C.
sin ЧА + sin 2B + sin 2C
= 2 sin (A + B) cos (A - B) + Ч sin С cos C.
Since A+B + C=180°,
we have A + В - 180° - G,
and therefore sin (A + B) — sin C,
and cos (A + B) = - cos C. (Art. 72)
IDENTITIES. 135
Hence the expression

= 2 sin C cos (A - B) + 2 sin C cos C
= 2sin C[cos (A -B)+cos C]
= 2 sin C [cos {A - B) - cos (,4 + £)]
— 2 sin C . 2 sin A sin £
= 4 sin ,4 sin £ sin C.
Ex. a. J/ 4 + B + C= 180°,
prove that cos A + cos 2? - cos C= -1 + 4 cos ABC—2 cos -g3 sin -x3 .
The expression = cos A + (cos B - cos C)
= 2 cos2 -& - ,1 + „2 sin
„ . B—g—
+ C sin
2
. C-B
„'1 .
Now B + C= 180° -.4,
so that ^±^=90°_4
2--90 2'
and, therefore
. , . —
sin B +2-C = cos iA
0O82'
and, cos B+C——+2-C = 8m2-

. A4
sin
Hence the expression
= „2 cos2.A—'- - 1 + 2 cos A-x2 sin
. ——
C-B
2
= 2cos^[cos| + sin^]-l
=2cos2^ rL8m^_+8m"^_J"1
. B + C . C-B-l ,
= 2 cos A^ . 2 sin C
g cos B■= - 1
= -l + 4cos g «os g Bin C2*
, , 4 B .
Ex. 8. If A + B + C = 180°,
prove that sin2 A + sin2 B + sin2 C = 2 + 2 cos .4 cos B cos C.
Let S=sin24 + sin2B + sin2C,
so that 2S = 2sinM+l-cos2B + l-cos2C
= 2 sin2 A + 2 - 2 cos (B + C) cos (B - C)
= 2-2 cosM +2 - 2 cos (B + C) cos (B - G).
:. S= 2 + cos j4 [cos (B- C) + cos (B + C)],
136 TRIGONOMETRY.
since cos.4 = oos {180°- (B + C)} = -cos (B + C).
.: S=2 + cosA .2cosBoosC
= 2 + 2 cos A oos B cos C.
Ex. 4. 1/ A + B + C= 180°,
prove that tan A + tan B + tan (7= tan A tan B tan C.
By the third formula of Art. 124, we have
tan (4 +B + C)=-1-tan(tan
A + tan B+ tan C - tan A tan B tan C
B tan C + tan C tan .4 + tan A tan B) '
But tan {A + B + C) = tan 180° =0.
Hence 0 = tan A + tan B + tan C - tan 4 tan B tan C,
i.e. tan .4 + tan B + tan C=tan A tan B tan C.
This may also be proved independently. For
tan(il+B)=tan(180o-C,)= -tanC.
tan A + tan B , _
1 -tan^tanB
.-. tan^l + tanB= -tan C + tan.4 tan B tan C,
i.e. tan4 + tanB + tanC=tan^tanBtanC.
Ex. I, If x+y + z=xyz, prove that
2x 2y 2z _ 2x 2y 2z
1 - x2 + l^y* + l^z2 ~ 1 - x2 " 1 - y2 ' Tî? '
Put x=tan A, y = tanB, and z = tan C, so that we have
tan A + tan B + tan C=tan 4 tan B tan C.
tan A + tan B
" l3toOtenB=-tanC' , _
so that tan (A + B) = tan (ir - C ). [Art. 72. ]

Hence A + B + C—nv + r,
2x 2y 2z _ 2tan4 2tanB 2tanC
" l-x2 + l-y2 + l-22_l-tan24"rl - tan2 B T 1 - tan2 C
= tan 2A + tan 2B + tan 2(7= tan 2J tan 2B tan 2C,
(by a proof similar to that of the last example)
2x 2y 2z
"f^x2 ' T^f ' 1-z2'
IDENTITIES. 137
EXAMPLES.. XX.
1SA+B + C= 180°, prove that
1. sin 2A + sin 2B- sin 2C =4 cob A cos £ sin C.
2. cos 2A + cos 2B + cos 2C= - 1 - 4 oos.4 cos B cos C.
3. cos 2.4 + cos 2B - cos 2C=1 -4 sin .4 sin B cos C.
4. sin + sin B + sin C = 4 cos .¿4^ cos B^ cos -C .
5. sin4 -t-sinB -sin <7=4sin ABC

^ sin — cos - .
6. cos A +cos B + cos (7„ = ,1 + 4. sin

. A- sin
SI
. B . -¡jC .
—3b sin 3b
7. B¡n2X + sin2B-8Ín2C = 2sin.ásinBcosC.
8. cos2 A + cos5 B + cos2 C = 1 - 2 oos 4 cos B cos C.
9. cos2 + cos2 B - cos2 C=l -2 sin 4 sin 5 cos C.
. ,A- + sin2
10. sm2 . „B + sin2
. .0^=1-2
, „ sin. A- sin
. B^ sin
. ^.
C
. 9A + sins^-sin2-=l-2cos
11. sin2^ . ,B . ,C , „ ^gCos ^B Bin2
. C•
12. tan g tan ^ + tan ^ tan 2+ tan tan 2 = 1.
13. cotg + cot g +cot-=oot g cot gCot

14. cotBcotC + cotCcot.4+cot.4cotB = ].
15. sin(B + 2C) + 8in(C + 24) + sin(4 + 2B)
= 4. sin
. —2—
B-C Bin
. C-A sin
. A-B
—g— .
.A- + sin
16. sin . B + sin
. C- - ,1 = 4. sin
. t-A . tr-B
—-4Á— sin —¡— . v-C .
2 2 2 4 sin —— 4
,„ A 008-^-
17. 008-^+ B 008 C^ = 4t 008 ir+A
—!— 7T + B COS Tt-C
2 2 2 4 COS —— 4 —¡—
4 .
,„
18. sin24
—■—- + sin2B + sin2C „ . A . B sin . ñ
C.
sin A, + sin
¡—= ;—-=—
B + sin C = 8 sin 2 sin ^
2 2
138 TRIGONOMETRY. [ElS. XX.]
19. sin(B + C-^) + sin(C + ^-B) + 8in(^ + B-C)
= 4 sin A sin B sin C.
If A + B + C= 2S prove that
20. sin (S - A) sin (S - B) + sin S sin (S - C) = sin ,1 sin B.
21. 4 sin S sin (S - A) sin (S - B) sin (S - C)
= 1 - cos2 4 - cos2 B - cos2 C+ 2 cos .4 cos B cos C.
22. sin (S -.i) + sin (S -B) + sin (S-C)- sin S
= 4„ sin
. 4g Bin
. .Bg sin-.
. C
23. cos2 S + cos2 (S - A) + cos2 (S - B) + cos2 (S-C)

= 2 + 2 cos .J cos ff cos G.
24. cos2 J + cos2 B + cos2 C + 2 cos .4 cos B cos C
= 1 + 4 cos S cos (S -- ^4) cos (S - B) cos (S-C).
25. If a + /3 + 7 + a = 2a-, prove that
(1) cos a + cos j3 + cos y + cob J + 4 cos^t^ cos cos = 0,
(2) sin a - sin p + sin y - sin 5+ 4 oos —^ sin cos ~2- = 0>
and (3) tan<t+tan/3 + tan7 + tan6
= tan o tan /S tan 7 tan 5 (cot a + cot /3 + cot 7 + cot 6).
26. H Ithe sum of four angles be 180°, prove that the sum of the
products of their cosines taken two and two together is equal to the
sum of the products of their sines taken similarly.
27. Prove that sin 2o + sin 2/3 + Bin 27
= 2 (sin a + sin /3 + sin 7) (l + cosa + co8/3 + cos7),
if a + /3 + 7=0.
28. Verify that
sin3 a sin (b - c) + sin3 6 sin {e-a) + sin3 c sin (a - 6)
+ sin (a + 6 + c) sin (6 - c) sin (c - a) Bin (a - 6) =0.
If A, B, C, and D be any angles prove that
29. sin A sin B sin (A - B) + sin B sin C sin (B - C)
+ sin C sin ^ Bin (C-A) + sin (4 - B) sin (B - C) sin (C - 4)=0.
[Exs. XX.] TRIGONOMETRICAL EQUATIONS. 139
30. sin (A - B) cos (A + B) + sin (B -G)cos(B + G)

+ sin (C - D) cos (C + D) + sin (D - A) cos (D + A) = 0.
31. sin (A + B - 2C) cos В - sin (A + G - 2Я) eos C
32. s
33. If any theorem be true for values of A, B, and G such that
prove that the theorem is still true if we substitute for A, B, and G

respectively the quantities
(1) 90°- \, W- |, and 90°- |,
or (2) 180° - 24, 180° - 2B, and 180° - ЧС.
Hence deduce Ex. 16 from Ex. 6, and Ex. 17 from Ex. 5.
If x + y + z=xyz prove that
3x-x3 3y-y3 3z-z3 _3x-x3 ay~y3 3z-z3
"" ]U3ää"l"T^%2 + 1^3?~l-3a;s' 1-Зу2' Г^Зг?
and 35. х(1-у*)(1-г*)+у(1-г*)(1-х*)+г(1-х*)(1-у*)=1хуг.
128. The Addition and Subtraction Theorems may be

used to solve some kinds of trigonometrical equations.
Ex, Solve the equation
sin x + sin 5x = sin 3x.
By the formulae of Art. 94, the equation is
2 sin Sx cos 2ж = sin Зж.
.'. sin Зж = 0, or 2 cos 2ж = 1.
If sin За; = 0, then Зж = nir.
If cos 2ж = g , then 2ж = 2даг + ^ •
тт И7Г , 7Г
Hence ж = ~f- , or птг ± ^ .
о О
140 TRIGONOMETRY.
129.To solve an equation of the form

a cos в + Ъ sin в = с.
Divide both sides of the equation by Vu2 + ¿>2, so that
it may be written
,, b . ,
cos 0 + —= sin 0 =
Va2 + 6" Va2 + 62 Va2 + ¿>2
Find from the table of tangents the angle whose
tangent is - and call it a.
Then tan a = -, so that

a
b , a
sm a = . , and cos a = . .
The equation can then be written

л
cos a cos в + sin a sin в = —.
ft
i.e. cos (в — a) = -т
Next find from the tables, or otherwise, the angle ß

whose cosine is
e
so that cos ß =
Va2 + б2 '
[N.B. This сап only be done when с is < Va2 + b2.]
The equation is then cos (в — a) = cos /3.
The solution of this is в — a = 2птг ± ß, so that

GRAPHIC SOLUTION. 141
Angles, such as a and ft, which are introduced into

trigonometrical work to facilitate computation are called
Subsidiary Angles.
130. The above solution may be illustrated graphically

as follows ;
Measure 0M along the initial
line equal to a, and MP perpen
dicular to it, and equal to b. The
angle MOP is then the angle whose
. b .
tangent is - , i.e. a.
With centre 0 and radius OP,
i.e. Va2 + 62, describe a circle, and measure ON along
the initial line equal to c.
Draw QNQ perpendicular to ON to meet the circle in
Q and Q> ; the angles NOQ and Q/ON are therefore each
equal to
The aDgle QOP is therefore a - /3 and Q'OP is a + /3.
Hence the solutions of the equation are respectively
2wtt + QOP and 2nir + Q'OP.
The construction clearly fails if c be > Va3 + 6", for then
the point N would fall outside the circle.
131. Ab a numerical example let us solve the equation
5 cos 6-2 sin 0=2,
2
given that tan 21° 48'= 5- .
Dividing both sides of the equation by
J&>+&, i.e. fr>
142 TRIGONOMETRY.
Hence cos в cos 21° 48' -sin в sin 21° 48'

= sin21°48'=sin (90°-68° 12')
=oos 68° 12'.
.-. cos (9+21° 48') = cos 68° 12'.
Hence в + 21° 48' = 2n x 180° ± 68° 12'. (Art. 83)
л в = 2nx 180° -21° 48' ±68° 12'
=2n x 180° - 90°, or 2n x 180° + 46° 24',
aliter. The equation of Art. 129 may be solved in another way.
л
For let> í = tan 5 ,
¿
so that
-
and cos0 = -2==—-,. (Art. 109.)
, , nv i 4~ í
1+ton's
it
The equation then becomes
1 - ta , 2i
so that
This is a quadratic equation giving two values for t and hence two
values for tan - .
¿
Thus, the example of this article gives
7ia + 4t-3 = 0,
so that t= -1 or f
= ten ( - 45°) or tan 23° 12' (from the tables).
Hence 5 = n . 180° - 43°, or n . 180° + 23° 12',

m
i.e. в = п. 360° - 90°, or n . 360° + 46° 24'.
[Exs. XXI.] TRIGONOMETRICAL EQUATIONS. 143
EXAMPLES. XXI.
Solve the equations
1. sin 9 + sin 79= sin 40. 2. oos 8 -t- cos 18 = oos 48.
3. cos 8 + cos 38 = 2 cos 28. 4. sin 48 - sin 18 = cos 38.
5. CO80 -sin 39=008 28. 6. sin 7» = sin 0 + sin 39.
7. cos 9 + cos 29 + cos 39 = 0. 8. sin 9 + sin 39 + sin 59 = 0.
9. sin 28 - cos 29 - sin 0 + cos 9 = 0.
10. sin (39 + o) + sin (39 - a) + sin (o - 9) - sin (a + 9) = cos a.
11. cos (39 + a) cos (39 - o) + cos (59 + a) cos (59 - o) = cos 2a.
12. cos7i0=cos(n-2)0 + sin0. 13. sin - * 19 = sin'^ 9 + sin9.
14. sin m9 + sin n9=0. 15. cos m8 + cos «9 = 0.
16. sin2 «0 - sin2 (n- 1)0 = sin2 9. 17. sin 39 + cos 29 = 0.
18. V3cos,0 + 8¡n 0=V2- 19. sin 0 + 008 0 = ^/2.
20. \/3 sin 0 - cos 0=^/2. 21. sin x + oosx = v/2 cos X.
22. 5 sin 0 + 2 cos 0 = 5 (given tan 21°48' = -4).
23. 6cosx + 8sinx = 9 (given tan53°8' = lj and oos 25°50' = -9).
24. 1 + sin2 0 = 3 sin 0 cos 0 (given tan 71° 34' = 3).
25. 00860 0=0010 + ^/3. 26. coseo x = 1 + cot x.
27. (2 + ^/3)008 0=1-3^9. 28. tan9 + sec9=V3.
29. cos20=cos20. 30. 4cos9-3seo0 = tan9.
3L cos20 + 3cos0=O. 32. cos30 + 2cos9 = O.
33. cos20=(V2 + l)(cos9--^. 34. cot9-tan9 = 2.
35. 4 cot 20= cot3 9 -tan2 9. 36. 3 tan (0 - 15°) = tan (0 + 15°).
37. tan 0 + tan 29 + tan 39=0.
38. tan0 + tan20 + V3tan9tan29=V3-
39. sin 3a = 4 sin a sin (x + o) sin (x - a).
40. Prove that the equation x3 - 2x + 1 = 0 is satisfied by putting for x
either of the values
^2 sin 45°, 2 sin 18°, and 2 sin 234°.
144 TRIGONOMETRY.
41. If sin (it cos 0) =oos (t sin 9), prove that
in + 1
2^2 *
42. If sin cot 8) = eos (it tan 0), prove that either cosec20or cot 20
is equal to n + J.
132. Ex. To irace £Ae changes in the sign and
magnitude of the expression sin 6+ cos 9 as 0 increases from
0 to 360°.
We have sin 0 + cos 0 = \/2 f"-^ sin 0 + cos #J
= V2 [sin 0 cos 45° + cos 0 sin 45°] = V2 sin (0 + 45°).
As 0 increases from 0 to 45°, sin (0 + 45°) increases
from sin 45° to sin 90°, and hence the expression increases
from 1 to V2.
As 0 increases from 45° to 135°, 0+45° increases from
90° to 180°, and hence the expression is positive and
decreases from \/2 to 0.
As 0 increases from 135° to 225°, the expression
changes from */2 sin 180° to \J2 sin 270°, i.e. it is negative
and decreases from 0 to — \/2.
changes from *J2 sin 270° to \/2 sin 360°, i.e. it is negative
and increases from — V2 to 0.
changes from \J2 sin 360° to s/2 sin 405°, i.e. it is positive
and increases from 0 to 1.
133. Ex. To trace the changes in the sign and
magnitude of a cos 0 + b sin 0, and to find the greatest
value of the expression.
We have
acos0 + 6sin0= Va2 + 62 ]=F=T„ cos0+ /^r—r,siD(9 ■
|_va2 + o2 va2+o2
MAXIMUM VALUE. 145
Let at be the smallest positive angle such that

a . . b
cos a = . , and sin a = , .
Vaa + b1 Va' + 6"
The expression therefore
= Va2 + 62 [cos 0 cos a + sin 0 sin a] = Va2 + 62 cos (0 — a).
As 0 changes from a to 360° + a, the angle 0 — a
changes from 0 to 360°, and hence the changes in the
sign and magnitude of the expression are easily obtained.
Since the greatest value of the quantity cos (0 — a) is
unity, i.e. when 0 equals a, the greatest value of the
expression is Va2 + 6*.
Also the value of 6 which gives this greatest value is
such that its cosine is .
Va2 + 1? '
EXAMPLES. XXII.
As 9 increases from 0 to 360°, trace the changes in the sign and
magnitude of
1. sin 9 - cos 9,
2. sin 8 + J3 cos 8,
[jN. B. sin 8 + oos 8= 2 [j sin 8 + ^ cos 8J = 2 sin (8 + 60°) .J
3. sin 8-JS cos 8. 4. cos2 8 - sins 8.
, „ - sin 9 + sin 29
5. sin 0 cos 9. 6. cos—i~
9 + cos 28 .
7. sin (x sin 8). 8. oos (t sin 8).
g sin (»■ cos 9)
eos (it sin 9)'
10. Trace the changes in the sign and magnitude of —~ as the
cos 29
angle increases from 0 to 90°.
L,T. 10
CHAPTER X.
LOGARITHMS.
134. SUPPOSING that we know that

102-4031206 _ 253, IQl-mSMt
and lo»-«»!«. = 102971,

we can shew that 253 x 407 = 102971 without performing
the operation of multiplication. For
253 x 407 = 102-4031205 x 10s-6095944
= 106-0127149 = 102971.
Here it will be noticed that the process of multiplica
tion has been replaced by the simpler process of addition.
Again, supposing that we know that
104-80040M= 79507,
and that юн»»«» = 43,
we can easily shew that the cube root of 79507 is 43.
For ^79507 = [79507]* = (Ю4'80«»«)*
101'6334685 = 43
Here it will be noticed that the difficult process of
extracting the cube root has been replaced by the simpler
process of division.
LOGARITHMS. 147
135. Logarithm. Def. If a be any number, and x

and N two other numbers such that ax = N, then x is called
the logarithm of N to the base a and is written loga N.
The logarithm of a number to a given base is therefore
the index of the power to which the base must be raised
that it may be equal to the given number.
Ex». Since 102=100, therefore 2 = log10 100.
Since 105 = 100000, therefore 5 = log10 100000.
Since 24=16, therefore 4=loga 16.
Since 8$ = t8i]2 = 22 = 4, therefore \ = log, 4.
o
Since 9~t = ~ = ^ = ^ , therefore
-| = log»(^)-
N.B. Since a" = 1 always, the logarithm of unity to any base is always
zero.
136. In Algebra, if m and n be any real quantities
whatever, the following laws, known as the laws of indices,
are found to be true :
(i) am xan = am+n,
(ii) am + an = a™-",
and (iii) {am)n = amn.
Corresponding to these we have three fundamental
laws of logarithms, viz.
(i) l°ga (mn) = loga m + loga n,
(ii) loga = loga m - loga n,
and (iii) loga mn = n loga m.
The proofs of these laws are given in the following
articles.
137. The logarithm of the product of two quantities is
i 10-/2
148 TRIGONOMETRY.
equal to the sum of the logarithms of the quantities to the

same base, i.e.
log» (mn) = loga m + loga n.
Let x = loga m> so that ax = m,
and y = loga n: s° that av = n.
Then mn = ax x a» = ax+v.
.'. logawm = a;+y (Art. 135, Def.)
= loga m + log,, n.
138. The logarithm of the quotient of two quantities is
equal to the difference of their logarithms, i.e.
- 10ga П.
J =
Let *' = logam, so that ax = m, (Art. 135, Def.)
and y = loga n> so that a" = n.
i
Then -
n
.-. loga -*-? (Art- 135. Def-)
= log,, W - luga «.
139. The logarithm of a quantity raised to any power

is equal to the logarithm of the quantity multiplied by the
index of the power, i.e.
logm (mn) = n Jog., m.
Let x = loga m, so that ax = m. Then
m» = (a*)» = a™.
:. loga(mn) = nx (Art. 135, Def.)
= П logo Wl-
Exs. log 48 = log (2* x 3) = log24 + log3 = 41og 2 + log 3 ;
= log 7 + 2 log 3 - 2 log 2 - 2 log 11 ;

LOGARITHMS. 149
140. Common system of logarithms. In the

system of logarithms which we practically use the base is
always 10, so that, if no base be expressed, the base 10
is always understood. The advantage of using 10 as the
base is seen in the three following articles.
141. Characteristic and Mantissa. Def. If the

logarithm of any number be partly integral and partly
fractional, the integral portion of the logarithm is called its
characteristic and the decimal portion is called its mantissa.
Thus, supposing that log 795 = 2 9003671, the number
2 is the characteristic and '9003671 is the mantissa.
Negative characteristics. Suppose we know that
log 2 = -30103.
Then, by Art. 138,
log \ = log 1 - log 2 = 0 - log 2 = - -30103,
so that log ^ is negative.
Now it is found convenient, as will be seen in Art. 143,
that the mantissse of all logarithms should be kept positive.
We therefore instead of - 30103 write - [1 - -69897], so
that
log \ = - (1 - -69897) = - 1 + -69897.
For shortness this latter expression is written 1-69897.
The horizontal line over the 1 denotes that the integral
part is negative ; the decimal part however is positive.
As another example, 3'4771213 stands for
-3 + -4771213.
142. The characteristic of the logarithm of any number

can always be determined by inspection.
150 TRIGONOMETRY.
(i) Let the number be greater than unity.

Since 10° = 1, therefore log 1 = 0 ;
since 101 = 10, therefore log 10 =1;
since 102 = 100, therefore log 100 = 2,
and so on.
Hence the logarithm of any number lying between 1
and 10 must lie between 0 and 1, that is, it will be a
decimal fraction and therefore have 0 as its characteristic.
So the logarithm of any number between 10 and 100
must lie between 1 and 2, i.e. it will have a characteristic
equal to 1. *
Similarly, the logarithm of any number between 100
and 1000 must lie between 2 and 3, i.e. it will have a
characteristic equal to 2.
So, if the number lie between 1000 and 10000, the
characteristic will be 3.
Generally, the characteristic of the logarithm of any
number will be one less than the number of digits in its
integral part.
The number 296-3457 has 3 figures in its integral part, and
therefore the characteristic of its logarithm is 2.
The characteristic of the logarithm of 29634-57 will be 5 - 1, i.e. 4.
(ii) Let the number be less than unity.
Since 10°= 1, therefore log 1 = 0;
since 10_1 = -j^ = '1, therefore log 1=—1
since 10-2 = ^-2= "01, therefore log 01 = -2
since 10-J = ^s = 001, therefore log 001=-3

and so on.
CHARACTERISTIC OF ANY LOGARITHM. 151
The logarithm of any number between 1 and 1 there

fore lies between 0 and — 1, and so is equal to — 1 + some
decimal, i.e. its characteristic is 1.
So the logarithm of any number between -1 and 01
lies between — 1 and — 2, and hence it is equal to — 2 +
some decimal, i.e. its characteristic is 2.
Similarly, the logarithm of any number between -01
and "001 lies between — 2 and — 3, i.e. its characteristic is 3.
Generally, the characteristic of the logarithm of any
decimal fraction ivill be negative and numerically will be
greater by unity than the number of cyphers following the
decimal point.
For any fraction between 1 and '1 {e.g. *5) has no
cypher following the decimal point and we have seen that
its characteristic is 1.
Any fraction between '1 and "01 {e.g. '07) has one
cypher following the decimal point and we have seen
that its characteristic is 2.
Any fraction between 01 and 001 {e.g. 003) has two
cyphers following the decimal point and we have seen that
its characteristic is 3.
Similarly for any fraction.
Eza. The characteristic of the logarithm of the number -00835 is S.
The characteristic of the logarithm of the number '0000053 is 6.
The characteristic of the logarithm of the number '34567 is I.
143. The mantissce of the logarithm of all mimbers,
consisting of the same digits, are the same.
This will be made clear by an example.
Suppose we are given that
log 66818 = 4-8248935.
152 TRIGONOMETRY.
Then
log 668-18 = log ^£ = log 66818 - log 100 (Art. 138)
= 4-8248935 - 2 = 2-8248935 ;
log -66818 = log = log 66818 - log 100000
(Art. 138)
= 4-8248935 - 5 = 18248935.
So log -00066818 = log -~ 8 = log 66818 - log 108
= 4-8248935 - 8 = 4-8248935.
Now the numbers 66818, 66818, -66818, and -00066818
consist of the same significant figures, and only differ in
the position of the decimal point. We observe that their
logarithms have the same decimal portion, i.e. the same
mantissa, and they only differ in the characteristic.
The value of this characteristic is in each case deter
mined by the rule of the previous article.
It will be noted that the mantissa of a logarithm is
always positive.
144. Tables of logarithms. The logarithms of all
numbers from 1 to 108000 are given in Chambers' Tables
of Logarithms. Their values are there given correct to
seven places of decimals.
The student should have access to a copy of the above
table of logarithms or to some other suitable table. It
will be required for many examples in the course of the
next few chapters.
On the opposite page is a specimen page selected from
Chambers' Tables. It gives the mantissas of the logarithms
of all whole numbers from 52500 to 53000.
No. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Ditt.
5250 7201593 1676 1758 1841 1924 2007 2089 2172 2255 2337
51 2420 2503 2586 2668 2751 2834 2916 2999 3082 3164
52 8247 3330 3413 3495 3578 3661 3743 3826 3909 3991
53 4074 4157 4239 4322 4405 4487 4570 4653 4735 4818
54 4901 4983 5066 5149 5231 5314 5397 5479 5562 5645
65 5727 5810 5892 5975 6058 6140 6223 6306 6388 6471
56 6554 6636 6719 6801 6884 6967 7049 7132 7215 7297
57 7380 7462 7545 7628 7710 7793 7875 7958 8041 8123
58 8206 8288 8371 8454 8536 8619 8701 8784 8867 8949
59 9032 9114 9197 9279 9362 9445 9527 9610 9692 9775
60 9857 9940 0023 0105 0188 Ö27Ö 0353 0435 0518 0600
5261 7210683 0766 0848 0931 1013 1096 1178 1261 1343 1426
62 1508 1591 1674 1756 1839 1921 2004 2086 2169 2251
63 2334 2416 2499 2581 2664 2746 2829 2911 2994 3076
64 3159 3241 3324 3406 3489 3571 3654 3736 3819 3901
65 3984 4066 4149 4231 4314 4396 4479 4561 4644 4726
66 4809 4891 4973 5056 5138 5221 5303 5386 5468 5551
67 5633 5716 5798 5881 5963 6045 6128 6210 6293 6375
68 6458 6540 6623 6705 6787 6870 6952 7035 ^7117 7200
69 7282 7364 7447 7529 7612 7694 7777 7859 7941 8024
70 8106 8189 8271 8353 8436 8518 8601 8683 8765 8848
82
5271 8930 9013 9095 9177 9260 9342 9424 9507 9589 9672
1 8
72 9754 9836 9919 0001 0084 0166(0248 0331 0413 0495 2 16
73 7220578 0660 0742 0825 0907 0990 1072 1154 1237 1319 3 25
74 1401 1484 1566 1648 1731 1813 1895 1978 2060 2142 4 s»
75 2225 2307 2389 2472 2554 2636 2719 2801 2883 2966 S 41
76 3048 3130 3212 3295 3377 3459 3542 3624 3706 3789 в7 49
57
77 3871 3953 4036 4118 4200 4282 4365 4447 4529 4612 8 66
78 4694 4776 4858 4941 5023 5105 5188 5270 5352 5431 9 74
79 5517 5599 5681 5763 5846 5928 6010 6092 6175 6257
80 6339 6421 6504 6586 6668 6750 6833 6915 6997 7079!
5281 7162 7244 7326 7408 7491 7573 7655 7737 7820 7902
82 7984 8066 8148 8231 8313 8395 8477 8559 8642 8724
83 8806 8888 8971 9053 9135 9217 9299 9382 9464 9546
84 9628 9710 9792 9875 9957 0039 0121 0203 0286 0368
85 7230450 0532 0614 0696 0779 0861 0943 1025 1107 1189
86 1272 1354 1436 1518 1600 1682 1765 1847 1929 2011
87 2093 2175 2257 2340 2422 2504 2586 2668 2750 2832
88 2914 2997 3079 3161 3243 3325 3407 3489 3571 3654
89 3736 3818 3900 3982 4064 4146 4228 4310 4393 4475
90 4557 4639 4721 4803 4885 4967 5049 5131 5213 5296
5291 5378 5460 5542 5624 5706 5788 5870 5952 6034 6116
92 6198 6280 6362 6445 6527 6609 6691 6773 6855 6937
93 7019 7101 7183 7265 7347 7429 7511 7593 7675 7757
94 7839 7921 8003 8085 8167 8250 8332 8414 8496 8578
95 8660 8742 8824 8906 8988 9070 9152 9234 9316 9398
96 9480 9562 9644 9726 9808 9890 9972 0054 оТзе Ô2Î8
97 7240300 0382 0464 0546 0628 0710 0792 0874 0956 1038
98 1120 1202 1283 1365 1447 1529 1611 1693 1775 1857
99 1939 2021 2103 2185 2267 2349 2431 2513 2595 2677
5300 2759 2841 2923 3005 3086 3168 3250 3332 3414 3496 j
154 TRIGONOMETRY.
145. To obtain the logarithm of any such number, such

as 52687, we proceed as follows. Run the eye down the
extreme left-hand column until it arrives at the number
5268. Then look horizontally until the eye sees the figures
7035 which are vertically beneath the number 7 at the top
of the page. The number corresponding to 52687 is there
fore 7217035. But this last number consists only of the
digits of the mantissa, so that the mantissa required is
•7217035. But the characteristic for 52687 is 4.
Hence log 52687 = 47217035.
So log -52687 = 1-7217035,
and log -00052687 = 4-7217035.
If, again, the logarithm of 52725 be required, the
student will find (on running his eye vertically down the ex
treme left-hand column as far as 5272 and then horizontally
along the row until he comes to the column under the
digit 5) the number 0166. The bar which is placed over
these digits denotes that to them must be prefixed not
721 but 722. Hence the mantissa corresponding to the
number 52725 is 7220166.
Also the characteristic of the logarithm of the number
52725 is 4.
Hence log 52725 = 4-7220166.
So log -052725 = 2-7220166.
We shall now work a few numerical examples to shew
the efficiency of the application of logarithms for purposes
of calculation.
146. Ex. 1. Find the value of ^23r4.
Let iâiHU (23-4)*.
so that log x = ^ log (23-4), by Art. 139.
EXAMPLES OF LOGARITHMS. 155
Id the table of logarithms we find, opposite the number 234, the
logarithm 3692159.
Hence log 23-4 = 1-3692169.
Therefore log x = oI [1-3692159] = -2738432.
Again, in the table of logarithms we find, corresponding to the logarithm
2738432, the number 187864, so that
log 1-87864 = -2738432.
.-. x = 1-87864.
Ex. a. Find the value of
(6-45)3x jy-00034
(9-37)ax i/WS
Let x be the required value so that, by Arts. 138 and 139,
log x = log (6-45)» + log ( -00034 ) 1 - log (9-37)» - log j/S 93
= 3 log (6-45) + 1 log (-00034) - 2 log (9-37) - j log 8-93.
Now in the table of logarithms we find
opposite the number 645 the logarithm 8095597,
34 „ „ 5314789,
937 „ „ 9717396,
and 893 „ „ 9508515.
Hence
logx=3 x -8095597 + g (4-5314789)
- 2 x -9717396 -\x -9508515.
Bat * (4 -5314789) = ^ [6 + 2-5314789]

= 2 + -8438263.
.'. log*=2-4286791 + [2 + -8438263]-l-9434792- -2377129
= 3-2725054 - 4-1811921
= 1 + 4-2725054 - 4-1811921
= 1-0913133.
156 TRIGONOMETRY.
In the table of logarithms we find, opposite the number 12340, the

logarithm 0913152, so that
log -12340=1-0913152.
Hence log x = log • 12340 nearly,
and therefore x = -12340 nearly.
When the logarithm of any number does not quite agree with any
logarithm in the tables, but lies between two consecutive logarithms, it
will be shewn in the next chapter how the number may be accurately
found.
Ex. 8. Having given Zo02 = -30103, find the number of digits in 2e7
and the poiition of the first significant figure in 2"37.
We have log 267 = 67 x log 2 = 67 x -30103
= 20-16901.
Since the characteristic of the logarithm of 287 is 20, it follows, by Art.
142, that in 2e7 there are 21 digits.
Again, log 2-w = - 37 log 2 = - 37 x -30103
= -11-13811 = 12-86189.
Hence, by Art. 142, in 2~37 there are 11 cyphers following the decimal
point, i.e. the first significant figure is in the twelfth place of decimals.
Bx.4. Given %3 = -4771213,% 7 = -8450980, and log 11 = 14)413927,

solve the equation
Taking logarithms of both sides we have

log 3» + log 72*+1 = log 11*+'.
л x log 3 + (Zx + 1) log 7= (x + 6) log 11.
.-. я [log 3 + 2 log 7 - log 11] = 5 log 11 - log 7.
' 5 log 11 ~~
-log 7
5-2069635 - -8450980
= -4771213 + 1 -6901960 - 1-0413927
4-3618655
= 3-87....
"1-1269246
LOGAKITHMS TO DIFFERENT BASES. 157
147. To prove that

log* m = log„ m x loga Ь.
Let log,, m = x, so that a* = m.
Also let log;, m = y, so that 6y = m.
Hence loga (О = log«,

.-. x = y\ogab. (Art. 139.)
Hence loga m = Iog6 m x loga b.
By the theorem of the foregoing article we can from
the logarithm of any number to a base b find its logarithm
to any other base a. It is found convenient, as will appear
in a subsequent chapter, not to calculate the logarithms to
base 10 directly, but to calculate them first to another
base and then to transform them by this theorem.
EXAMPLES. XXIII.
1. Given log 4= -60206 and log 3= -4771213, find the logarithms of
•8, -003, -0108, and (-00018)*.
2. Given log 11 = 1-0413927 and log 13 = 1-1139434, find the values of
(1) log 1-43, (2) log 133-1, (3) log V/Ï43, and (4) log 4/ЧЮ169.
3. What are the characteristics of the logarithms of 243-7, -0153,
2-8713, -00057, -023, 4/24615, and (24589)*?
4. Find the 5th root of -003, having given log 3 = -4771213 and
log 312936 = 5-4954243.
5. Find the value of (1) 7*, (2) (84)*, and (3) (-021)*, having given
Iog2=-30103, Iog3 = -4771213,
log 7 = -8450980, log 132057 = 5 -1207283,
log 588453 = 5-7697117, and log 461791 = 5-6644438.
158 TRIGONOMETRY. [ElS. XXIII. j
6. Having given log 3 = -4771213,

find the number of digits in
(1) 3«, (2) 3", and (3) 3«a,
and the position of the first significant figure in
(4) 3~13, (5) 3-», and (6) 3-«5.
7. Given log 2 = -30103, log 3 = -4771213, and log 7 = -8450980, solve
the equations
(1) 2».3z+4=7a!,
. (3) 7M-=-2*-'=
7*+!>x3M+i'=9
and (41
8. From the tables find the seventh root of -000026751.

Making use of the tables, find the approximate values of
9. УШ~-~3. 10. ¿82357. 11.
8 / 7-2 x 8-3
12- V 9-4-=- 16-5' ld-
CHAPTER XL
TABLES OF LOGARITHMS AND TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS.

PRINCIPLE OF PROPORTIONAL PARTS.
148. WE have pointed out that the logarithms of all

numbers from 1 to 108000 may be found in Chambers'
Mathematical Tables, so that, for example, the logarithms
of 74583 and 74584 may be obtained directly therefrom.
Suppose however we wanted the logarithm of a
number lying between these two, e.g. the number 74583'3.
To obtain the logarithm of this number we use the
Principle of Proportional Parts which states that the
increase in the logarithm of a number is proportional to
the increase in the number itself.
Thus from the tables we find
log 74583 = 4-8726398 (1),
and log 74584 = 4-8726457 (2).
The quantity log 74583-3 will clearly lie between
log 74583 and log 74584. v
Let then log 74583-3 = log 74583 + x
= 4-8726398 + « (3).
160 TRIGONOMETRY.
From (1) and (2), we see that for an increase 1 in the

number the increase in the logarithm is '0000059.
The Theory of Proportional Parts then states that for
an increase of '3 in the number the increase in the
logarithm is
•3 x 0000059, i.e., '00000177.
Hence log 74583'3 = 4-8726398 + "00000177
= 4-87264157.
149. As another example, we shall find the value of
log -03827 57 and shall exhibit the working in a more
concise form.
From the tables we obtain
log -038275 = 2-5829152
log -038276 = 2-5829265.
Hence the difference for
•000001= -0000113.
Therefore the difference for
•0000007 = -7 x -0000113
= -00000791.
.-. log -0382757 = 2-5829152
+ -00000791
= 2-58292311.
Since we only require logarithms to seven places of
decimals, we omit the last digit and the answer is
25829231.
150. The converse question is often met with, viz.,
to find the number whose logarithm is given. If the
logarithm be one of those tabulated the required number
is easily found. The method to be followed when this is
not the case is shewn in the following examples.
PROPORTIONAL PARTS. 161
Find the number whose logarithm is 2-6283924.
On reference to the tables we find that the logarithm 6283924 ia not
tabulated, but that the nearest logarithms are 6283889 and 6283991,
between which our logarithm lies.
We have then log 425-00 = 2-6283889 (1),
and log 425-01 = 2-6283991 (2).
Let log (425-00 + x) = 2-6283924 (3).
From (1) and (2), we see that corresponding to a difference -01 in the
number there is a difference -0000102 in the logarithm.
From (1) and (3), we see that corresponding to a difference x in the
number there is a difference -0000035 in the logarithm.
Hence we have x : -01 : : -0000035 : -0000102.
•• - = ^x "01= Toa = -00343 nearly.
Hence the required number = 425-00 + -00343 = 425-00343.
151. Where logarithms are taken out of the tables
the labour of subtracting successive logarithms may be
avoided. On reference to page 153 there is found at the
extreme right a column headed Diff. The number 82 at
the head of the figures in this column gives the difference
corresponding to a difference unity in the numbers on
that page.
This number 82 means '0000082.
The rows below the 82 give the differences correspond
ing to 1, •2,.... Thus the fifth of these rows means that
the difference for -5 is -0000041.
As an example, let us find the logarithm of 5274674.
From page 153, we have
log 52746 = 4-7221895
diff. for -7 = -0000057
diff. for -04
U -L x diff. for 4) = 0000003
log 52746 74 = 4-7221955.

L. t. 11
162 TRIGONOMETRY.
We shall solve two more examples, taking all the logarithms from
the tables, and only putting down the necessary steps.
Ex. l. Find the seventh root of -034574.
If x be the required quantity, we have
log a; = | log (-034574) = f (2-5387496)
=1(7 + 5-5387496).
.-. log x= 1-7912499. 71) 150 (211
But log -61837= 1-7912484 142
80
diff. = :0000015. 71
But diff. for -00001= -0000071, 90
.-.required increase = -00000211, 71
x= -61837211. 19
Ex. 2. If a=34562-73 and b = 28347-912, find the value of the square
root of a" - Z>2.
If x be the required quantity, we have
2 log x = log (a2 - ft2) = log (a - 6) + log (a + b)
= log 6214-818 + log 62910-642.
Now log 6214-8 =3-7934272
1 7
8 56
log 62910-0 =4-7987197
6 41
4 28
2 14
Hence, by addition, 21oga:=8-5921525[54.
log x =4-2960763.
But log 19773 = 4-2960726
.-. diff. = 37.
But diff. for 1= 220,
proportional increase = x 1 = -168,
x= 19773-168.
152. The proof of the Principle of Proportional Parts

will not be given at this stage. It is not strictly true
without certain limitations.
The numbers to which the principle is applied must

contain not less than five significant figures, and then we
may rely on the result as correct to seven places of
decimals.
For example, we must not apply the principle to
obtain the value of log 25 from the values of log 2 and
log 3.
For, if we did, since these logarithms are "30103 and
■4771213, the logarithm of 25 would be '389075.
But from the tables the value of log 2 5 is found to be
•3979400.
Hence the result which we should obtain would be
manifestly quite incorrect.
Tables of trigonometrical ratios.
153. In Chambers' Tables will be found tables giving

the values of the trigonometrical ratios of angles between
0° and 45°, the angles increasing by differences of 1'.
It is unnecessary to separately tabulate the ratios for
angles between 45° and 90°, since the ratios of angles
between 45° and 90° can be reduced to those of angles
between 0° and 45°. (Art. 75.)
For example,
[sin 76° 11' = sin (90° - 13° 49') = cos 13° 49',
and is therefore known].
Such a table is called a table of natural sines, cosines,
etc. to distinguish it from the table of logarithmic sines,
cosines, etc.
If we want to find the sine of an angle which contains
an integral number of degrees and minutes, we can obtain
11—2
164 TRIGONOMETRY.
it from the tables. If, however, the angle contain seconds,

we must use the principle of proportional parts.
Ex. 1. Given tin 29° 14' =-4883674,
and sin 29° 15' = -4886212,
find the value of sin 29° 14' 32".
By subtraction we have
difference in the sine for 1' = -0002538.
. • . difference in the sine for 32" = 32^ x -0002538 = -00013536,
60
.-. sin 29° 14' 32"= -4883674
+ -00013536
= •48850276.
Since we want our answer only to seven places of decimals, we omit
the last 6, and, since 76 is nearer to 80 than 70, we write
sin 29° 14' 32"= -4885028.
N.B. When we omit a figure in the eighth place of decimals we add
1 to the figure in the seventh place, if the omitted figure be 5 or a number
greater than 5.
Ex. 2. Given cos 16° 27' = -9590672,
and cos 16° 28'= -9589848,
find cos 16° 27' 47".
We note that, as was shewn in Art. 55, the cosine decreases as the
angle increases.
Hence for an Increase of 1', i.e. 60", in the angle, there is a decrease
of -0000824 in the cosine.
Hence for an Increase of 47" in the angle, there is a decrease of
47
^-r
60 x -0000824 in the cosine.
.-. cos 16° 27' 47" = -9590672 - ~60 x -0000824
= -9590672 - -0000645
= -9590672
- -0000645
= •9590027.
In practice this may be abbreviated thus ;

cos 16° 28'= -9589848
cos 16° 27'= -9590672 824
diff. for 1' =--0000824. 47
.-. diff. for 47" = - fJ x -0000824 5768
3296
= - -0000645.
60) 3872,8
Ans.= -9590672
- -0000645
= -9590027.
164. The inverse question, to find the angle, when

one of its trigonometrical ratios is given, will now be
easy.
Ex. Find the angle whose cotangent is 1-4109325, having given
cot 35° 19' = 1-4114799, and cot 35° 20' = 1-4106098.
Let the required angle be 35° 19' + ж",
so that cot (35° 19' + x") = 1-4109325.
From these three equations we have
For an increase of 60" in the angle, a decrease of -0008701 in the cotangent,
a" „ „ , „ „ -0005474
.-. x : 60 :: 5474 : 8701, so that x =37-7.
Hence the required angle = 35° 19'37'7".
155. In working all questions involving the applica

tion of the Principle of Proportional Parts, the student must
be very careful to note whether the trigonometrical ratios
increase or decrease as the angle increases. As a help to
his memory, he may observe that in the first quadrant the
three trigonometrical ratios whose names begin with со-,
i.e. the cosine, the cotangent, and the cosecant, all decrease
as the angle increases.
166 TRIGONOMETRY.
Tables of logarithmic sines, cosines, etc.

166. In many kinds of trigonometric calculation, as
in the solution of triangles, we often require the logarithms
of trigonometrical ratios. To avoid the inconvenience of
first finding the sine of any angle from the tables and
then obtaining the logarithm of this sine by a second
application of 'the tables, it has been found desirable to
have separate tables giving the logarithms of the various
trigonometrical functions of angles. As before, it is only
necessary to construct the tables for angles between 0°
and 45°.
Since the sine of an angle is always less than unity,
the logarithm of its sine is always negative (Art. 142).
Again, since the tangent of an angle between 0° and
45° is less than unity its logarithm is negative, whilst the
logarithm of the tangent of an angle between 45° and
90° is the logarithm of a number greater than unity and
is therefore positive.
157. To avoid the trouble and inconvenience of print

ing the proper sign to the logarithms of the trigonometric
functions, the logarithms as tabulated are not the true
logarithms, but the true logarithms increased by 10.
For example, sine 30° =J.
Hence log sin 30° = log ^ = — log 2
= -•30103=1-69897.
The logarithm tabulated is therefore
10 + log sin 30°, i.e. 9-69897.
Again, tan 60° = \/3.
TABLES OF LOGARITHMIC SINES, ETC. 167
Hence log tan 60° = £ log 3 = £ ( 4771213)

= -2385606.
The logarithm tabulated is therefore
10 + -2385606, i.e. 10 2385606.
The symbol L is used to denote these " tabular
logarithms," i.e. the logarithms as found in the English
books of tables.
Thus L sin 15° 25' = 10 + log sin 15° 25',
and L sec 48° 23' = 10 + log sec 48° 23'.
158. If we want to find the tabular logarithm of any

function of an angle, which contains an integral number
of degrees and minutes, we can obtain it directly from the
tables. If, however, the angle contain seconds we must
use the principle of proportional parts. The method of
procedure is similar to that of Art. 152. We give an
example and also one of the inverse question.
Ex. 1. Given L cosec 32° 21' = 10-2715733,
and L cotec 32° 22' = 10 -2713740,
findL cosec 32° 21' 51".
For an increase of 60" in the angle, there is a decrease of -0001993 in
the logarithm.
Hence for an increase of 51" in the angle, the corresponding decrease
is ^ x -0001993, i.e. -0001694.
Hence L cosec 32° 21' 51"= 10-2715733
- -0001694
= 10-2714039.
Ex. 3. Find the angle such that the tabular logarithm of its tangent
is 9-4417250.
Let x be the required angle.
168 TRIGONOMETRY.
From the tables, we have
L tan x= 9-4417250 L tan 15° 28' = 9-4420062
X tan 15° 27' =9-4415145 Ltan 15° 27' = 9-4415145
diff. 2105. diff. for 1' = 4917.
2105
60_
Corresponding increase = J f x 60" 4917) 126300 (25-7
= 25-7". 9834
.-. x= 15° 27' 25-7". 27960
24585
33750
Ex. 3. Given L sin 14° 6' = 9 -3867040,
find L cosec li° 6'.
Here log sin 14° 6'=L sin 14° 6' - 10
= -1 + -3867040.
Now log cosec 14° 6' = log' sin
— 14°
* 6'
= - log sin 14° 6'
= 1- -3867040 = -6132960.
Henee L cosec 14° 6'= 10-6132960.
More generally, we have sin 0 x cosec 0=1.
log sin 0 + log cosec 0 = 0.
.-. L sin 0 + L cosec 0=20.
The error to be avoided is this ; the student sometimes assumes that,
because
log cosec 14° 6'= - log Bin 14° 6',
he may therefore assume that
L cosec 14° 6'= - L sin 14° 6'.
This is obviously untrue.
EXAMPLES. XXIV.
1. Given log 35705 = 4-5527290
and log 35706 = 4-5527412,
find the values of log 35705-7 and log 35-70585.
2. Given log 5-8743 = -7689487
and log 587-44 = 2-7689561,
find the values of log 58743-57 and log -00587432.
[EXS. XXTV.] PROPORTIONAL PARTS. EXAMPLES.
3. Given log 47847 = 4-6798547
and log 47848 = 4-6798638,
find the numbers whose logarithms are respectively
2-6798593 and 3-6798617.
4. Given log 258-36 = 2-4122253
and log 2-5837 = -4122421 ,
find the numbers whose logarithms are
■4122378 and 2-4122287.
5. From the.table on page 153 find the logarithms of
(1) 52538-97, (2) 527-286, (3) -000529673,
and the numbers whose logarithms are
(4) 3-7221098, (5) 2-7240075, and (6) -7210386.
6. Given sin 43° 23' = -6868761
and sin 43° 24' = -6870876,
find the value of sin 43° 23' 47".
7. • Find also the angle whose sine is -6870849.
8. Given cos 32° 16' = -8455726
and cos 32° 17' =-8454172,
find the values of cos 32° 16' 24" and of cos 32° 16' 47".
9. Find also the angles whose cosines are
■8454832 and -8455176.
10. Given tan 76° 21' =4-1177784
and tan 76° 22' = 4-1230079,
find the values of tan 76° 21' 29" and tan 76° 21' 47".
11. Given cosec 13° 8' = 4-4010616
and cosec 13° 9'=4-3955817,
find the values of cosec 13° 8' 19" and cosec 13° 8' 37".
12. Find also the angle whose cosecant is 4-396789.
13. Given L cos 34° 44' = 9 9147729
and L cos 34° 45' =9-9146852,
find the value of X cos 34° 44' 27".
If I - )o
lo. 3 i> I - i o
170 -I -r ."!">l ' TRIGONOMETRY.

[Exs. XXIV.]
14. Find also the angle 6, where
L cos 9 = 9-9147328.
15. Given Loot 71° 27' = 9-5257779
and Loot 71° 28' = 9-5253589,
find the value of L eot 71° 27' 47",
and solve the equation L cot 8 = 9-5254782.
16. Given L sec 18° 27' = 10-0229168
and L sec 18° 28' = 10-0229590,
find the value of L sec 18° 27' 35".
17. Find also the angle whose L sec is 10-0229285.
18. Find in degrees, minutes, and seconds the angle whose sine is -6,
given that
log 6 = 7781513, L sin 36° 52'=9-7781186,
and L sin 36° 53' = 9 -7782870.
159. On the next page is printed a specimen page
taken from Chambers' tables. It gives the tabular log
arithms of the ratios of angles between 32° and 33° and
also between 57° and 58°. t
The first column gives the L sine for each minute
between 32° and 33°.
In the second column under the word Diff. is found
the number 2021. This means that '0002021 is the
difference between L sin 32° 0' and L sin 32° 1' ; this may
be verified by subtracting 9-7242097 from 9'7244118. It
will also be noted that the figures 2021 are printed half
way between the numbers 97242097 and 9-7244118,
thus clearly shewing between what numbers it is the
difference.
This same column of Differences also applies to the
column on its right-hand side which is headed Cosec.
Similarly the fifth column, which is also headed Dif£,
may be used with the two columns on the right and left
of it.
LOGABITHMIC SINES, TANGENTS, AND SECANTS.
32 Deg.
/ Sine Diff. Cosec. Tang. Diff. Cotang. Secant Diff. Cosine /
0 9-7242097 •Л1'Л
Af¿L
10-2757903 9-7957892 QQ-1
«Oil
1 10-2042108 10-0716795 7ОЛ 9-9284205
IVJ
60
1 9-7244118 10-2755882 9-7960703
2020 10-2753862 9-7963613 2810
10-2039297 10-0716585
790 9-9283415 59
2 9-7246138
2018 10-2751844 9-7986322 2809
10-2036487 10-0717376 791
9-9282625 58
3 9-7248156 2018 10-2749826 9-7969130 2808
10-2033678 10-0718166 791 9-9281834 57
4 9-7250174 9ÎÏ1 f» 9Wlft 10-2030870 10-0718957 9-9281043 58
¿U1O 4&JQ 792 9-9280251
5 9-7252189
ЖП5 10-2747811 9-7971938 мот 10-2028062 10-0719749
7M 55
6 9-7254204 2013 10-2746796 9-7974745
явив
9KTWÎ 10-2026256 10-0720541 700
4 »O
9-9279469 54
9-7256217 9-9278666 53
7
9-7258229 2012 10-2743783 9-7977551 2805 10-2022449
10-2019644
10-0721334
10-0722127
7Q4
too
52
8
9-7260240
Я011 10-2741771 9-7980356 2804 10-0722921 794 9-9277873
9-9277079 51
9
10 9-7262249 9000 10-2739760 9-7983160
9-7985964 2804 10-2016840
10-2014036 10-0723715 7M 9-9276285 50
2008 10-2737751 2803 T96
11 9-7264257 9<Y¥7
АЛЛ
10-2736743 9-7988767 •JWíVí 10-2011233 10-0724610 ТИК 9-9275490 49
9-7266264 JDUC 10-2008431 10-0725306 4VD 9-9274695 18
12 afwur
¿UUD
10-2733736 9-7991569 9ЯП1
ZOUl ТОЙ
t ¡Ä)
13 9-7268269 9-7994370 10-2005630 10-0726101 9-9273899 47
14 9-7270273 2004 10-2731731 9-7997170 2800 10-2002830 10-0726897 796 9-9278103 46
9-7272276 2003 10-2729727 2800 797 9-9272308 45
15 2002 10-2727724 9-7999970 10-2000030 10-0727694
2799 707
16 9-7274278 10-2725722 9-8002769 10-1997281 10-0728491 44
9-7276278
•>lbi ы i
яиии 97ОЙ
MioO 798 9-9271509 43
17 1OQQ
IWW
10-2723722 9-8005567 47ШХ 10-1994433 10-0729289 798 9-9270711
9-7278277 10-2721723 9-8008365 WO 10-1991635 42
18
9-7280275
1QQQ
lÏTiTO
OTQA
£imi
10-1988839
10-0730087 799 9-9269913
9-9269114 41
19 lUUt-! 10-2719726 9-8011161 2796 10-0730886 JVM
WA)
1WQ
9-7282271 40
20 1996 10-2717729 9-8013957 2795
10-1986043 10-0781686
800 9-9268314
21 9-7284267 .KM 10-2716733 9-8016752
1ill.» 10-1983248 10-0732488 MVl 9-9267514 39
9-7286260 -iI~ Hl< QUU 9-9266714 38
22
9-7288253 1993 10-2713740 9-8019546 2794 10-1980454 10-07332S« fiT)1
ÖUl
9-9265913 37
23 I't'H 10-2711747 9-8022340
1УУ1 97QQ
£tVO
10-1977660 10-0734087 801 9-И265112
24 9-7290244 1QQrt 10-2709756 9-8025133 10-1974867 10-0734888 36
9-7292234 1ЮТ7 0700
£io~A
10-1972076 ял 9-9264310
ЙП9
36
25 1989 10-2707766 9-80-27925 27ÍJ1 10-0735690 803
26 9-7294223 «ЛАП 10-2705777 9-8030716 awut 10-1969284 10-0736493 rwi 9-9263507 34
9-7296211 1988 10-2703789 9.8033506 2790 10-1966494 10-0737296 003 9-9202704 33
27 1986 10-2701803 9-S03629H 2790 низ
йод
28 9-7298197 10-1963704 10-0738099 оле 9-9261901 32
1985 10-2Й99818 9-8039O85 2789 ÖUO
29 9-7300182
9-7302166
1QRM
1УОО ™TQQ
¿4OO
10-1960915 10-0738904 804 9-9261096
9-9260292
31
30
30 1!K! 10-2697835 9-8041873 2788 10-1968127 10-0739708 806
9-7304148 IQftl 10-2696852 9-8044661 10-1965339 10-0740613 29
31
9-7306129 J.ÜÖ1 97ЙЙ
2 lOO 8ЛД) 9-9259487
ЯМ
9-9258681
32
9-7308109 1980 10-2693871 9-8047447
2786
10-1952563 10-0741319 fiftt
ЯЛ>
28
33
9-7310087 1978 10-2691891 9-8050233
2786 10-1949767 10-0742126 flftt 9-9257075
оио 27
34
9-7313064 1977 10-2687936 9-8053019
10-2689913
9-8055803
97 RI
¿tÇrl
10-1946981
10-1944197
10-0742931 808 9-9257069 26
35 1976 2784 10-0743739 807 9-9256261 25
36 9-7314040 1Q7K
lift О
10-2685960 9-8058587 О7Я.Ч 10-1941413 10-0744646 808 9-9255454 24
¿ÍÍVÍ
37 9-7316015 10-268Я985 9-8061370 10-1938630 10-0746354 809 9-9254646 23
9-7317989 1974 2782 9-9253887 22
38
39 9-7319961 1972 10-2682011 9-8064152
10-2680039 9-8066933 2781
10-1935848
10-1933087
10-0746166
10-0746972
809 9-9253028
21
1971 2781 810 9-9252218 20
40 9Jg21932 19ГО 10-2678068 9-8069714 2780
10-1930286 10-0747782 810
41 9-7323902 •i-i 10-2676098 9-8072494 10-1927506 10-0748592 9-9261408 19
JvDo 10-2674130 9-8075273 2771)
42 9-7325S70 1ОЙ7
IWf O77Q
¿fia
10-1924727 10-0749403 ft)l 9-9250597 18
43 9-7327837 11114; 10-2672163 9-8078052 10-1921948 10-0750214 9-9249786 17
1Î7OO 2777 812 9-9248974
44 9-7329803 1965 10-2670197 9-8080829 10-1919171 10-0761026 813 9-9248161 16
9-7331768 2777 10-1916394 10-0761839 15
45 1963 10-2668232 9-8083608 ÏOT 812
46 9-7333731 •a ' 10-1913617 9-9247349 14
9-7335693 1962 10-2666269 9-8086383 2775 10-1910842
10-0762651 814II
9-9246535 13
47
9-7337654 1961 10-2664807 9-8089158 2775 10-0753465 814 9-9245721
48
9-7339614 1960 10-2662346 9-8091933
9-80947«? 2774 10-1908067
10-1905293
10-0764279
10-0755093 814 9-9244907 12
11
49 1958 10-2660386 2773 Й1К
CUD
9-7341572 10-0755908
50 1957 10-2658428 9-8097480 2773 10-1902520 815 9-9244092 10
51 9-7343529
1956 10-2656471
9-8100283
2772
10-1899747 10-0766723 CM«
öl О
9-9243277 9
62
53
9-7345485
9-7347440
10-2654615 9-8103025
1955 10-2652560 9-8105796 '2771
10-1896975
10-1894204
10-0757539
10-0758356 817 9-9242461
9-9241644
8
7
9-7349393 1953 10-2650607 9-8108566 2770 10-1891434 10-0759173 817 9-9240827 в
54 1952 2770 817 9-9240010
55 9-7351346 l!)f>l 10-2648656 9-8111336 2789
10-1888664 10-0759990 819 6
58 9-7353296 10-0760809 9-9239191 4
9-7355246 lUoO 10-2646704
4АМП 9-8114106
10-2644754 9-8116873 2768
10-1885895
10-1883127 10-0761627
BIB
ole 9-9238373
57 1949 10-2642805 819 9-9237564 3
58 9-7357195 2768 10-0762446 2
9-7359142 1947 10-264O858 9-8119641 2767
10-1880359
10-1877592 10-0763'266 820 9-9236734 1
59 1946 9-8122408 2766 дол
ВШ) 9-9235914
60 9-7361088 10-2638912 9-8126174 10-1874826 10-0764086 0
Cosine Diff. Secant Cotang. Diff. Tang. Cosec. Diff. Sine /
67 Deg.
172 TRIGONOMETRY.
160. There is one point to be noticed in using the

columns headed Diff. It has been pointed out that 2021
(at the top of the second column) means •0002021. Now
the 790 (at the top of the eighth column) means not '000790,
but -0000790. The rule is this ; the right-hand figure of
the Diff. must be placed in the seventh place of decimals
and the requisite number of cyphers prefixed. Thus
Diff. = 9 means that the difference is "0000009,
Diff.= 74 „ „ „ -0000074,
Diff.= 735 „ „ „ -0000735,
Diff.= 2021 „ „ „ 0002021,
whilst Diff. = 12348 „ „ „ -0012348.
161. Page 171 also gives the tabular logs, of ratios

between 57° and 58°. Suppose we wanted L tan 57° 20'.
We now start with the line at the bottom of the page and
run our eye up the column which has Tang, at its foot. We
go up this column until we arrive at the number which is
on the same level as the number 20 in the extreme
right-hand column. This number we find to be 101930286,
which is therefore the value of
L tan 57° 20'.
EXAMPLES. XXV.
1. Find 0, given that cos 0= -9725382,

cos 13° 27' = -9725733, diff. for l' = 677.
2. Find the angle whose sine is 5o3 , given

sin 22° 1' = -3748763, diff. for l'=2696.
[Ess. XXV.] PROPORTIONAL PARTS. EXAMPLES. 173
3. Given coseo 65° 24' = 1-0998243,
diff. for l' = 1464,
find the value of cosec 65° 24' 37",
and the angle whose cosec is 1 '0997938.
4. Given L tan 22° 37' = 9-6197205,
diff. for l'=3557,
find the value of L tan 22° 37' 22",
and the angle whose L tan is 9-6195283.
5. Find the angle whose L cos is 9-993, given
L cos 10° 15'=9-9930131, diff. for l' = 229.
6. Find the angle whose L sec is 10-15, given
L sec 44° 55'= 10-1498843, diff. for l' = 1260.
7. From the table on page 171 find the values of
(1) L sin 32° 18' 23", (2) L cos 32° 16' 49",
(3) L cot 32° 29" 43", (4) L sec 32° 52' 27",
(5) L tan 57° 45' 28", (6) L cosec 57° 48' 21",
and (7) L cos 57° 58' 29".
8. With the help of the same page solve the equations
(1) L tan 9 = 10-1959261, (2) L cosec 0 = 10-0738125,
(3) L cos 9=9-9259283, and (4) L sin 6 = 9 -9241352.
9. Take out of the tables L tan 16° 6' 23" and calculate the value of
the square root of the tangent.
10. Change into a form more convenient for logarithmic computation
(i.e. express in the form of products of quantities) the quantities
(1) l+tanxtan?/, (2) 1-tanxtanj/,
(3) cot x + tan y, (4) cot x - tan y,
,..
o) 1-
,1 + cos 1x
-r-, and. (6)
... tanx
—z + tanu
cos 2x cot x + cot y
CHAPTER XII.
RELATIONS BETWEEN THE SIDES AND THE TRIGONOMETRICAL

RATIOS OF THE ANGLES OF ANY TRIANGLE.
162. In any triangle ABC, the side BG, opposite

to the angle A, is denoted by a; the sides CA and AB,
opposite to the angles B and C respectively, are denoted
by b and c.
163. Theorem. In any triangle ABC,
sin A _ sin B _ sin G
a b ~ c '
i.e. the sines of the angles are proportional to tlie opposite
sides.
Draw AB perpendicular to the opposite side meeting

it, produced if necessary, in the point D.
SIDES AND ANGLES OF A TRIANGLE. 175
In the triangle ABD, we have

AD
—rrr = sin B, so that AD = c sin B,
AB
In the triangle ACD, we have
AD
= sin C, so that AD = b sin (7.
[If the angle C be obtuse, as in the second figure, we have

A T)
~p = sin A CD = sin (180° - C) = sin C (Art. 72 ) ,
so that .4.0 = 6 sin C]
Equating these two values of AD, we have
c sin B = b sin C,
sin J? sin C
i.e. j— = .
b c
In a similar manner, by drawing a perpendicular from
5 upon CA, we have
sin G sin A
If one of the angles, C, be a right angle, as in the third

figure, we have sin 0 — 1,
sin A = - . and sin B = - .

c c
XT
Hence sin A = ■—=—
sin i? = -1 = sin C .
a b c c
We therefore have, in all cases,
sin A sin B sin C
176 TRIGONOMETRY.
16-4. In any triangle, to find the cosine of an angle in

terms of the sides.
С В -Jo в
C be the triangle and let the perpendicular

from A on БС meet it, produced if necessary, in the
point D.
First, let the angle С be acute, as in the first figure.
By Eue. II. 13, we have
D............ (i).
CD
But T=f-j- = cos C, so that CD = b cos c.
С.Л.
Hence (i) becomes
C2 = a? + 62 - 2a . b cos C,
i.e. 2ab cos С = a2 + b* - c2,
a? + b2 - c2
г.е. cos (7 = -
2ab
Secondly, let the angle С be obtuse, as in the second
figure.
By Eue. II. 12, we have
D .........(ii).
But ~A = cos A CD = cos (180° - (7) = - cos C,
(Art. 72)
so that CD = -b cos C.
SIDES AND ANGLES OF A TRIANGLE 177
Hence (ii) becomes

e2 = a2 + 62 + 2a ( - 6 cos G) = aa + 62 - 2ab cos (7,
so that, as in the first case, we have i mi*''
„ a' + b'-c*
C08Cf=-2a6--
In a similar manner it may be shewn that >*.''•
b2+c2-a2 P
cosA = -
2bc
c2 + a2 - 62
and cos B =
2ca
If one of the angles, G, be a right angle, the above
formula would give c2=a2+62, so that cos (7 = 0. This
is correct, since C is a right angle.
The above formula is therefore true for all values of 0.
Ex. If a=15, 6 = 36, and c=39,
A _ 362 + 39" - 152 _ 32 (12a + 132 - 52) _ 288 _ 12
tnen eoaA- 2x36x39 - 2x3^x12x13 -24xT3_13-
165. To find the sines of half the angles in terms of

the sides.
In any triangle we have, by Art. 164,
62 + c2 - a2
cos^=—2fc— ■
By Art. 109, we have
cos A = 1 — 2 sin2 — .
xi o • A i a i 62 + c2-a2
Hence 2 sin2 — = 1 — cos A = 1 „,
2 26c
_ 26c-62-c2 + a8 = a2 - (62 + c2 - 26c) = a2 - (6 - c)2
— 26c ~~ 26c ~~ 26c
_ [a + (6 - c)] [a - (6 - c)] = (a + 6 - c) (a - 6 + c) .
~~ 26c 26c *
L. t. 12
178 TRIGONOMETRY.
Let 2s stand for a + b + c, so that s is equal to half the

sum of the sides of the triangle, i.e. s is equal to the semi-
perimeter of the triangle.
We then have
a + b-c = a + b + c — 2c = 2s — 2c = 2 (s — c),
and a-6 + c = a + b + c-26 = 2s-26 = 2(s-6).
The relation (1) therefore becomes
(»-с)х2(,-Ь) (,-Ъ)(8-с)
~2bc be ~-
Similarly,
. В /(s -с)ш
sm<rV- (s- a) , . G /(s-a)(s-b)
Aandmn¥-^- -J£- J.
166. To find the cosines of half the angles in terms of

the sides.
cos A = 2 cos2 -5—1.
¿i
u- , Л -, ! , ь*+с*-аа
Hence 2 cos2 ^- = 1+ cos .4=14 ^r
_ 26c + 62 + c2 -aa _ (6 + c)2 - a2

oí,«
-JÜO
9/1^
^.f/O
_[(b + c) + a
26c " "~ ~ 26с
Now b + c-a = a + b + c-2a = 2s-
so that (1) becomes

g cnÂ _ x 2 (a - o)_ « (a - o)
Similarly,
B /s(s-b) , C /s(s-c)
cos 2 =V -co" • and C062 -V ^6" '
167. To _/m<i <&e tangents of half the angles in terms

of the sides.
. A
A Sm 2
Since tan =
COSg
we have, by (2) of Arts. 165 and 166,

t!L A_i /(s-b)(s-c) , /s(s-a)_ /(s-b) (g-c)
ian2~V 6c : V 6c "V s(s-a) '
Similarly,
tan2"V s(s-6) ,andtan2-V

andtan0-,/^-^^-^
s(S-c) '
Since, in a triangle, A is always < 180°, ^- is always

<90°.
A
The sine, cosine, and tangent of are therefore always
positive (Art. 52).
The positive sign must therefore always be prefixed to
the radical sign in the formulae of this and the last two
articles. .
12—2
180 TRIGONOMETRY.
168. Их. If a = 13, Ь = 14, and с = 15,
then s= 13 + 14
g + 15 =21, «-a = 8,
a s-6=7,
; 7
and
Hence
. в_
8m 2 - V 15 х !3 ~ V65 " 65"
С /21x6
008 2 = V 13x14 =
~ /6x8 4
and
169. То express the sine of any angle of a triangle

in terms of the sides.
We have, by Art. 109,
. . _ . A A
sin A = 2 sin -^ cos n- •
But, by the previous articles,
^ l(s — b\(s — c) A /s (s — a)
sin -¡г = л / » P , and cos -5 = A/ —r-— •
2 V oc 2 V ос
Hence
(s -b)(s- c] Is (s - a)
be V be
= -Vs (s-a) (s-b) (s - c).

DC
EXAMPLES. XXVI.
In a triangle
1. Given a=25, b = 52, and c=63,
^1 В , G
find tan 5- , tan — , and tan — .
¿i ¿ a
[Exs. XXVI.] SIDES AND ANGLES OF A TRIANGLE.
2. Given a=125, 6 = 123, and c = 62,
find the sines of half the angles and the sines of the angles.
3. Given a = 18, 6 = 24, and c = 30,
find sin .1, Bin and sin C.
4. Given a - 35, 6 = 84, and c = 91,
find tan A, tan B, and tan C.
5. Given a = 13, 6 = 14, and c = 15,
find the sines of the angles.
6. Given a =287, 6 = 816, and c = 865,
find the values of tan ^ and tan A.
7. Given a=J3, 6=^/2, and c = >^±^ ,

find the angles.
170. In any triangle, to prove that,
a = b cos C + c cos B.
Take the figures of Art. 164.
In the first case, we have
BD
■n t = cos B, so that BD = c cos B,
BA '
CD
and — cos G, so that CD = b cos C.
Hence a = BC = BD + DC = ccosB + bcosC.

In the second case, we have
BD
rn = cos 5, so that BD = c cos B,
BA
CD
and = cos 4 CD = cos (180° - (7)
= - cos C (Art. 72),

so that CD = — b cos C.
182 TRIGONOMETRY.
Hence, in this case,

a = BC=BD-CD = ccosB-(-bcosC),
so that in each case
a = b cos С + с cos В.
Similarly, b = с cos A +.a cos G,
and с = асов В + Ъ cos A.
171. In any triangle, to prove that

B-G b-c A
In any triangle, we have

b _ sin В
с sin С'
, В + С . В-С
. D . п 2 COS -^— 81П -g-
Ь- с sin В - sin (7 2 2
6+с sm^ + sinC . . В+С В-С
2 sm — — cos — ^
, в-с
tan— ~
, в-с
tan— —
tan ^4^ tan (90° -4

z \ ¿
2 (Art. 69).
B-C b-c .A
Hence tan-^- = ^¿ cot - .
172. Ex- From the formulae of Art. 164 deduce those of Art. 170
and vice versa.
The first and third formulae of Art. 164 give
6, COS C_ + C C08BD = a*+b*-c* 1 c* + 2a
a'-t>> .
—2a
= 2a3
2^ = a'
so that a = 6oos C + c cos B.
Similarly, the other formulae of Art. 170 may be obtained.
Again, the three formulae of Art. 170 give
a=6oo8 C + ccosZ?,
6=ccoa A+a cos C,
and , e=a cos B + b oot A.
Multiplying these in succession by a, b, and - c we have, by addition,
a2 + 62 - c2 = a {b cos C + c cos B) + b (c cos A + a cos C) - c (a cos B + b cos A)
= 2ab cos C.
:. cosC= a'
„ + b'-e1 .
—zr—,—
lab
Similarly, the other formulae of Art. 162 may be found.
173. The student will often meet with identities, which he is required
to prove, which involve both the sides and the angles of a triangle.
It is, in general, desirable in the identity to substitute for the sides in
terms of the angles, or to substitute for the ratios of the angles in terms
of the sides.
a cos B—5—
— C =(6 + c)sin— A.
Ex. 1. Prove that
2„ sin
. B + C cos^- B-C
b+c sinB + sinC
a sin A ~2 sin
. Ag cos Ag
cos A-
— cos B-C B-C
—2— cos ——
sin I cos I sin^
,,. * • ^g=aoos B-C
(6 + c)sin ——.
184 TRIGONOMETRY.
Es. 2. In any triangle prove that

(ft3 - c2) cot A + (c2 - o2) cot B + (a2 - b2) cot С = 0.
By Art. 163 we have
sin A sin В sin С , .
--
а = —r~
Ь =-
с =* v(8аУ)-
'
Hence the given expression
=0.
Ex. 3. Jn any triangle prove that
The left-hand member
(s - с) . с
, since 2s =
This identity may also be proved by substituting for the sides.

a + b + e _ sin 4 + sin Б + sin С
с sin С
ЛВС AB
4 cos -g cosacos -g 2cos-^cos-
= „ f, . as m Art. 127, =
o2 cot*Cg o2 cos Cg cos *- cos &^
Also . -4 . B
taiig+tan-^ . C^ TI sin
sin . A cos —II + cos A^ sin
. .—
02 cos A cos B
- cos ~C a2 cos A
- cos B
—
= . d . A+b = . g ' <Art"69-)
sin- sin -j- sin-
We have therefore
a+6+e 2 cot ^2
c ~ tan-+tan-^
' X " £'
r
so that (a + b+c) ^tan ^ +tan ^ = 2ccot ^.
Ex 4. J/ tft« sfto o/ a triangle be in Arithmetical Progression, prove

that so also are the cotangents of half the angles.
We have given that a + c = 2b (1),
and we have to prove that
cot AC
2+cot2=2cot Bg (2).
Now (2) is true if
/ s(s-a) I s (s-c) ~ I s(s-b) '
V (s-b)(s-c) +V («-aj(»-i>) V (s-c)(s-a)'
or, by multiplying both sides by
'(s-a)(s- b) (« - c)
s
if# («-a) + (»-c)=2(»-&),
i.e. if 2« - (a + c) = 2« - 26,
i.e. if a+c=26, which is relation (1).
Hence if relation (1) be true, so also is relation (2).
186 TEIGONOMETRY.
EXAMPLES. XXVII.
In any triangle ABC, prove that
. B-C b-c 006 A2-
L 8m^r=-^
2. &2sin2C + c2sin2B = 2&csin.á.
3. a (b eos C-c cos B) = 52-c2.
4. (6 + c) cos .4 + (c + a) cos B + (a + b) cos C=a + b + c.
5. a(cosB + eosC) = 2(6 + c)sin2s-.
6. a (cosC-cosB) = 2(6-c)cos2 3 .
sin (B-C)_62-c2
sin (B + C)- a" '
0 a+b . A+B Â-B
8- ^r6=tM1"2 cot-2--
9. a sin (^+B^= (6 + c)si: A

sin5.
a2 sin (B-C) ft2sin(C-¿) c2 sin (¿ -B)_Q
' sinB + sinC sinC+sin^l sin^t + sinB-
11. (b + c-a) ^cot ^ + cot^ =2a cot^ .
12. a2+&s + c2=2(5ccos.4 + cacosB + a6cos C).
13. (a2 - 62 + c2) tan B = (a2 + 62 - c2) tan C.
14. ca=(a- ft)2 cos2 (a+6)2sin»£.
15. asin(B-C) + 5sin(C-¿) + CTSÍn(¿-B) = 0.

a sin (B - C) _ b sin (C.d) _ c sin (A-B)
16. js-c2 c2-as o2-62
. Ag sin
17. a sin . B-C
— + 6. sin-
. B sin
. —^
C-4 h c sin
. ^C sm
. ¿-B
—5— =0..
[EXS. XXVII.] SIDES AND ANGLES OF A TRIANGLE. 187
18. a- (cos2 В - cos2 C) + b2 (cos2 С - cosM ) + c2 (cos2 A - cos2 B) = 0.

t
Л2 - л2 ¡Л _ „2 „2 _ 1,2
19. ^-^ sin 24 + —_a?-Bin2B+-c2 sin2C=0.
с)2 eotf
Ol
51.
22. In a triangle whose sides are 3, 4, and J38 feet respectively,
prove that the largest angle is greater than 120°.
23. The sides of a right-angled triangle are 21 and 28 feet ; find the
length of the perpendicular drawn to the hypothenuse from the right
angle.
24. If in any triangle the angles be to one another as 1:2:3,
prove that the corresponding sides are as 1 : J3 : 2.
25. In any triangle, if
A 5 , . В 20
s-t
find tan — , and prove that in this triangle a + c = 26.
¿
26. In an isosceles right-angled triangle a straight line is drawn from
the middle point of one of the equal sides to the opposite angle. Shew
that it divides the angle into parts whose cotangents are 2 and 3.
27. The perpendicular AD to the base of a triangle ABC divides it
into segments such that BD, CD, and AD are in the ratio of 2, 3, and 6 ;
prove that the vertical angle of the triangle is 45°.
28. A ring, ten inches in diameter, is suspended from a point one
foot above its centre by 6 equal strings attached to its circumference at
equal intervals. Find the cosine of the angle between consecutive
strings.
29. H «2, b2, and c2 be in A.P., prove that cot A, cot B, and cot С are in
Л.Р. also.
30. If a, b, and с be in A. p., prove that cos A cot ^ A , cos В cot ^
R,
¿ 2
Q
and cos С cot . • are in A. p.
я
188 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XXVII.]
A , sin2 B and sin2 —
31. If a, b, and c are in h.p., prove that sin2 — C are
also in h.p.
32. The sides of a triangle are in a.p. and the greatest and least
angles are 6 and <j> ; prove that
4 (1 - cos 6) (1 - cos <)>) = cos $ + cos <f>.
33. The sides of a triangle are in a.p. and the greatest angle exceeds
the least by 90° ; prove that the sides are proportional to s/7 + 1, v/7, and
V7-1.
34. H G= 60°, then prove that
113
-■- +;
a+c b + c a+b+c'
35. In, any triangle ABC if D be any point of the base BC, such that
BD : DC ::m:n, prove that
(m + n)cot .4.0(7=71 cotB-ni cot C,
and (m + n)2 ATP ={m + n) (mft2 + «c2) - mna?.
36. If in a triangle the bisector of the side c be perpendicular to the
side b, prove that
2tan4 + tan C=0.
37. In any triangle prove that, if 8 be any angle, then
6 cos 8 = c cos (A - 0) + acos (C+6).
38. If P and q be the perpendiculars from the angular points A and B
on any line passing through the vertex C of the triangle ABC, then
prove that
aY + &V - 2abpq cos C= a262 sin2 C,
39. In the triangle ABC, lines OA, OB, and OC are drawn so that
the angles OAB, OBC, and OCA are each equal to u ; prove that
cot u = cot A + cot B + cot C,
and cosec2 a = cosec2 A + cosec2 B + cosec2 C.
CHAPTER XIII.
SOLUTION OF TRIANGLES.
174 In any triangle the three sides and the three

angles are often called the elements of the triangle. When
any three elements of the triangle are given, provided they
be not the three angles, the triangle is in general com
pletely known, i.e. its other angles and sides can be
calculated. When the three angles are given, only the
ratios of the lengths of the sides can be found, so that the
triangle is given in shape only and not in size. When
three elements of a triangle are given the process of
calculating its other three elements is called the Solution
of the Triangle.
We shall first discuss the solution of right-angled
triangles, i.e. triangles which have one angle given equal
to a right angle.
The next four articles refer to such triangles, and C
denotes the right angle.
175. Case I. Given the hypothenuse and one side, to

solve the triangle.
190 TRIGONOMETRY.
Let b be the given side and c the given hypothenuse.
The angle B is given by the
relation
• n b
sin .0 = - .
.'. L sin B = 10 + log b — log c.

Since b and c are known, we
thus have L sin B and therefore B.
The angle (= 90° - B) is then known.
The side a is obtained from either of the relations
cos B = -, tan jB = - , or a = J{c — b)(c + b).
176. Case II. Given tlw two sides a and b, to solve

the triangle.
Here B is given by
tan B = - ,
a
so that
L tan 5=10 + log b — log a.
Hence L tan B, and therefore B, is known.
The angle A (= 90° — B) is then known.
The hypothenuse c is given by the relation c = Va2 +b'\
This relation is not however very suitable for loga
rithmic calculation, and c is best given by
. D b . b
sin JtS = , i.e. c = ——f, .
c sin B
.'. log c = log b — log sin B
= 10 + log b - L sin B.
Hence c is obtained.
SOLUTION OF BIGHT-ANGLED TRIANGLES. 191
177. Case III. Given an angle В and one of the sides

a, to solve the triangle.
Here A (= 90° - B) is known. ' д
The side b is found from the rela
tion
- = tanS, B-
a
and с from the relation
a
= COS B.
с
178. Case IV. Given an angle В and the hypothenuse
c, to solve the triangle. д
Here A is known, and a and b are
obtained from the relations
- = cos B, and - = sin B.
с с
EXAMPLES. XXVIII.
1. In a right-angled triangle ABC, -where С is the right angle, if
a = 50 and В = 75°, find the sides, (tan 75° = 2 + ^/3. )
2. Solve the triangle of which two sides are equal to 10 and 20 feet
and of which the included angle is 90° ; given that log 20 = 1-30103, and
t tan 26°33'=9-6986847, diff. for l'=3160.
3. The length of the perpendicular from one angle of a triangle upon
the base is 3 inches and the lengths of the sides containing this angle are
4 and 5 inches. Find the angles, having given
log 2 = -30103, log 3 = -4771213,
L sin 36° 52' = 9-7781186, diff. for l'=1684,
and L sin 48° 35'= 9-8750142, diff. for l' = 1115.
4. Find the acute angles of a right-angled triangle whose hypothenuse
is four times as long as the perpendicular drawn to it from the opposite
angle.
192 TRIGONOMETRY.
179. We now proceed to the case of the triangle which

is not given to be right angled. .
The different cases to be considered are ;
Case I. The three sides given ;
Case II. Two sides and the included angle given ;
Case III. Two sides and the angle opposite one of
them given ;
Case IV. One side and two angles given ;
Case V. The three angles given.
180. Case I. The three sides a, b, and c given.

Since the sides are known, the semi-perimeter s is
known and hence also the quantities s — a, s — b, and
s — c.
A B C
The half-angles , , and ^ are then found from the
formulae
tan2"V s(s-a) ,tan2-V S(s-b) '
and ^h^'sis-o)^-
Only two of the angles need be found, the third being

known since the sum of the three angles is always 180°.
The angles may also be found by using the formulae
for the sine or cosine of the semi-angles.
(Arts. 165 and 166.)
The above formulae are all suited for logarithmic
computation.
THE THREE SIDES GIVEN. 193
The angle A may also be obtained from the formula

— a2
cos = -ST-- •
This formula is not, in general, suitable for logarithmic

calculation. It may be conveniently used however when
the sides a, b, and с are small numbers.
Ex. The tides of a triangle are 32, 40, and 66 feet ; find the angle
opposite the greatest side, having given that
log 207 = 2-3159703, log 1073 = 3-0305997,
L cot 66° 18' =9-6424341, tabulated difference for Г =8431.
Here a = 32, 6 = 40, and с = 66,
so that »= =69, »-« = 37, o-b = 29, and»-c = 3.
«- -
Z, cot ^=10+ s [log 207 - log 1073]
¿ J
= 10 + 1 -15798515 - 1-51529985
= 9-6426853.
f~f
L cot — is therefore greater than L cot 66° 18',
m
so that £ is le»t than 66° 18'.
•
Let then §=66° 18' -x".

The difference in the logarithm corresponding to difference of if' in the
angle therefore
= 9-6426853
- 9-6424341
= -0002512.
Also the difference for 60"= -0003431.
L. T. 13
194 TRIGONOMETRY.
„
HeDOe . x = -0003431
60 -0002512 "
bo that x = 2512 x 60 = nearly 44.

.-. £ = 66° 18' - 44" = 66° 17' 16", and hence C = 132° 34' 32".
EXAMPLES. XXIX.
1. If the aides of a triangle be 56, 65, and 33 feet, find the greatest
angle.
2. The sides of a triangle are 7, 4^/3, and Vl3 yards respectively.
Find the number of degrees in its smallest angle.
3. The aides of a triangle are x2 + x + 1, 2x + 1, and x2 - 1 ; prove that
the greatest angle ia 120°.
4. The sides of a triangle are a, b, and ^/w' + ab + b2 feet ; find the
greatest angle.
5. If a = 2, b=s/6, and e=,/3 - 1, solve the triangle.
6. If a=2, b=s/6, and c=^3 + l, aolve the triangle.
7. If a = 9, i=10, and c = ll, find B, given
log 2 =-30103, L tan 29° 29'= 9-7523472,
and i tan 29° 30' = 9-7526420.
8. The aidea of a triangle are 130, 123, and 77 feet. Find the
greatest angle, having given
log 2 = -30103, L tan 38° 39' = 9-9029376,
and itan38°40'=9-9031966.
9. Find the greatest angle of a triangle whose sides are 242, 188, and
270 feet, having given
log 2 = -30103, log 3 = -4771213, log 7= -8450980,
L tan 38° 20' = 9-8980104, and L tan 38° 19' = 9 -8977507.
10. The sides of a triangle are 2, 3, and 4 ; find the greatest angle,
having given
log2 = -30103, log 3 =-4771213,
L tan 52° 14'= 10-1108395,
and itan52°15' = 10-1111004.
GIVEN TWO SIDES AND THE INCLUDED ANGLE. 195
Making use of the tables, find all the angles when

11. a = 25, 6 = 26, and c = 27.
12. a=17, 6=20, andc=27.
13. a = 2000, b = 1050, and с = 1150.
181. Case II. Given two sides b and с and the

included angle A.
Taking b to be the greater of the two given sides,
we have д
tan B-^ = Î-? cot 4 (Art. 171). . .(1),
and ^±^ = 90°-^ (2). B
These two relations give us

B-G , B+C
and therefore, by addition and subtraction, В and G.

The third side a is then known from the relation
a
sin A sin В '
. . . . , sin A
which gives a = b -.—„ .
and thus determines a.
The side a may also be found from the formula
r
a2 = ¿>2 + c2 - 26c cos A.
This is not adapted to logarithmic calculation but is
sometimes useful, especially when the sides a and b are
small numbers.
196 TRIGONOMETRY.
182. Ex. 1. 7/6 = ^3, c = l, and 4 = 30°, solve the triangle.
We have
t B-C = b-c
tan—s j—— cot.A^ = y/S-1
\r—; cot.,M
15°.
2 b+c 1
Now tanl5° = ^|^* (Art. 101),
so that cot 15°=^™.
Hence tan—^— = 1.
••• ^=«° (1).
Also ^? = 90°-^=90°-15°=75° (2).
By addition, B=120°.
By subtraction, C=30°.
Since A = C, we have a=c = l.
Otherwise. We have
a2=62 + c2- 26c cos 4 = 3 + 1 -2^/3.^=1,
it
so that a = 1 = c.
:. C=4 = 30°,
and £=180°-4-C=120°.
Ex. a. 1/6 = 215, c = 105, and 4 = 74° 27', ./ina" Me remaining angles
and also the third side a, having given
%2 = -3010300, log 11 = 1-0413927,
log 105= 2 0211893, log 212-476 = 2-3273103,
Lcot 37° 13' = 10-1194723, diff.for l'=2622,
L tan 24° 20' = 9-6553477, diff.for l' = 3364,
L sin 74° 27' = 9-9838052,
and L cosec 28° 25' = 10-3225025, diff. for V = 2334.
SOLUTION OF TRIANGLES. 197
Here tan - = ~- cot ^ = H cot 37° 13' 30".
Now L cot 37° 13'= 10-1194723

diff. for 30"= - • 1311
.-. L cot 37° 13' 30" = 10-1193412
log 11= 1-0413927
•30103
11-1607339
log 32= 1-50515 5
1-50515.
.-. L tan 4 '(В -С)= 9-6555839
But ¿tan 24° 20'= 9-6553477
diff. = 2362 2362
60
= diff. for IffJ of 60"
3364) 141720 (42-1
= diff. for 42-1". 13456
B-C 7160
= 24° 20' 42". 6728
4320
But = 90° - = 52° 46' 30".
:. by addition, В = 11° Т 12",

and, by subtraction, С = 28° 25' 48".
Again - = с cosec C,
sin A sin С
:. a= 105 sin 74° 27' oosec 28° 25' 48"
But L coseo 28° 25' = 10-3225025 П x 2334
diff. for 48"= - • 1867 = |x2334
L cosec 28° 25' 48" = 10-3223158 = 1867.
L sin 74° 27' = 9-9838052
log 106= 2-0211893
22-3273103
20
л loga= 2-3273103.
.-. 0=212-476.
198 TRIGONOMETRY.
# 183. There are ways of finding the third side a of the triangle in the
previous case without first finding the angles В and C.
Two methods are as follows :
(1) Since а2=Ь2 + с2-2Ьссов.4
= b2 + c2 - 2bc ( 2 cos2 4 -
\ » -
2^.
A
TT -,. - ., 4bc „A
Hence, if
we have a2 = (6 + c)2 [1 - sin2 0] = ( 6 + c)2 cos2 в,
so that a = (b + c) cos в.
If then sin в be calculated from the relation
, = iJbc A
we have a = (b + c) cos 9.
(2) We have
4Ьс Л
Let {6_^2sm22
so that tan ф — ~-— sin -- .

b-( 2
and hence ф is known.
Then a«=(6-c)2[l + tan20]=^"2C)2,
so that a = (6 - c) sec ф,
and is therefore easily found.
An angle, such as в or ф above, introduced for the purpose of
facilitating calculation is called a subsidiary angle (Art. 129).
EXAMPLES. XXX.
1. If 6 = 90, c = 70, and A = 72° 48' 30", find B and C, given
log 2 = -30103, L cot 36° 24' 15"= 10-1323111,
L tan 9° 37' = 9-2290071,
and L tan 9° 38' = 9-2297785.
2. If a=21, 6 = 11, and C=34°42'30", find A and B, given
log 2 = -30103,
and L tan 72° 38' 45" = 10-50515.
3. If the angles of a triangle be in a. p. and the lengths of the greatest
and least sides be 24 and 16 feet respectively, find the length of the third
side and the other angles, given
log 2 = -30103, log 3 = -4771213,
and L tan 19° 6' = 9-5394287, diff. for V = 4084.
4. If o=13, 6=7, and C=60°, find A and B, given that
log 3 = -4771213,
and L tan 27° 27' =9-7155508, diff. for 1' = 3087.
5. If a=2b, and C=120°, find the values of A, B, and the ratio of c
to a, given that
log 3 = -4771213,
and L tan 10° 53' = 9-2839070, diff. for 1' = 6808.
6. If b = 14, c = 11, and A = 60°, find B and C, given that
log2= -30103, log 3 = -4771213,
L tan 11° 44'= 9 -3174299,
and L tan 11° 45' = 9-3180640.
7. The two sides of a triangle are 540 and 420 yards long respectively
and include an angle of 52° 6'. Find the remaining angles, given that
log 2 = -30103, L tan 26° 3'= 9-6891430,
L tan 14° 20' = 9-4074189, and L tan 14° 21' = 9-4079453.
200 . TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XXX.]
8. If 6 = 2Jft., c = 2ft., and A = 22° 20', find the other angles, and
shew that the third side is nearly one foot, given
log 2 = -30103, log 3 = -47712,
L cot 11° 10' = 10-70465, L sin 22° 20' = 9-57977,
L tan 29° 22' 20"= 9-75038, L tan 29° 22' 30"= 9-75043,
and L sin 49° 27' 34" = 9-88079.
9. If a=2, 6 = 1 + ^3, and (7=60°, solve the triangle.
10. Two sides of a triangle are ,/3 + 1 and ,/3 - 1, and the included
angle is 60° ; find the other side and angles.
11. If b = 1, с =V3 - 1, and A = 60°, find the length of the side a.
12. If b=91,c = 125,andtan^ = y, prove that a =204.

O1
13. If a = 5, b — 4, and cos (A - B) = ^ , prove that the third side с will
№D
be 6.
14. One angle of a triangle is 30° and the lengths of the sides
adjacent to it are 40 and 40 »/3 yards. Find the length of the third
side and the number of degrees in the other angles.
15. The sides of a triangle are 9 and 3, and the difference of the
angles opposite to them is 90°. Find the base and the angles, having
given
log 2 =-30103, log 3 = -4771213,
log 75894 = 4 -8802074, log 75895 = 4-8802132,
i tan 26° 33' = 9 -6986847,
and L tan 26° 34' = 9 '6990006.
16. If tan0=^|cotf,
. С
ВШ2
prove that с = (a + b) —— .
If a = 3, 6 = 1, and C=53°7'48", find с without getting A and B,
given
log 2 = -30103, log 25298 = 4-4030862,
log 25299=4-4031034, L cos 26° 33' 54"=9'9515452,
and L tan 26° 33' 54" = 9-6989700.
[Ezs. XXX.] AMBIGUOUS CASE. 201
17. Two sides of a triangle are 237 and 158 feet and the contained
angle is 66° 40' ; find the base and the other angles, having given
log 2 =-30103, log 79 = 1-89763,
log 22687 = 4-35578, L cot 33° 20' = 10-18197,
L sin 33° 20' = 9 73998, L tan 16° 54' = 9 -48262,
L tan 16° 55'=9-48308, L sec 16° 54' = 1001917,
and L sec 16° 55' = 10 01921 .
[Use either the formula cos —=— = lin ^ or the formula of the
preceding question.]
In the following four examples, the required logarithms must be taken
from the tables.
18. If a = 242 -5, b = 164-3, and C = 54° 36', solve the triangle.
19. If b = 130, c = 63, and A = 42° 15' 30", solve the triangle.
20. Two sides of a triangle being 2265-4 and 1779 feet, and the
included angle 58° 17', find the remaining angles.
21. Two sides of a triangle being 237-09 and 130-96 feet, and the
included angle 57° 59', find the remaining angles.
184. Case III. Given two sides b and c and the

angle B opposite to one of them.
The angle G is given by the relation
sin C sin B
i.e. sin G = g sin B (1).
Taking logarithms, we determine g

G, and then A (= 180° -B-G) is
found.
202 TRIGONOMETRY.
The remaining side a is then found from the relation

a = b
sin A sin B '
, sin A ...
i.e. a = b——a
sin 2* (2).
v 7
185. The equation (1) of the previous article gives in

some cases no value, in some cases one, and sometimes
two values, for 0.
First, let B be an acute angle.
(a) If b < c sin B, the right-hand member of (1) is
greater than unity, and hence there is no corresponding
value for C.
(y3) If b = c sin B, the right-hand member of (1) is
equal to unity and the corresponding value of G is 90°.
(7) If b > c sin B, there are two values of C having
c sin S
—j— as its sine, one value lying between 0° and 90°
and the other between 90° and 180°.
Both of these values are not however always admissible.
For if b > c, then B>G. The obtuse-angled value of
G is now not admissible ; for, in this case, G -cannot be
obtuse unless B be obtuse also, and it is manifestly
impossible to have two obtuse angles in a triangle.
If b < c and B be an acute angle, both values of G
are admissible. Hence there are two values found for
A, and hence the relation (2) gives two values for a. In
this case there are therefore two triangles satisfying the
given conditions.
Secondly, let B be an obtuse angle.
If b be < or = c, then B would be less than, or equal
AMBIGUOUS CASE. 203
to, c, so that C would be an obtuse angle. The triangle

would then be impossible.
If b be > c, the acute value of C, as determined from
(1), would be admissible, but not the obtuse value. We
should therefore only have one admissible solution.
Since, for some values of b, c and B, there is a doubt
or ambiguity in the determination of the triangle, this
case is called the Ambiguous Case of the solution of
triangles.
186. The Ambiguous Case may also be discussed

in a geometrical manner.
Suppose we were given the elements b, c, and B, and
that we proceeded to construct, or attempted to construct,
the triangle.
We first measure an angle ABB equal to the given
angle B.
We then measure along BA a distance BA equal to
the given distance c, and thus determine the angular
point A.
We have now to find a third point G, which must lie
on BD and must also be such that its distance from A
shall be equal to b.
To obtain it, we describe with centre A a circle whose
radius is b.
The point or points, if any, in which this circle meets
BD will determine the position of C.
Draw AD perpendicular to BD, so that
AD = AB am B = csmB.
One of the following events will happen.
The circle may not reach BD (Fig. 1) or it may
204 TRIGONOMETRY.
touch BD (Fig. 2), or it may meet BD in two points 0,

and C2 (Figs. 3 and 4).
In the case of Fig. 1, it is clear that there is no

triangle satisfying the given condition.
Here b< AD, i.e. < c sin B.
In the case of Fig. 2, there is one triangle ABD
which is right-angled at D. Here
b = AD = c sin B.
In the case of Fig. 3, there are two triangles ABGl
and ABG2. Here b lies in magnitude between AD and c,
i.e. bis > c sin B and < c.
In the case of Fig. 4, there is only one triangle A BCl
satisfying the given conditions [the triangle ABC2 is
inadmissible ; for its angle at B is not equal to B but is
equal to 180° — E\. Here b is greater than both c sin B
and c.
AMBIGUOUS CASE. 205
In the case when B is obtuse, the proper figures

should be drawn. It will then be seen that when b < c
there is no triangle (for in the corresponding triangles
ABC, and ABC3 the angle at B will be 180° - B and not
B). If b > c, it will be seen that there is one triangle,
and only one, satisfying the given conditions.
To sum up :
Given the elements b, c, and B of a triangle,
(a) If b be < c sin B, there is no triangle.
(/S) If b = c sin B, there is one triangle right-angled.
(7) If b be > c sin B and < c and B be acute, there are
two triangles satisfying the given conditions.
(S) If b be > c, there is only one triangle.
Clearly if b = c, the points B and 0, in Fig. 3 coincide
and there is only one triangle.
(e) If B be obtuse, there is no triangle except when
6>c.
187. The ambiguous case may also be considered

algebraically as follows.
From the figure of Art. 184, we have
b3 = c2 + a1 - 2ca cos B.
.-. a1 - 2ac cos B + c2 cos2 B = b2 - & + c2 cos2 B
= 6s-casin2jB.
.-. a - c cos B = ± V&2 - c2 sin2 B,
ie. a = c cos 5 + V&8 - c2 sin2^ (1).
Now (1) is an equation to determine the value of a
when b, c, and B are given.
206 TRIGONOMETRY.
(a) If b < c sin B, the quantity V&2 — c2 sin2 B is

imaginary, and (1) gives no real value for a.
(/8) If b = c sin B, there is only one value, c cos B,
for a; there is thus only one triangle which is right-
angled.
(y) If b > c sin B, there are two values for a. But,
since a must be positive, the value obtained by taking
the lower sign affixed to the radical is inadmissible unless
c cos B — V&2 — c2 sin2 B is positive,
i.e. unless V62 — c2sin2£ < c cos jB,
i.e. unless 6s - c2 sin2 J3 < c2 cos2 -B ,
i.e. unless 62 < c2.
There are therefore two triangles only when b is
> c sin B and at the same time < c.
(8) If B be an obtuse angle, then c cos 5 is negative,
and one value of a is always negative and the correspond
ing triangle impossible.
The other value will be positive only when
c cos B + V62 — c1smiB is positive,
i.e. only when V&2 — c2 sin2 B> — ccosB,
i.e. only when 62 > c2 sin2 B + c2 cos2 J5,
i.e. only when b > c.
Hence, B being obtuse, there is no triangle if b < c,
and only one triangle when b > c.
188. Bjc- Given b = 16, c = 25, and B = 33° 15', prove (ftat «fte triangle
is ambiguous and find the other angles, having given
log 2 = -30103, L sin 33° 15' = 9-7390129,
Lsin 58° 56' =9-9327616,
and Lsin 58° 57' =9-9328376.
\
We have
sin C=^BmB
6 = ~.
lb sin B = 64 einB = ^ a* sin 33° 15'.
Hence L sin C= 2 + L sin 33° 15' - 6 log 2
L sin C= 9-9328329 L sin 58° 57' = 9-9328376

L sin 58° 56' = 9-9327616 L sin 58° 56' = 9-9327616
Difi.= 713 Diff. for 1'= 760.
718
6
angular diff. = fjj x 60" 76) 4278(56
= 56" nearly. 380
478
466
.-. C = 58° 56' 56" or 180° - 58° 56' 56".
Henee (Fig. 3, Art. 186) we have
C1=58°56' 56", and C2= 121° 3' 4".
.-. i BA Cj = 180° - 33° 15' - 58° 56' 56" = 87° 48' 4",
and lBACz= 180° - 33° 15' - 121° 8' 4" = 25° 41' 56".
EXAMPLES. XXXI.
3 is there any ambiguity?
1. If a = 5, 6 = 7, and sin^l=j,
2. If o=2, c=</3 + l, and 4 = 45°, solve the triangle.
3. If a = 100, c = 100 V3, and A = 30°, solve the triangle.
4. If 26 = 3a, and tans A = -3 , prove that there are two values to the
5
third side, one of which is double the other.
5. If 4 = 30°, 6=8, and a = 6, find c.
6. Given B=30°, c = 150, and 6 = 50^/3. prove that of the two
triangles which satisfy the data one will be isosceles and the other right-
angled. Find the greater value of the third side.
Would the solution have been ambiguous had
B = 30°, c = 150, and 6 = 75?
208 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XXXI.]
7. In the ambiguous case given a, b, and A , prove that the difference

between the two values of с is 2*Ja? - b'2 sin2 A.
8. If a = 5, 6 = 4, and 4 = 45°, find the other angles, having given
log 2 = -30103, L sin 33° 29' = 9-7520507,
and L sin 33° 30" = 9-7530993.
9. If a = 9, Ъ = 12, and A = 30°, find c, having given
log 2 = -30103, log 3 = -47712,
log 171 = 2-23301, log368=2-56635,
L sin 11° 48' 39" = 9-31108, L sin 41° 48' 39" = 9-82391,
and £sinl08°ll'21"=9-97774.
10. Point out whether or no the solutions of the following triangles
are ambiguous.
Find the smaller value of the third side in the ambiguous case and
the other angles in both cases.
(1) A = 30°, с = 250 feet, and a = 125 feet ;
(2) A = 30°, с = 250 feet, and a = 200 feet.
Given log 2 = -30103, log 6-03893 = -7809601,
¿sin 38° 41'= 9-7958800,
and bsin 8° 41' =9-1789001.
11. Given a — 250, b = 240, and A = 72° 4' 48", find the angles В and C,
and state whether they can have more than one value, given
log 2-5 = -3979400, log 2 -4 = -3802112,
¿sin 72° 4' =9 -9783702, L sin 72° 5' = 9-9784111,
and L sin 65° 59' = 9-9606739.
12. Two straight roads intersect at an angle of 30° ; from the point
of junction two pedestrians A and В start at the same time, A walking
along one road at the rate of 5 miles per hour and В walking uniformly
along the other road. At the end of 3 hours they are 9 miles apart.
Shew that there are two rates at which В may walk to fulfil this
condition and find them.
[Exs. XXXI.] SOLUTION OF TRIANGLES. 20!>
For the following three examples, a book of tables will be required.
13. Two sides of a triangle are 1015 feet and 732 feet, and the angle
opposite the latter side is 40°; find the angle opposite the former and
prove that more than one value is admissible.
14. Two sides of a triangle being 5374-5 and 1586-6 feet, and the
angle opposite the latter being 15° 11', calculate the other angles of the
triangle or triangles.
15. Given .4 = 10°, a = 2308-7, and b = 7903 -2, find the smaller value
of c.
189. Case IV. Given one side and two angles, viz.
a, B, and G.
Since the three angles of a triangle are together equal

to two right angles, the third angle
is given also.
The sides b and c are now obtained
from the relations
b e _ a_ B' a
sin B sin G sin A '
, sin B , sin C
giving 6 = a8irr^'andc = asin^-
190. Case V. The three angles A, B, and G given.

Here the ratios only of the sides can be determined
by the formulae
a b c
sin A sin B sin C
Their absolute magnitudes cannot be found.

L. T. 14
210 TRIGONOMETRY.
EXAMPLES. XXXII.
17
1. If cos A = 7r= 1
22 and cos C=r-r
14 , find the ratio of a : b : c.
2. The angles of a triangle are as 1 : 2 : 7 ; prove that the ratio of
the greatest side to the least side is + 1 : ^/5 - 1.
3. If 4=45°, B=75°, and C=60°, prove that a + cj2=2b.
4. Two angles of a triangle are 41° 13' 22" and 71° 19' 5" and the side
opposite the first angle is 55; find the side opposite the latter angle,
given
log 55 = 1-7403627, log 79063 = 4-8979775,
L sin 41° 13' 22" = 9-8188779,
and L sin 71° 19' 5" = 9-9764927.
5. From each of two ships, one mile apart, the angle is observed
which is subtended by another ship and a beacon on shore ; these angles
are found to be 52° 25' 15" and 75° 9' 30" respectively. Given
L sin 75° 9' 30" = 9-9852635,
L sin 52° 25' 15" = 9-8990055, log 1-2197= -0862530,
and log 1-2198= -0862886,
find the distance of the beacon from each of the ships.
6. The base angles of a triangle are 22^° and 112£° ; prove that the
base is equal to twice the height.
For the following five questions a book of tables is required.
7. The base of a triangle being seven feet and the base angles
129° 23' and 38° 36', find the length of its shorter side.
8. If the angles of a triangle be as 5 : 10 : 21, and the side opposite
the smaller angle be 3 feet, find the other sides.
9. The angles of a triangle being 150°, 18° 20', and 11° 40", and the
longest side being 1000 feet, find the length of the shortest side.
10. To get the distance of a point A from a point B, a line BC and
the angles ABC and BCA are measured, and are found to be 287 yards
and 55° 32' 10" and 51° 8' 20" respectively. Find the distance AB.
11. To find the distance from A to P a distance, AB, of 1000 yards is
measured in a convenient direction. At A the angle PAB is found to be
41° 18' and at B the angle PBA is found to be 114° 38'. What is the
required distance to the nearest yard ?
CHAPTER XIV.
HEIGHTS AND DISTANCES.
191. IN the present chapter we shall consider some

questions of the kind which occur in land-surveying.
Simple questions of this kind have already been considered
in Chapter III.
192. To find the height of an inaccessible tower by
means of observations made at distant points.
Suppose PQ to be the tower and that the ground
passing through the foot Q of the
tower is horizontal. At a point A
on this ground measure the angle
of elevation a of the top of the
tower.
Measure off a distance AB(=a)
from A directly toward the foot of
the tower, and at В measure the angle of elevation /3.
To find the unknown height x of the tower, we have
to connect it with the measured length a. This is best
done as follows:
14—2
212 TRIGONOMETRY.
From the triangle PBQ, we have
jjp-sinfl (1),
and, from the triangle PAB, we have

PB sin PAB sin a
■(2),
a sin BPA sin (J3 — a)'
since ZBPA = Z QBP-Z QAP = 0- a.
From (1) and (2), by multiplication, we have
x _ sin a sin /3
ct sin (0 — a) '
sin a sin 0
sm(p— a)
The height x is therefore given in a form suitable for
logarithmic calculation.
Numerical Example. If a=100 feet, a=30°, and (3=60°, then
x = lnA
100 sin 30° sin 60° = 100x^=86-6
r—stts— ,„ oa . feet.
sin 30° 2
193. It is often not convenient to measure AB

directly towards Q.
Measure therefore AB in any
other suitable direction on the hori
zontal ground, and at A measure the
angle of elevation a of P, and also
the angle PAB{=p).
At B measure the angle PBA
(=7)
In the triangle PAB, we have then
Z APB = 180° - Z PAB - Z PBA = 180° - (0 + y).
„ AP _ sin PBA _ sin 7

Hence — - ^gjrj - gin (/3 + y) •
From the triangle PAQ, we have

. . sin a sin 7
* = AP sin a = a -. ,Q ,—c .
sin (8 +7)
Hence a; is found by an expression suitable for
logarithmic calculation.
194. To find the distance between two inaccessible points

by means of observations made at two points the distance
between which is known, all four points being supposed to
be in one plane.
Let P and Q be two points whose distance apart, PQ,
is required.
Let A and B be the two known
points whose distance apart, AB, is
given to be equal to a.
At A measure the angles PAB
and QAB, and let them be a and B fri
respectively.
At B measure the angle PBA and QBA, and let them
be 7 and 8 respectively.
Then in the triangle PAB we have one side a and the
two adjacent angles a and 7 given, so that, as in Art. 163,
we have AP given by the relation
AP sin 7 _ sin 7
■(!)•
a sin APB sin (a + 7) "
In the triangle QAB we have, similarly,
AQ sin 8
.(2).
a sin (y8 + S)
214 TRIGONOMETRY.
In the triangle APQ we have now determined the

sides AP and AQ ; also the included angle PAQ(= a — /S)
is known. We can therefore find the side PQ by the
method of Art. 181.
If the four points A, B, P, and Q be not in the same
plane, we must, in addition, measure the angle PAQ ; for
in this case PAQ is not equal to a — /8. In other respects
the solution will be the same as above.
195. Bearings and Points of the Compass. The

Bearing of a given point B as seen from a given point
0 is the direction in which B is seen from 0. Thus if
-S-
« —
* \
WW*""
V E
the direction of OB bisect the angle between East and

North, the bearing of B is said to be North-East.
If a line is said to bear 20° West of North, we mean
that it is inclined to the North direction at an angle of
20°, this angle being measured from the North towards
the West: ■
To facilitate the statement of the bearing of a point

the circumference of the mariner's compass-card is divided
into 32 equal portions, as in the above figure, and the sub
divisions marked as indicated. Consider only the quadrant
between East and North. The middle point of the arc
between N. and E. is marked North-East (N.E.). The
bisectors of the arcs between N.E. and N. and E. are
respectively called North-North-East and East-North-
East (N.N.E. and E.N.E.). The other four subdivisions,
reckoning from N., are called North by East, N.E. by
North, N.E. by East, and East by North. Similarly the
other three quadrants are subdivided.
It is clear that the arc between two subdivisions of
360°
the card subtends an angle of , i.e. 11¿°, at the
o¿
centre 0.
EXAMPLES. XXXIII.
1. A flagstaff stands on the middle of a square tower. A man on
the ground, opposite the middle of one face and distant from it 100 feet,
just sees the flag ; on his receding another 100 feet, the tangents of eleva
tion of the top of the tower and the top of the flagstaff are found to be ^
and s . Find the dimensions of the tower and the height of the flagstaff,
У t
the ground being horizontal.
2. A man, walking on a level plane towards a tower, observes that
at a certain point the angular height of the tower is 10°, and, after going
50 yards nearer the tower, the elevation is found to be 15°. Having given
L sin 15° = 9 -4129962, L cos 5° = 9 -9983442,
log 25 -783 = 1-4113334, and log 25-784 = 1-4113503,
find, to 4 places of 'decimals, the height of the tower in yards.
216 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XXXIII.]
3. DE is a tower standing on a horizontal plane and ABCD is a
straight line in the plane. The height of the tower subtends an angle 6
at A, 29 at B, and 30 at C. If AB and BC be respectively 50 and 20 feet,
find the height of the tower and the distance CD.
4. A tower, 50 feet high, stands on the top of a mound ; from a
point on the ground the angles of elevation of the top and bottom of the
tower are found to be 75° and 45° respectively; find the height of the
mound.
5. A vertical pole (more than 100 feet high) consists of two parts,
the lower being |rd of the whole. From a point in a horizontal plane
through the foot of the pole and 40 feet from it, the upper part subtends
an angle whose tangent is ^ . Find the height of the pole.
6. A tower subtends an angle a at a point on the same level as the
foot of the tower, and at a second point, h feet above the first, the
depression of the foot of the tower is /3. Find the height of the tower.
7. A person in a balloon, which has ascended vertically from flat
land at the sea level, observes the angle of depression of a ship at anchor
to be 30° ; after descending vertically for 600 feet, he finds the angle
of depression to be 15°; find the horizontal distance of the ship from the
point of ascent.
8. PQ is a tower standing on a horizontal plane, Q being its foot ;
A and B are two points on the plane such that the / QAB is 90°, and AB
is 40 feet. It is found that
co\,PAQ=z~ and cotPBQ=\.
Find the height of the tower.
9. A column is E.S.E. of an observer, and at noon the end of the
shadow is North-East of him. The shadow is 80 feet long and the
elevation of the column at the observer's station is 45°. Find the height
of the column.
10. A tower is observed from two stations A and B. It is found to
be due north of A and north-west of B. B is due east of A and distant
from it 100 feet. The elevation of the tower as seen from A is the
complement of the elevation as seen from B. Find the height of the
.tower.
[Exs. XXXIII.] HEIGHTS AND DISTANCES. 217
11. The elevation of a steeple at a place due south of it is 46° and
at another place due west of it the elevation is 15°. If the distance
between the two places be a, prove that the height of the steeple is
aU/3-1)
2^3 "
12. A person stands in the diagonal produced of the square base of
a church tower, at a distance 2a from it, and observes the angles of
elevation of each of the two outer corners of the top of the tower to be
30°, whilst that of the nearest corner is 45°. Prove that the breadth of
the tower is a (*J10 - J2).
13. A person standing at a point A due south of a tower built on a
horizontal plane observes the altitude of the tower to be 60°. He then
walks to B due west of A and observes the altitude to be 45°, and again
at C in AB produced he observes it to be 30°. Prove that B is midway
between A and C.
14. At each end of a horizontal base of length 2a it is found that
the angular height of a certain peak is 6 and that at the middle point it
is <f>. Prove that the vertical height of the peak is
a sin 6 sin $
^/sin (0 + 0) sin (0 - 0) '
15. A and B are two stations 1000 feet apart ; P and Q are two
stations in the same plane as A B and on the same side of it ; the angles
PAB, PBA, QAB, and QBA are respectively 75°, 30°, 45°, and 90° ; find
how far P is from Q and how far each is from A and B.
For tlie following seven examples a book of tables will be wanted.
16. At a point on a horizontal plane the elevation of the summit of
a mountain is found to be 22° 15', and at another point on the plane, a
mile further away in a direct line, its elevation is 10° 12' ; find the height
of the mountain.
17. From the top of a hill the angles of depression of two successive
milestones, on level ground and in the same vertical plane with the
observer, are found to be 5° and 10° respectively. Find the height of the
hill and the horizontal distance to the nearest milestone.
18. A castle and a monument stand on the same horizontal plane.
The height of the castle is 140 feet, and the angles of depression of the
top and bottom of the monument as seen from the top of the castle are
•40° and 80° respectively. Find the height of the monument.
218 TRIGONOMETRY. [EXS. XXXIII.]
19. A flagstaff PN stands on level ground. A base AB is measured
at right angles to AN, the points A, B, and N being in the same horizontal
plane, and the angles PAN and PBN are found to be a and /3 respectively.
Prove that the height of the flagstaff is
^ sin o sin /3 ,
ijaia (a - p) sin (o + 13)
If AB = 100 feet, o=70°, and/9=50°, calculate the height.
20. A man, standing due south of a tower on a horizontal plane
through its foot, finds the elevation of the top of the tower to be 54° 16';
he goes east 100 yards and finds the elevation to be then 50° 8'. Find
the height of the tower.
21. A man in a balloon observes that the angle of depression of an
object on the ground bearing due north is 33° ; the balloon drifts 3 miles
due west and the angle of depression is now found to be 21°. Find the
height of the balloon.
22. From the extremities of a horizontal base-line AB, whose length
is 1000 feet, the bearings of the foot C of a tower are observed and it is
found that iGAB = 56° 23', lCBA = iT\5', and that the elevation of
the tower from A is 9° 25' ; find the height of the tower.
196. Ex. 1 . A flagstaffis on the top of a tower which
stands on a horizontal plane. A person observes the angles,
a and /3, subtended at a point on the horizontal plane by the
flagstaff and the tower ; he then walks a known distance a
toward the tower and finds that the flagstaff subtends the
same angle as before; prove that the height of the tower
and the length of the flagstaff are respectively
a sin yS cos (a + f3) , a sin a
cos (a +2£) cos (a + 2/3) "
Let P and Q be the top and foot of the tower, and let
PR be the flagstaff. Let A and B be the points at which
the measurements are taken, so that zPAQ = /3 and
Z PAR = / PBR — a. Since the two latter angles are
equal, a circle will go through the four points A, B, Py
and R.
To find the height of the flagstaff we have to connect

the unknown length PR with the known length AB.
This may be done by connecting each with the
length AR.
To do this, we must first
determine the angles of the
triangles ARP and ARB.
Since A, B, P, and R lie on a
circle, we have
zBRP = zBAP = B,
and zAPB=zARB=d (say).
Also Z APR = 90° + ZPAQ = W + B.
Hence, since the angles of the triangle APR are
together equal to two right angles, we have
18Oo = a + (9O° + /3) + (0 + £))
so that 0 = 9O°-(a + 2ft) (1).
From the triangles APR and ABR we then have
PR _ ÂR AR a
(Art. 163).
sin o sin RPA
mj-jl sin RBA ~ sin 6
[It will be found in Chap. XV. that each of these
quantities is equal to the radius of the circle.]
Hence the height of the flagstaff
a sin a _ a sin a , .
= PR = sin 6 ~ ^roTfm ' °y v1 '•
cos (a + 2/3)'
PQ
Again, = cos BPQ = cos (a + ft). • (2),
PB
PB sin sin ft
and .(3).
a sin sin#
Hence, from (2) and (3), by multiplication,
PQ _ sin ft cos (a + ft) _ sin ft cos (a + ft) , ... .
T~ ~sind ~ cos (a + 2ft) 'WW'
220 TRIGONOMETRY.
Also, BQ = PQ tan BPQ = PQ tan (a + ß)

sin ß sin (a + /3)
=a
cos (a + 2/3) '
and АО-:, i pQ_ cos(* + 2/3) + sin/3sin(g + /3)
«Liiu. .¿iv/ — u- т* i5W — u- ;^ лл
cos ß cos (a + /3)

" " "cos (a + 2/3) '
If a, a, and /8 be given numerically, these results are
all in a form suitable for logarithmic computation.
Ex. 2. At a distance a from the foot of a tower AB, of known height
b, a ßagstaff BC and the tower subtend equal angles. Find the height of
the flagstaff.
Let 0 be the point of observation, and let the angles AOB and BOG
be each в; also let the height BC be x.
We then have tan0 = - , and tan 20 = ^-^.
a a
Hence
... b+y 2ab

so that —2 = -5—. , .
a a? - b2
If a and 6 be given numerically, we thus easily obtain y.
197. Ex. J. man walks along a straight road and

observes that the greatest angle subtended by two objects is « ;
from the point where this greatest angle is subtended he walks
a distance с along the road, and finds that the two objects are
now in a straight line which makes an angle ß with the
road; prove that the distance between the objects is
с sin a sin ß see —-„ - sec -5— .
¿t ¿t
Let P and Q be the two points, and let PQ meet

the road in B.
If A be the point at which the greatest angle is

subtended, then A must be the point where a circle drawn
through P and Q touches the road.
[For, take any other point A' on AB, and join it to P
cutting the circle in B', and join A'Q and B'Q.
Then ¿ PA'Q < ¿ PFQ (Eue. I. 16),
and therefore < Z PAQ (Eue. III. 21).]
Let the angle QAB be called в. Then (Eue. III. 32)
the angle APQ is в also.
Hence 180° = sum of the angles of the triangle PAB
so that
From the triangles PAQ and QAB we have
PQ sin a , AQ sino sin 8
— and —- — —.— —
AQ sinö' с sinAQB sm(0 + a)-
222 TRIGONOMETRY.
Hence, by multiplication, we have

PQ _ sin a sin #
c sin 0 sin (0 + a)
sin a sin #
.'. PQ = c sin a sin /8 sec —^— sec
EXAMPLES. XXXIV.
1. A bridge has 5 equal spans, each of 100 feet measured from the
centre of the piers, and a boat is moored in a line with one of the middle
piers. The whole length of the bridge subtends a right angle as seen
from the boat. Prove that the distance of the- boat from the bridge is
100^/6 feet.
2. A ladder placed at an angle of 75° with the ground just reaches
the sill of a window at a height of 27 feet above the ground on one side
of a street. On turning the ladder over without moving its foot, it is
found that when it rests against a wall on the other side of the street
it is at an angle of 15° with the ground. Prove that the breadth of the
street and the length of the ladder are respectively
27(3-^3) and 27 (^6 - J2) feet.
3. From a house on one side of a street observations are made of the
angle subtended by the height of the opposite house ; from the level of
the street the angle subtended is the angle whose tangent is 3 ; from two
windows one above the other the angle subtended is found to be the
angle whose tangent is -3; the height of the opposite house being
60 feet, find the height above the street of each of the two windows.
4. A rod of given length can turn in a vertical plane passing through
the sun, one end being fixed on the ground ; find the longest shadow it
can cast on the ground.
Calculate the altitude of the sun when the longest shadow it can cast
is 3J times the length of the rod.
5. A person on a ship A observes another ship B leaving a harbour,
whose bearing is then N.W. After 10 minutes A, having sailed one mile
[Exs. XXXIV.] HEIGHTS AND DISTANCES. 223
N.E., sees B due west and the harbour then bears 60° West of North.
After another 10 minutes B is observed to bear S.W. Find the distances
between A and B at the first observation and also the direction and rate
of B.
6. A person on a ship sailing north sees two lighthouses, which are (>
miles apart, in a line due west ; after an hour's sailing one of them bears
S.W. and the other S.S.W. Find the ship's rate.
7. A person on a ship sees a lighthouse N.W. of himself. After
sailing for 12 miles in a direction 15° south of W. the lighthouse is
seen due N. Find the distance of the lighthouse from the ship in
each position.
8. A man, travelling west along a straight road, observes that when
he is due south of a certain windmill the straight line drawn to a distant
tower makes an angle of 30° with the road. A mile further on the
bearings of the windmill and tower are respectively N.E. and N.W. Find
the distances of the tower from the windmill and from the nearest point
of the road.
9. An observer on a headland sees a ship due north of him ; after a
quarter of an hour he sees it due east and after another half-hour he sees
it due south-east ; find the direction that the ship's course makes with
the meridian and the time after the ship is first seen until it is nearest
the observer, supposing that it sails uniformly in a straight line.
10. A man walking along a straight road, which runs in a direction
30° east of north, notes when he is due south of a certain house ; when he
has walked a mile further, he observes that the house lies due west and
that a windmill on the opposite side of the road is N.E. of him ; three
miles further on he finds that he is due north of the windmill; prove
that the line joining the house and the windmill makes with the road
the angle whose tangent is
48 - 25 ^3
11
U. A, B, and C are three consecutive milestones on a straight road
from each of which a distant spire is visible. The spire is observed to
bear north-east at A, east at B, and 60° east of south at C. Prove that
the shortest distance of the spire from the road is 74-5
— */3- miles.
12. Two stations due south of a tower, which leans towards the
north, are at distances a and b from its foot ; if a and /S be the
224 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XXXIV.]
elevations of the top of the tower from these stations, prove that its
inclination to the horizontal is
, , b cot a- a cot 3
COt-1 b; — a .
13. From a point A on a level plane the angle of elevation of a
balloon is a, the balloon being south of A ; from a point B, which is at a
distance c south of A, the balloon is seen northwards at an elevation of
8; find the distance of the balloon from A and its height above the
ground.
14. A statue on the top of a pillar subtends the same angle o at
distances of 9 and 11 yards from the pillar ; if tan a = rg , find the height
of the pillar and of the statue.
15. A flagstaff on the top of a tower is observed to subtend the same
angle a at two points on a horizontal plane, which lie on a line passing
through the centre of the base of the tower and whose distance from one
another is 2a, and an angle 8 at a point halfway between them. Prove
that the height of the flagstaff is
2 sin 8
cos o sin (8 - a) '
16. An observer in the first place stations himself at a distance a
feet from a column standing upon a mound. He finds that the column
subtends an angle, whose tangent is , at his eye which may be supposed
to be on the horizontal plane through the base of the mound. On
moving 2- a feet nearer the column, he finds that the angle subtended is
o
unchanged. Find the height of the mound and of the column.
17. A church tower stands on the bank of a river, which is 150 feet
wide, and on the top of the tower is a spire 30 feet high. To an observer
on the opposite bank of the river, the spire subtends the same angle that
a pole six feet high subtends when placed upright on the ground at the
foot of the tower. Prove that the height of the tower is nearly 285 feet.
18. A person, wishing to ascertain the height of a tower, stations
himself on a horizontal plane through its foot at a point at which the
elevation of the top is 30°. On walking a distance a in a certain direction
he finds that the elevation of the top is the same as before, and on then
walking a distance g a at right angles to his former direction he finds the
[Exs. XXXTV.] HEIGHTS AND DISTANCES. 225
elevation of the top to be 60°. Prove that the height of the tower is
either *J\a 01 \/|a-
19. The angles of elevation of the top of a tower, standing on a
horizontal plane, from two points distant a and b from the base and in
the same straight line with it are complementary. Prove that the height
of the tower is Jab feet, and, if 6 be the angle Bubtended at the top of
the tower by the line joining the two points, then sin $= ^—^ •
20. A tower 150 feet high stands on the top of a cliff 80 feet high.
At what point on the plane passing through the foot of the cliff must an
observer place himself so that the tower and the oliff may subtend equal
angles, the height of his eye being 5 feet ?
21. A statue on the top of a pillar, standing on level ground, is
found to subtend the greatest angle a at the eye of an observer when his
distance from the pillar is c feet ; prove that the height of the statue is
2c tan o feet, and find the height of the pillar.
22. A tower stood at the foot of an inclined plane whose inclination
to the horizon was 9°. A line 100 feet in length was measured straight
up the incline from the foot of the tower, and at the end of this line the
tower subtended an angle of 54°. Find the height of the tower, having
given log2 = -30103, log 114-4123 = 2 -0584726,
and Lsin54°=9-9079576.
23. A vertical tower stands on a declivity which is inclined at 15° to
the horizon. From the foot of the tower a man ascends the declivity for
80 feet, and then finds that the tower subtends an angle of 30°. Prove
that the height of the tower is 40 (^/G - ^/2) feet.
24. The altitude of a certain rock is 47°, and after walking towards it
1000 feet up a slope inclined at 30° to the horizon an observer finds its
altitude to be 77°. Find the vertical height of the rock above the first
point of observation, given that sin 47°="73135.
25. A man observes that when he has walked c feet up an inclined
plane the angular depression of an object in a horizontal plane through
the foot of the slope is a, and that, when he has walked a further distance
of c feet, the depression is 0. Prove that the inclination of the slope to
the horizon is the angle whose cotangent is
(2 cot |3 - cot o).
L. T. 15
TRIGONOMETRY. [EXS. XXXIV.
26. A regular pyramid on a square base has an edge 150 feet long,
and the length of the side of its base is 200 feet. Find the inclination of
its face to the base.
27. л pyramid has for base a square of side a ; its vertex lies on а
line through the middle point of the base and perpendicular to it, and at
a distance h from it ; prove that the angle о between the two lateral faces
is given by the equation
28. A flagstaff, 100 feet high, stands in the centre of an equilateral

triangle which is horizontal. From the top of the flagstaff each side
subtends an angle of 60° ; prove that the length of the side of the triangle
is 50^6 feet.
29. The extremity of the shadow of a flagstaff, which is 6 feet high
and stands on the top of a pyramid on a square base, just reaches the
side of the base and is distant 56 and 8 feet respectively from the
extremities of that side. Find the sun's altitude if the height of the
pyramid be 34 feet.
30. The extremity of the shadow of a flagstaff, which is 6 feet high
and stands on the top of a pyramid on a square base, just reaches the
side of the base and is distant x feet and у feet respectively from the ends
of that side ; prove that the height of the pyramid is
where a is the elevation of the sun.

31. The angle of elevation of a cloud from a point h feet above
a lake is a, and the angle of depression of its reflexion in the lake is
ß ; prove that its height is fesm^ + tt)
sin(ß-a)
32. The shadow of a tower is observed to be half the known height
of the tower and sometime afterwards it is equal to the known height ;
how much will the sun have gone down in the interval, given
log 2 = -30103, L tan 63° 26' = 10-3009994,
and diff. for 1'= 3159?
[EXS. XXXIV.] HEIGHTS AND DISTANCES. 227
33. An isosceles triangle of wood is placed in a vertical plane, vertex
upwards, and faces the snn. If 2a be the base of the triangle, h its
height, and 30° the altitude of the sun, prove that the tangent of the angle
at the apex of the shadow is .
ah' - a1
34. A rectangular target faces due south, being vertical and standing
on a horizontal plane. Compare the area of the target with that of its
shadow on the ground when the sun is /3° from the south at an altitude
of o°.
35. A spherical ball, of diameter 4, subtends an angle a at a man's
eye when the elevation of its centre is /3 ; prove that the height of the
centre of the ball is ^ 5 sin jS cosec | .
36. A man standing on a plane observes a row of equal and equi
distant pillars, the 10th and 17th of which subtend the same angle that
they would do if they were in the position of the first and were
respectively \ and \ of their height. Prove that, neglecting the height
of the man's eye, the line of pillars is inclined to the line drawn to the
first at an angle whose secant is nearly 2-6.
For the following four examples a book of tables will be wanted.
37. A and B are two points, which are on the banks of a river and
opposite to one another, and between them is the mast, PN, of a ship ;
the breadth of the river is 1000 feet, and the angular elevation of P at A
is 14° 20' and at B it is 8° 10'. What is the height of P above AB 1
38. AB is a line 1000 yards long ; B is due north of A and from B
a distant point P bears 70° east of north ; at A it bears 41° 22' east of
north ; find the distance from A to P.
39. A is a station exactly 10 miles west of B. The bearing of a
particular rock from A is 74° 19' east of north, and its bearing from B is
26° 51' west of north. How far is it north of the line AB 1
40. The summit of a spire is vertically over the middle point of a
horizontal square enclosure whose side is of length a feet ; the height of
the spire is h feet above the level of the square. If the shadow of the
spire just reach a corner of the square when the sun has an altitude 6,
prove that
h^2 = a tan 9.
Calculate h, having given a = 1000 feet and 6 = 25° 15'.
15—2
CHAPTER XV.
PROPERTIES OF A TRIANGLE.
198. Area of a given triangle. Let ABC be any

triangle, and AD the perpen
dicular drawn from A upon the _ k_ F
opposite side.
Through A draw EAF parallel
to BC, and draw BE and OF per
pendicular to it. By Eue. •!. 41,
the area of the triangle ABC
= i rectangle BF = $BC .CF=%a.AD.
But AD = AB sin В = с sin В.
The area of the triangle ABC therefore = |ca sin B.
This area is denoted by A.
Hence A = |ca sin В = |ab sin С = |Ъс sin A ... (1).
2
By Art. 169, we have sin A = j- Vs (s — a) (s — b) (s — c),
so that A = \Ъс sin A = Vs (s - a) (s - b) (s - c) . . .(2).

This latter quantity is often called 8.
AREA OF A TRIANGLE. 229
EXAMPLES. XXXV.
Find the area of the triangle ABC when
1. a = 13, 6 = 14, and c = 15. 2. a=18, 6 = 24, and c = 30.
3. o = 25, 6=52, and c = 63. 4. a=125, 6 = 123, and c=62.
5. a = 15, 6 = 36, and c=39. 6. a = 287, 6 = 816, and c=865.
7. a = 35, 6 = 84, and c = 91.
8. a=V3, &=V2, and e=
9. If В = 45°, O=60°, and a = 2 (x/3 + 1) inches, prove that the area

of the triangle is 6 + 2^/3 sq. inches.
10. The sides of a triangle are 119, 111, and 92 yards ; prove that its
area is 10 sq. yards less than an acre.
11. The sides of a triangular field are 242, 1212, and 1450 yards ;
prove that the area of the field is 6 acres.
12. A workman is told to make a triangular enclosure of sides 50, 41,
and 21 yards respectively ; having made the first side one yard too long,
what length must he make the other two sides in order to enclose the
prescribed area with the prescribed length of fencing ?
13. Find, correct to -0001 of an inch, the length of one of the equal
sides of an isosceles triangle on a base of 14 inches having the same area
as a triangle whose sides are 13*6, 15, and 15-4 inches.
14. Prove that the area of a triangle is $а3--8111

.—/Í-— .
If one angle of a triangle be 60°, the area 10^/3 square feet, and the
perimeter 20 feet, find the lengths of the sides.
15. The sides of a triangle are in A.P. and its area is - ths of an
equilateral triangle of the same perimeter ; prove that its sides are in the
ratio 3:5:7, and find the greatest angle of the triangle.
16. In a triangle the least angle is 45° and the tangents of the angles
are in A.P. If its area be 3 square yards, prove that the lengths of the
sides are 3^/5, (>4/2, and 9 feet, and that the tangents of the other angles
are respectively 2 and 3.
230 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XXXV.]
17. The lengths of two sides of a triangle are one foot and *J2 feet
respectively, and the angle opposite the shorter side is 30° ; prove that
there are two triangles satisfying these conditions, find their angles, and
shew that their areas are in the ratio
V3 + W3-1.
18. Find by the aid of the tables the area of the larger of the two
triangles given by the data
.4 = 31° 15', o = 5ins., and 6 = 7ins.
199. On the circles connected with a given

triangle.
The circle which passes through the angular points of
a triangle ABC is called its circumscribing circle or, more
briefly, its circumcircle. The centre of this circle is
found by the construction of Euc. IV. 5. Its radius is
always called R.
The circle which can be inscribed within the triangle
so as to touch each of the sides is called its inscribed
circle or, more briefly, its incircle. The centre of this
circle is found by the construction of Euc. iv. 4. Its radius
will be denoted by r.
The circle which touches the side BG and the two
sides AB and AG produced is called the escribed circle
opposite the angle A. Its radius will be denoted by rx.
Similarly r2 denotes the radius of the circle which
touches the side GA and the two sides BG and BA
produced. Also rs denotes the radius of the circle touch
ing AB and the two sides CA and GB produced.
200. To find the magnitude of R, the radius of the
circumcircle of any triangle ABC.
Bisect the two sides BG and GA in D and E respec
tively, and draw DO and EO perpendicular to BC and CA.
RADIUS OF THE CIRCUMCIKCLE. 231
By Eue. IV. 5, 0 is the centre of the circumcircle.

Join OB and ОС.
Flg.l. Fig. 2. Fig.3.
The point 0 may either lie within the triangle as in

Fig. 1, or without it as in Fig. 2, or upon one of the sides
as in Fig. 3.
Taking the first figure, the two triangles BOD and
COD are equal in all respects, so that
/ BOD = /_ COD,
:. Л BOD = \/L BOG = z BAC (Eue. in. 20),
= A.
Also BD=BOsinBOD.
.: ñ = R sin A.
¿
If A be obtuse, as in Fig. 2, we have
¿ BOD = i Z BOG = Z BLC = 180° - A (Eue. m. 22),
so that, as before, sin BO D = sin A,
and Е
If A be a right angle, as in Fig. 3, we have
, since in this case sin A = 1.

2 sin A
232 TRIGONOMETRY.
The relation found above is therefore true for all
triangles.
Hence, in all three cases, we have
R = 2 Bin
t A. = 2 sin
* „= ° C
B 2 sin (Art.
v 163).
'
201. In Art. 169 we have shewn that

2 2S
where S is the area of the triangle.

Substituting this value of sin A in (1), we have
abc
R_4S '
giving the radius of the circumcircle in terms of the sides.
202. To find the value of r, the radius of the incircle

of the triangle ABC.
Bisect the two angles B and G by the two lines BI
and CI meeting in /.
By Euc. m. 4, / is the
centre of the incircle. Join
IA, and draw ID, IE, and
IF perpendicular to the
three sides.
Then ID=IE= IF=r. g.
We have
area of A IBG = \ID .BG = \r.a,
area of A ICA = \IE . CA=\r.h,
and area of A IAB = \IF . AB=\r. c.
RADIUS OF THE INCIRCLE. 233
Hence, by addition, we have

^r .a + ^r.b + ^r .c= sum of the areas of the triangles
IBC, IGA, and IAB
— area of the A ABC,
a+b+с „
i.e. r -g- = S>
so that r .s = S.
8
J* ™ —
203. Since the angles IBÍ) and IDE are respectively

equal to the angles IBF and IFB, the two triangles IDB
and IFB are equal in all respects.
Hence BD = BF, so that 2BD = BD + BF.
So also AE = AF, so that 2AE =AE + AF,
and CE = CD, so that ICE = CE + CD.
2Ш) + ЪАЕ+ЧСЕ =(BD +CD)+ (CE+ AE) + (AF+FB),
i.e. 2BD + 2AC =
Hence
so CE=s-c = CD,
and
TD Й
Now ; = tan IBD = tan - .
234 TRIGONOMETRY.
So r = IE=CEta,nICE = (s-c)ta,n^,
and also r = IF^= FA tan IAF=(s- a) tern ^ .

ABC
Hence r = (s — a) tan — = (s — b) tan — = (s — c) tan — .
SK SI SI
204. A third value for r may be found as follows :

we have a = BD + DC = ID cot IBB + ID cot IGB
= ?• cot g- + r cot g-
5
cos -g cos
2
=r
sin sin ^
.•. a sin -g- sin r • G B G . Bl

= r sin -g- cos g- + cos sm g-
= r srn (| + 5)-r«n[w-4]-r«f
0
Bin g sin -s-
r=a
X
cos ^
.4 j4
Cor. Since a = 2i2 sin -4 = 4i£ sin cos-^ »
we have r = 4it sin sin sin — .
205. To find the value of rly the radius of the escribed

circle opposite the angle A of the triangle ABC.
RADII OF THE ESCRIBED CIRCLES. 235
Produce AB and AC to L and M.

Bisect the angles GBL and
BCM by the lines BI, and CIU
and let these lines meet in
Draw /jA, IiEu and
perpendicular to the three sides
respectively.
The two triangles I^B and
liFjB are equal in all respects,
so that = IJ)V
Similarly 1^=1^.
The three perpendiculars
IiDi, IiElt and IxFx being equal, the point /, is the centre
of the required circle.
Now the area ABIfi is equal to the sum of the
triangles ABC and IiBC; it is also equal to the sum of
the triangles IJ5A and I^CA.
Hence
A ABC+ A I,BC= AlfiA+AÂB.
.: S + • BC= . OA + \IJPX . AB,
i.e. S + $r, . a = £rj . 6 + ^rx . c.
■■• «-r, g— J"7"1! 2 a J = r1(a-a).
Similarly it can be shewn that

236 TRIGONOMETRY.
206. Since AE, and AF, are tangents, we have,

as in Art. 203, AEX = AF,.
Similarly, BF, = BDU and GE, = CD,.
.: 2AE, = AE, + AF1 = AB + BF1 + AC + GEX
= AB + BB1 + AG+GD1 = AB + BG+GA=2s.
.-. AE1 = s = AF1.
Also. BB1 = BF1 = AF1-AB = s-c,
and GB1 = GE1 = AE1-AG = s-b.
.-. IiEÂE^tenÂEi,
207. A third value may be obtained for rr in terms of

a and the angles B and G.
For, since 1$ bisects the angle BGEU we have
Z JxCA = 4(180° - O) = 90° - ^ .
So ^ ASA = 90°-^.
•. a = BG=BD1 + B1G
= 7,A cot 7J3A + cot 7,CA
RADII OF THE ESCRIBED CIRCLES. 237
B G ( . B G B . C\
.'. a cos -g cos -g = Ti (sin cos + cos sin I
= r, sin ^ + -g) = r, sin ^90° - ^) = r, cos ^ .
£ C
cos 2- cos ^
••• n = a j— •
cos g
A A
Cor. Since a = 2R sin 4 = 4i? sin ^ cos ,
we nave rx = 4>it sin — cos cos ^- .

<L <L a
EXAMPLES. XXXVI.
1. In a triangle whose sides are 18, 24, and 30 inches respectively,
prove that the circumradius, the inradius, and the radii of the three
escribed circles are respectively 15, 6, 12, 18, and 36 inches.
2. The sides of a triangle are 13, 14, and Id feet ; prove that
(1) £=8$ ft., (2)r=4ft., (3) r1 = 10ift.,
(4) r3=12it.,and(5) r3=14ft.
3. In a triangle .4BC if a = 13, 6 = 4, and cos C = - jg , find
B, r, ru r2, and r8.
4. In the ambiguous case of the solution of triangles prove that the
circumcircles of the two triangles are equal.
Prove that
5. Tj (*-o) =r2 («- 6)=r, («- c) = rs = S.
6. ^=tan>|. 7. rW,=S*.
8. r1r2r3=r3cot^cot1!|cot^. 9. nôot^S.
238 TRIGONOMETRY. [EXS. XXXVI.]
10. s''. П. -
12.
С tí
13. i + г2) tan = (rs - r) cot = с.
14. S = 2E2 sin Л sin Б sin С.

15. 4Й sin A sin B sin C= a cos Л + Ь cos В + с сое С.
А Л С1
16. S =4Rr cos — cos — cos 7j.
17. + * 18.
19. (r1-r)(ra-r)(rs-r) =
20< bc +cu + Ö6 = Ißr"' 21- &с + са + а& = г ~2H'

22. r2 + íi2 + r22 + r/ = 16В1 - а2 - 6a - с2 .
208. Orthocentre and pedal triangle of any

triangle.
Let ABC be any triangle, and let AX, BL, and CM be
the perpendiculars from A, B, and С
upon the opposite sides of the tri
angle. It can be easily shewn, as
in most editions of Euclid, that
these three perpendiculars meet in
a common point P. This point P B1"
is called the orthocentre of the
triangle. The triangle KLM, which is formed by joining
the feet of these perpendiculars, is called the pedal
triangle of ABC.
209. Distances of the orthocentre from the angular

points of the triangle.
PEDAL TRIANGLE. 239
We have PK = KB tan PBK = KB tan (90° - 0)
= AB cos B cot G = -r—p= cos £ cos 0

smG
= 2R cos 5 cos G (Art. 200).
Again AP = AL. sec KAC
= c cos 4 . cosec G
c A
= -—„ . cos A
sin G
= 2R cos 4 (Art. 200).
So BP = 2.R cos B, and OP - 2.R cos G.
The distances of the orthocentre from the angular
points are therefore 2R cos A , 2R cos B, and 2R cos C ; its
distances from the sides are 2ii cos i? cos (7, 2R cos G cos A,
and 2Ji cos A cos ii.
210. To find the sides and angles of the pedal triangle.

Since the angles PKG and PLC are right angles, the
points P, L, C, and K lie on a circle.
.-. z PKL = {. PCL (Euc. in. 21)
= 90° - A.
Similarly, P, K, B, and M lie on a circle, and therefore
APKM= /lPBM
= 90° -4.
Hence Z MKL = 180° - 2A
= the supplement of 2A.
So £ KLM= 180° -2B,
and /LLMK= 180° -20.
240 TBIGONOMETEY.
Again, from the triangle ALM, we have

LM AL _ABcosA
sin A ~ sin A ML cos PML
_ с cos A _ с cos A
cos PAL sin С
.: LM= -.—7, sin A cos A

sin С
= acosA. (Art. 163.)
So MK= b cos Д and KL = с cos 0.
The sides of the pedal triangle are therefore a cos A,
b cos B, and с cos (7 ; also its angles are the supplements
of twice the angles of the triangle.
211. Let / be the centre of the incircle and Ilt /2, and
/a the centres of the escribed circles
which are opposite to A, B, and С ¡
respectively. As in Arts. 202 and
205, 1C bisects the angle A CE, and
I-fl bisects the angle BCM.
Z ЖСБ]
= £ . 180° = a right angle.
Similarly, / ICI3 is a right
angle.
Hence /iC/2 is a straight line to which 1C is perpen
dicular.
So /¡.à/s is a straight line to which IA is perpen
CENTROID AND MEDIANS. 241
dicular, and IJili is a straight line to which IB is perpen

dicular.
Also, since IA and IXA both bisect the angle BAC,
the three points A, I, and Ix are in a straight line.
Similarly BII^ and CII3 are straight lines. Hence IJJi
is a triangle, which is such that A, B, and G are the feet
of the perpendiculars drawn from its vertices upon the
opposite sides, and such that I is the intersection of these
perpendiculars, i.e. ABC is its pedal triangle and I is its
orthocentre.
The triangle IJJs is often called the excentric triangle.
212. Centroid and Medians of any Triangle.

If ABC be any triangle, and D, E, and F respectively
the middle points of BC, CA, and
AB, the lines AD, BE, and CF are
called the medians of the triangle.
It is shewn in most editions of
Euclid that the medians meet in a
common point 0, such that
AG = IAD, BG= \BE,
and CQ=\CF.
This point O is called the centroid of the triangle.
213. Length of the medians. We have, by Art. 164,

AD1 = AC + CD* -2AC.CD cos C
t
a2
= bP + -7—ab cos C,
and ca = 62 + a2-2a6cosa
L. t. 16
242 TRIGONOMETRY.
. . _. . ,. a2
Hence
so that AD = \ V262 4- 2c3 - a2.

Hence also AD = ¿ Vb2 + c2 + 26ccosA (Art. 164.)
So also
BE = | V2c2 + 2a2 - i>2, and CF = $ <\/2a2 + 2b2 - Л
214 Angles that the median AD makes luith the sides.

If the Z BAD = /9, and Z (LID = 7, we have
sin 7 DO a
2« '
a sin С a sin С
.'. sin 7 : .
2ж V2Z>2 + 2c2 - a2
Similarly, sin ß =
Again, if the Z ADC be в, we have

sin<? _ AC _ b
sin (7 AD x '
.•. sin в = b sin С 26 sin (7
+ 2c2 - a2 '
The angles that AD makes with the sides are therefore
found. .
216. The centroid lies on the line joining the circum-

centre to the orthocentre.
CIRCUMCENTRE AND ORTHOCENTRE. 243
Let 0 and P be the circumcentre and orthocentre

respectively. Draw OD and
PK perpendicular to BC.
Let AD and OP meet in G.
The triangles OGD and
PGA are clearly equiangular.
Also, by Art. 200,
0D = R cos A
and, by Art. 209,
AP=2RcosA.
Hence, by Euc. VI. 4,
AG_AP
= 2.
GD OD"
The point G is therefore the centroid of the triangle.
Also, by the same proposition,
OG OD _ 1
GP AP ~ 2'
The centroid therefore lies on the line joining the
circumcentre to the orthocentre, and divides it in the ratio
1 : 2.
It may be shewn by geometry that the centre of the
nine-point circle (which passes through the feet of the
perpendiculars, the middle points of the sides, and the
middle points of the lines joining the angular points
to the orthocentre) lies on OP and bisects it.
The circumcentre, the centroid, the centre of the
nine-point circle, and the orthocentre therefore all lie on a
straight line.
216. Distance between the circumcentre and the ortho-
centre.
16—2
244 TRIGONOMETRY.
If OF be perpendicular to AB, we have

/ OAF= 90° - z AOF= 90° - C.
Also ¿PAL = 90°-C.
= A-¿OAF-¿PAL
= A - 2 (90° - (7) = A + 20- 180C
Also 04 = Д and, by Art. 209,

PA = 2R cos A.
i cos2 A - 4Д2 cos A cos (0 - 5)

= Ra + 4.R2 cos A [cos 4 - cos (C - B)]
= R* - 4E2 cos A [cos (B + C) + cos (С - Б)]
(Art, 72),
= E2 — 8Й2 cos J. cos В cos C.
.-. OP = R Vi - 8 cos A cos Л cos C.
*217. To find the distance between the circumcentre

and the incentre.
Let 0 be the circumcentre, and
let OF be perpendicular to A B.
Let 7 be the incentre, and IE
be perpendicular to AC.
Then, as in the last article, ]
¿ OAF= 90° -C.
CIRCUMCENTRE AND INCENTRE. 245
Also AI = = _L_ = 4R sin =- sin £ (Art. 204. Cor.),

sin- sing
.-. 072 = (M2 + 4/2 - 20A . AI cos Oil/
= R* + 16#2 sin2 1 sin2 £ - 8ii2 sin J sin J cos .
.-. ^r = l+16sin2f sin'|
0 . S . CT 5 C . £ . (71
— 8 sm "2 sin "2 cos "2 cos "2 + sm ^> 8in ~2
, . . B . CI B G . B . G\
= 1 - 8 sin sin g (cos ^ cos ^ - sin ^ sin yJ
— 1. — 8a sin
. ■g-
B sin
. ^C cos B—^—
+G
= 1 - 8 sin \ sin J sin ^ (Art. 69) (1).
. A
.-. 0I = RaJ l-8sin | sin ^ sin g
Also (1) may be written

OP = if - 2R x 4i2 sin ^ sin | sin ^
= i?> - 2-Rr. (Art. 204. Cor.)

In a similar manner it may be shewn that, if /, be the
centre of the escribed circle opposite the angle A, we shall
have
Oli = R a/1 + 8 sin ^ cos ~ cos ^ ,
and hence Oi^ = if + 2-Rjv (Art. 207. Cor.)

246 TRIGONOMETRY.
Alitor. Let 01 be produced to meet the circumcircle of the triangle
in S and T, and let AI^ meet it in ff.
By Euo. in. 35, we have
SI.IT-AI. Iff (2).
But SI.IT={R + OI)(R-OI)=IP-OP'.
Also I HIC= I ICA + LIAC= I ICB + L HAB
= LICB+ iHCB
= IHCI.
:. HI=HC=2Bsia^. a (Art. 200.)
Also JJ=_££. = _I_.
sin ^ sin 1
Substituting in (2), we have
iP-OI«=2.Rr,
i.e. OI*=B?-2Rr.
Similarly, we can shew that Ijff=IjC, and hence that
IjO2 - B' = IjH . IÂ = 2JRri ,
i.e. I102=iJs + 2J{r1.
218. Bisectors of the angles.

Tf AD bisect the angle A and
divide the base into portions x and
y, we have, by Euc. vi. 3,
x _ AB _ c
y~AC~b'
giving x and y.
Also, if S be the length of AD and 0 the angle it
makes with BC, we have
A ABD + A A CD = A ABC.
.-. gcSsin — + 2o8sin-2- = 26csin^,

[Exs. XXXVIL] PROPERTIES OF TRIANGLES. 247
5. be sin A 2bc A ...

i.e. 5 = bt + c . At = b.—+ c cos s2 (2).
v '
sing-
Also 0 = / DAB + B = ^ + B (3).
We thus have the length of the bisector and its

inclination to BG.
EXAMPLES. XXXVH.
If I, Ilf I2, and I3 be respectively the centres of the incircle and the
three escribed circles of a triangle ABC, prove that
1. .41=7- cosec ^.
2. IA .IB . IC=abe tan ^m tan ^2 tan 2J^ .
3. ^ll^rjcosec A2- . 4. J leasee-.A
5. V3=acosec 6. Hi ■ II, . 113 = 16RV.
7. (r, + r,). 8. ZW3=^.

9. IIl'+V1s=II,'+V1,=IV+I1Z1».
10. Area of M1I2It = 8i23 cos ^ cos ^ cos ^ = ^f- .
ill • *A _ • Vi = g» • JA
' sin 4 sinB sinC
If I, 0, and P be respectively the incentre, circumcentre, and ortho-
centre, and G the centroid of the triangle ABC, prove that
12. I03=Bi (3-2 cos 4 -2 cos B- 2 cos C).
13. Ii»= 2r2-lR2 cos 4 cos B cos C.
14. OG2=B»-^(a2 + 6a + c2).
15. Area of M0P=2R* sin sin sin ^? .

a & B
248 TRIGONOMETRY. [ElS. XXXVII.]
16. Area of A IPG = | R1 gin ^0 C sin C A an^~^ .
o & 2 2
17. Prove that the distance of the centre of the nine-point circle from
the angle A is — ^/l + 8 cos 4 sin £ sinC.
18. -DJEF is the pedal triangle of ABC; prove that
(1) its area is 2S cos A cos £ cos C,
(2) the radios of its circumcircle is ^ ■
and (3) the radius of its incircle is 2B cos A cos B cos C.
19. OiO203 is the triangle formed by the centres of the escribed circles
of the triangle ABC; prove that
(1) its sides are 4Ii cos —A , 4R cos —
B , and 412 cos —
C,
.„, itsanglesare^-
(2) ., , x - A v Bg.andg
, t -g,
C
and (3) its area is 2Rs.

20. DEF is the triangle formed by joining the points of contact of .
the incircle with the sides of the triangle ABC; prove that
(1) its sides are 2r cos j-A , 2r cos B C,
— , and 2r cos —
.„, itsanglesare^-g,2-2,and--2,
(2) ., , r A r B ,» C
2S*
and (3)' its area is -r— 1 r
abcs , i.e. ;=S,
2R
21. D, E, and F are the middle points of the sides of the triangle
ABC; prove that the centroid of the triangle DEF is the same as that of
ABC, and that its orthocentre is the circumcentre of ABC.
In any triangle ABC, prove that
22. The perpendicular from A divides BC into portions which are
proportional to the cotangents of the adjacent angles, and that it divides
the angle A into portions whose cosines are inversely proportional to the
adjacent sides.
23. The median through A divides it into angles whose cotangents
are 2 cot A + cot C and 2 cot A + cot B, and makes with the base an angle
whose cotangent is = (cot C~cot£).
[Exs. XXXVII.] PROPERTIES OF TRIANGLES. 249
24. The distance between the middle point of BC and the foot of the
62~ca
perpendicular from A is —— .
25. 0 is the orthocentre of a triangle ABC ; prove that the radii of
the circles circumscribing the triangles BOC, COA, AOB, and ABC are
all equal.
26. AD, BE, and CF are the perpendiculars from the angular points
of a triangle ABC upon the opposite Bides; prove that the diameters of
the circumcircles of the triangles AEF, BDF, and CDE are respectively
acot^l, 6 cot B, and c cot C, and that the perimeters of the triangles DEF
and ABC are in the ratio r : 22.
27. Prove that the product of the distances of the incentre from the
angular points of a triangle is iRr3.
28. The triangle DEF circumscribes the three escribed circles of the
triangle ABC ; prove that
EF _ FD _ DE
a cos A ~ b cos B ~ c cos C '
29. H a circle be drawn touching the inscribed and circumscribed
circles of a triangle and the side BC externally, prove that its radius is
30. If a, b, and c be the radii of three circles which touoh one another
externally, and t-j and r2 be the radii of the two circles that can be drawn
to touch these three, prove that
112 2 2
rj ra =-a + ro + -.
c
31. If A0 be the area of the triangle formed by joining the points of
contact of the inscribed circle with the sides of the given triangle, whose
area is A, and A1( A2, and A3 the corresponding areas for the escribed
circles, prove that
Ai + Ajj + A,,- A0=2A.
32. If the bisectors of the angles of a triangle ABC meet the opposite
sides in A', B', and C, prove that the ratio of the areas of the triangles
A'B'C and ABC is
.2 sin
. A sin
. B sin
. —C : cos A-B
—— cos -B-C ^— cos C-A
—^— .
250 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XXXVIL]
33. Through the angular points of a triangle are drawn straight
lines which make the same angle a with the opposite sides of the triangle ;
prove that the area of the triangle formed by them is to the area of the
original triangle as 4 eos'a : 1.
34. Two circles, of radii a and b, cnt each other at an angle 0.
Prove that the length of the common chord is
2ab sin 0
Ja* +b* + Zab cos 6~
35. Three equal circles touch one another; find the radius of the
circle which touches all three.
36. Three circles, whose radii are o, 6, and c, touch one another
externally and the tangents at their points of contact meet in a point ;
prove that the distance of this point from either of their points of contact is
/ abc \i
\a + b + cj
37. 1° the sides BC, CA, AB are taken three points A', B', C such that
BA' : A'C=CB' : B'A=AC' : CB=m : »;
prove that if AA', BB', and CC be joined they will form by their inter
sections a triangle whose area is to that of the triangle ABC as
(m - n)2 : m2 + mn + n2.
38. The circle inscribed in the triangle ABC touches the sides BC,
CA, and AB in the points Alt Blt and Cl respectively; similarly the
circle inscribed in the triangle A1BlC1 touches the sides in A2, B2, C2
respectively, and so on ; if .4BBnCn be the nth triangle so formed, prove
that its angles are
and | + (_2)-»(C_|).
Hence prove that the triangle so formed is ultimately equilateral.
39. A1B1Cl is the triangle formed by joining the feet of the perpen
diculars drawn from ABC upon the opposite sides; in like manner
^jBjCj is the triangle obtained by joining the feet of the perpendiculars
from A1, Blt and C1 on the opposite sides, and so on. Find the values of
the angles An, Bn, and Cn in the nth of these triangles.
CHAPTER XVI.
ON QUADRILATERALS AND REGULAR POLYGONS.
219. To find the area of a quadrilateral which is

inscribable in a circle.
Let ABCD be the quadrilateral, the sides being a, b, c,
and d as marked in the figure.
The area of the quadrilateral
= area of A A BC+ area of A A DC
= %absm B+ led sin D (Ait. 198.)
= £ (ab + cd) sin B,
since, by Euc. III. 22,
£B = 180° - Z. D,
and therefore
sin B = sin D.
We have to express sin B in
terms of the sides.
We have
a1 + 62 - 2ab cosB = AC2. = & + 2cd cos D.
But cos D = cos (180° - B) = - cos B.
252 TRIGONOMETRY.
Hence
a3 + b2 - 2a& cos Б = с2 + d2 + 2cd cos Д
., x „ a2 + 62-c2-d2
so that cos Б = —.•¿ (ab
, , +
-^—
cd) .
Hence
• so т n n -, 2 222
sm2 5=1- cos2 B = l- . --jr-rr
{2 (аб + cd)}2
_ {2 (ab + cd)}2 - {а2 + ¿2 - с2 - d2}2
4 (ab + cd)2
4 (ab + cd)2
= }(a2+2ab+b2)-(c2-2cd+d2)}{.(c2+2cd+d2)-(a2+bi!-2a6)]
4(a6+cd)2 "
= {(et + b)2 - (c - d)2} {(c + d)2 - (a - b)3}
4, (ab + cd)2
_ {(a + b + с - d) (a+b-c+d){ {(c+d + a-b)(c+d-a+ b)}
~ " 4 (ab + cd)2 '
Let
so that
a + b — c + d = 2(s — c),
and —a+b + c + d=2(s — a).

Hence
. _ 2 (s - d) x 2 (s - c) x 2 (s - b) x 2 (s - а)
"-
so that
(ab + cd) sin ß = 2 V(s - a) (s - 6) (s - c) (s - d).
Hence the area of the quadrilateral
= i (ab + cd) sin В = V (s - a) (s - b) (s - c) (s - d).
AREA OF A QUADRILATERAL. 253
220. Since cos B = „ . , ,—-jr— ,

2 (ab + cd)
we have A C2 = a" + b1 - 2ab cos B
= a2 + 6J - ab , , ,—
ab + cd
_ (a2 + 62) cd + ab (c2 + d3)
ab + cd
_ (ac + to") (ad + be)
ab + cd
Similarly it could be proved that
Bj)* — (aft + cd) (ac 4- bd)
ad + be
We thus have the lengths of the diagonals of the
quadrilateral.
It follows by multiplication that
AC\BD> = (ac + bd)\
i.e. AC.BD = AB.CD + BC.AD.
This is Euc. VI. Prop. D.
Again, the radius of the circle circumscribing the
quadrilateral = ^
_ /(ac + bd) (ad + be) ^ . /(s-a) (s -b)(s- c) (s - d)

~~ V ~ab + cd _ : V ~~(ab+~cd,y
_, I \(ab + cd) (ac + bd) (ad + bc)\
~*V l(s-a)(s-6) (s-c)(s-4) '
221. If we have any quadrilateral, not necessarily
inscribable in a circle, we can express its area in terms of
its sides and the sum of any two opposite angles.
254 TRIGONOMETRY.
For let the sum of the two angles B and D be denoted
by 2a, and denote the area of the ^
quadrilateral by A.
Then
A = area of ABC + area of ACD
= \ab sin B + \cd sin D,
so that
4A = 2ab sin B + 2cd sin D. . .(1).
Also a2 + 62 - 2a& cos J? = c2 + d? - 2cd cos D,
so that
a2 + 62 - c2 - cZ2 = 2ab cos B-2cdcosD (2).
Squaring (1) and (2) and adding, we have
16A2 + (a2 + 62 - c2 - d2)* = 4a262 + 4c2d2
— Sabcd (cos B cos D — sin B sin Z))
= 4a262 + 4c2d2 - 8a6cd cos (B + D)
= 4a262 + 4c2cZ2 - 8a6cd cos 2a
= 4a262 + 4c2cZ2 - 8abcd (2 cos2 a - 1)
= 4 (a& + c<Z)2 - IGa&ccZ cos2 a,
so that
16A2 = 4 (ab + cdy - (a2 + b2 - c2 - cZ2)2 - IGabcd cos2 a
(3).
But, as in Art. 219, we have
4 (ab + cdy - (a2 + b2 - c2 - cZ2)2 .
= 2(«-a). 2 (« -6). 2 (*-c). 2(s -d)
= 16 («- a) («-&)(«- c) (s-eZ).
Hence (3) becomes
A2 = (s — a) (s — 6) (s — c) (s — d) — abed cos2 a,
giving the required area.
Cor. 1. If d be zero, the quadrilateral becomes a
triangle, and the formula above becomes that of Art. 198.
AREA OF A QUADRILATERAL. 255
Cor. 2. If the sides of the quadrilateral be given in

length, we know a, b, c, d and therefore s. The area Л is
hence greatest when abed cos2 a is least, that is when cos2 a
is zero, and then a = 90°. In this case the sum of two
opposite angles of the quadrilateral is 180° and the figure
inscribable in a circle. (Eue. ni. 22.)
The quadrilateral, whose sides are given, has therefore
the greatest area when it can be inscribed in a circle.
232. Ex. Find the area of a quadrilateral which can have a circle
inscribed in it.
If the quadrilateral ABGD can have a circle inscribed in it so as to
touch the sides AB, BC, CD, and DA in the points P, Q, B, and S, we
should have
AP=AS, BP=BQ, CQ = CE, and DR = DS.
i.e. AB + CD = BC+DA,
i.e. a + c = b + d.
„ a+b+c+d
Hence *= --- =a + c = b + d.
¿i
:. s-a = c, s-b = d, s-c = a, and s-d=b.

The formula of the last article therefore gives in this case
Да = abed — abed cos2 a = abed sin2 a,
i.e. the area required = »Jabcd sin o.
If in addition the quadrilateral be also insoribable in a circle, we have
2a=180°, so that sin a = sin 90° =1.
Hence the area of a quadrilateral which can be both inscribed in
a circle and circumscribed about another circle is ,Jabcd.
EXAMPLES. XXXVIH.
1. Find the area of a quadrilateral, which can be inscribed in a circle,
whose sides are
(1) 3, 5, 7, and 9 feet ;
and (2) 7, 10, 5, and 2 feet.
2. The sides of a quadrilateral are respectively 3, 4, 5, and 6 feet, and
the sum of a pair of opposite angles is 120° ; prove that the area of the
quadrilateral is 3 ,/30 square feet.
256 TRIGONOMETRY. [EXS. XXXVUL]
3. The sides of a quadrilateral which can be inscribed in a circle are
3, 3, 4, and 4 feet ; find the radii of the incircle and circumcircle.
4. Prove that the area of any quadrilateral is one-half the product of
the two diagonals and the sine of the angle between them.
5. If a quadrilateral can be inscribed in one circle and circumscribed
about another circle, prove that its area is ijabcd, and that the radius of
the latter circle is
iijabcd
a+b+c+d'
6. A quadrilateral ABCD is described about a circle ; prove that
,D sin
AB . —
A sin
. —B = CD
„_ sin
. —C sin
. D—.
7. a, b, c, and d are the sides of a quadrilateral taken in order, and a
is the angle between the diagonals opposite to 5 or d ; prove that the area
of the quadrilateral is
j(o2-62 + c2-(P) tan a.
8. If a, b, c, and d be the sides and x and y the diagonals of a
quadrilateral, prove that its area is
j [4zy - (ft2 + <P - a2 - C2)2]* .
9. If a quadrilateral can be inscribed in a circle, prove that the angle
between its diagonals is
sin"1 [2V(« - a) (s - b) (s-c) («-d)-f-(ac + 6d)].
If the same quadrilateral can also be circumscribed about a circle, prove
that this angle is then
,ac-bd
ac + bd'
10, The sides of a quadrilateral are divided in order in the ratio
m : n, and a new quadrilateral is formed by joining the points of division ;
prove that its area is to the area of the original figure as ?»2 + n3 to
(nj + n)2.
11, If ABCD be a quadrilateral inscribed in a cirole, prove that
tan-6- ./(- »)(*-»)
and that the product of the segments into which one diagonal is divided
by the other diagonal is
abed (ac + bd)
(ab + cd) (ad+bc) '
[EXS. XXXVIII.] REGULAR POLYGONS. 257
12. If a, b, c, and d be the sides of a quadrilateral, taken in order,
prove that
d? = a2 + b2 + c* - 2ab cos a - 26c cos /3 - 2ca cos 7,
where a, §, and 7 denote the angles between the sides a and 6, 6 and c,
and c and a respectively.
223. Regular Polygons. A regular polygon is a

polygon which has all its sides equal and all its angles
equal.
If the polygon have n angles we have, by Euc. I. 32,
Cor., n times its angle + 4 right angles = twice as many
right angles as the figure has sides = 2n right angles.
Hence each angle = —— - right angles = ~n - x ^
radians.
224. Radii of the inscribed and circumscribing circles

of a regular polygon.
Let A B, BC, and CD be three successive sides of the

polygon, and let n be the
number of its sides.
Bisect the angles ABC
and BCD by the lines BO
and GO which meet in 0,
and draw OL perpendicular
toBC.
It is easily seen that 0 is the centre of both the
incircle and the circumcircle of the polygon, and that
BL equals LG.
Hence we have OB = OG = R, the radius of the circum
circle, and OL = r, the radius of the incircle.
L. T. 17
258 TRIGONOMETRY.
The angle BOG is -th of the sum of all the angles

subtended at 0 by the sides,
T./->/-. 4 right angles 2тг ..
i.e. ¿ BOG = —6-----5— = — radians.
n n
Hence ¿BOL = 1¡¿BOC=-.
n
If o. be a side of the polygon, we have
a = BC = 2BL = 2J2sin BOL = 2R sin - .
я
r, a a 7T ...
/. д = = 5 cosec — ............ (1).
. 7Г 2 m
2sm-
Again,
a = 25Z = WL tan Б0£ = 2r tan - .
n
а а 7Г ,_.
ocot- ............ (2).
2 П
225. Area of a Regular Polygon.

The area of the polygon is n times the area of the
triangle BOG.
Hence the area of the polygon
giving the area in terms of the side.

Also the area
= n . OL . BL = n . OL . OL tan BOL = nr- tan - . . .(2).
n '
REGULAR POLYGONS. 259
Again, the area

= n.OL.BL = n.OBcosLOB. OBsmLOB
= nR*cos-sm-
n n = ^R*sm—
2 n (3).
v '
The formulae (2) and (3) give the area in terms of the
radius of the inscribed and circumscribed circles.
226. Ex. The length of each side of a regular dodecagon is 20 feet ;
find (1) the radius of its inscribed circle, (2) the radius of its circumscribing
circle, and (3) its area.
The angle subtended by a side at the centre of the polygon
= ^=30,
Hence we have 10 = r tan 15° = R sin 15°.
л г = 10 cot 15°
= 2-^3 <Art-101>
) = 37-32... feet.
= 10.,
= 10 (2-4495... + 1-4142.. .) = 38-637... feet.
Again, the area = 12 x r x 10 square feet
= 1200(2 + V3) = 4478-46... square feet.
EXAMPLES. XXXIX.
1. Find, correct to -01 of an inch, the length of the perimeter of a
regular decagon which surrounds a circle of radius one foot.
2. Find to 3 places of decimals the length of the side of a regular
polygon of 12 sides which is circumscribed to a circle of unit radius.
3. Find the area of (1) a pentagon, (2) a hexagon, (3) an octagon,
(4) a decagon and (5) a dodecagon, each being a regular figure of side
1 foot.
4. Find the difference between the areas of a regular octagon and a
regular hexagon if the perimeter of each be 24 feet.
17—2
260 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs.
5. A square, whose side is 2 feet, has its corners cut away so as to
form a regular octagon ; find its area.
6. Compare the areas and perimeters of octagons which are respec
tively inscribed in and circumscribed to a given circle, and shew that the
areas of the inscribed hexagon and octagon are as ^27 to ^/32.
7. Prove that the radius of the circle described about a regular
pentagon is nearly £Jths of the side of the pentagon.
8. If an equilateral triangle and a regular hexagon have the same
perimeter, prove that their areas are as 2 : 3.
9. If a regular pentagon and a regular decagon have the same
perimeter, prove that their areas are as 2 : Jo.
10. Prove that the sum of the radii of the circles, which are respec
tively inscribed in and circumscribed about a regular polygon of n sides, is
a2C0t2n'
, w
where a is a side of the polygon.

U. Of two regular polygons of n sides, one circumscribes and the
other is inscribed in a given circle. Prove that the three perimeters are in
the ratio
sec nt- : njr- cosec -nt : ,1,
and that the areas of the polygons are in the ratio coss^ : 1.
12. Given that the area of a polygon of n sides circumscribed about

a circle is to the area of the circumscribed polygon of 2ra sides as 3 : 2,
find n.
13. Prove that the area of a regular polygon of 2n sides inscribed in a
circle is a mean proportional between the areas of the regular inscribed
and circumscribed polygons of n sides.
14. The area of a regular polygon of n sides inscribed in a circle is to
that of the same number of sides circumscribing the same circle as 3 is to
4. Find the value of n.
15. The interior angles of a polygon are in a. p.; the least angle
is 120° and the common difference is 6° ; find the number of sides.
XXXIX.] REGULAR POLYGONS. 261
16. There are two regular polygons the number of sides in one being
double the number in the other, and an angle of one polygon is to an angle
of the other as 9 to 8 ; find the number of sides of each polygon.
17. Show that there are eleven pairs of regular polygons such that
the number of degrees in the angle of one is to the number in the angle of
the other as 10 : 9. Find the number of sides in each.
18. The side of a base of a square pyramid is a feet and its vertex is
at a height of h feet above the centre of the base ; if 0 and cf> be respec
tively the inclinations of any face to the base, and of any two faces to one
another, prove that
19. A pyramid stands on a regular hexagon as base. The perpendi

cular from the vertex of the pyramid on the base passes through the
centre of the hexagon, and its length is equal to that of a side of the base.
Find the tangent of the angle between the base and any face of the
pyramid, and also of half the angle between any two side faces.
20. A regular pyramid has for its base a polygon of n sides, each of
length a, and the length of each slant side is I ; prove that the cosine of
the angle between two adjacent lateral faces is
4P cos n ha'
CHAPTER XVII.
TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS OF SMALL ANGLES. AREA OF

A CIRCLE. DIP OF THE HORIZON.
227. If 6 be the number of radians in any angle,

which is less than a right angle, then sin 6, 6, and tan 6 are
in ascending order of magnitude.
. Let TOP be any angle which is less than a right
angle.
With centre 0 and any radius OP
describe an arc PAP' meeting OT
in A.
Draw PN perpendicular to OA,
and produce it to meet the arc of the
circle in P'.
Draw the tangent PT at P to
meet OA in T, and join TP'.
The triangles PON and P'ON are
equal in all respects, so that PN= NP' and
arc PA = arc AP'.
Also the triangles TOP and TOP' are equal in all
respects, so that
TP = TP'.
SIN 8 < 0 < TAN 0. 263
The straight line PP' is less than the arc PAP', so

that NP is < arc PA.
We shall assume that the arc PAP" is less than the
sum of PT and TP', so that arc P.4 < PT.
Hence NP, the arc AP, and PT are in ascending
order of magnitude.
. NP arc AP A PT . ,.
lhereiore gp> gp ■ ano- are in ascending
order of magnitude.
NP
But j-p = sin AOP = sin 5,
""OP^ = numêr °^ radians in Z AOP — 0 (Art. 21),

PT
and = tan POT = tan >40P = tan 0.
Hence sin 0, 0, and tan 0 are in ascending order of

magnitude, provided that
228. Since sin 8 < 8 < tan 8, we have, by dividing

each by the positive quantity sin 8,
8 1
sin 8 cos 8'
8 1
Hence sin
. 0^ always
J lies between 1 and -—.
cos 0 .
This holds however small 8 may be.
Now, when 8 is very small, cos 8 is very nearly unity,
and the smaller 8 becomes, the more nearly does cos#
become unity,
J and hence the more nearly
J does cos
—y.8
become unity.
264 TRIGONOMETRY.
0
Hence, when 6 is very small, the quantity .— lies
between 1 and a quantity which differs from unity by an
indefinitely small quantity.
In other words, when 6 is made indefinitely small the
quantity ? . , and therefore , is ultimately equal to
unity, i.e. the smaller an angle becomes the more nearly
is its sine equal to the number of radians in it.
This is often shortly expressed thus ;
sin 6 = 6, when 6 is very small.
So also tan 6=6, when 6 is very small.
Cor. Putting 6 = — , it follows that, when 6 is indefi
nitely small, n is indefinitely great.
. a
sm -
Hence is unity, when n is indefinitely great.
n
So n sin - = a, when n is indefinitely great.
Similarly, n tan - = a, when n is indefinitely great.
229. In the preceding article it must be particularly

noticed that 6 is the number of radians in the angle
considered.
The value of sin a°, when a is small, may be found.
For, since ttc = 180°, we have
a =ri8oi ■
. o . /mV 7ra
■■Sma=9m(l80j=180'
by the result of the last article.
RATIOS OF SMALL ANGLES. 265
230. From the tables it will be seen that the sine of

an angle and its circular measure agree to 7 places of
decimals so long as the angle is not greater than 18'.
They agree to the 5th place of decimals so long as the
angle is less than about 2°.
231. V 0 be the number of radians in an angle, which is less than a
right angle, then sin 0 is > 0 - ^ and cos 8 f» > 1 - ^ .
. e e
.00 e
■■■ 8in2>2e082-
6 0
Hence, since sin 0 = 2 sin H cos 5 ,
wehave sin0>0cos2|, t'.e. >0^1 - sin20 .

But since, by Art. 227,
. 0 0
sln2<2'
therefore 1 - sin2 ^ > 1 - (^j , i.e. > 1 - ' .

/ 02\ 0s
.-. sin 9>0 I 1 - j- J, i.e. >0- j.
Again, cos 0=1 -2 sin2 ^;
0 /0\2
therefore, since sin1 5 < ( ^ J ,
0 /0\2 02
wehave 1 - 2 sin2 ^> 1 - 2 ( - J , i.e. > 1 - ^ .
It will be proved in Fart II. that
ff> , and cos 0 < 1 ~ 02
sin 9 > 0 - jj- 81 '
ij" + 24
232. Ex. X. Find tfce values of sin Iff and cos 10'.
a: 1/1/ 11° 7TC
266 TRIGONOMETRY,
we have Bin lC=sin {j^&J =' 180

■ x6
3^14159265^
180x6 J
Also cos 10' = »/l-sin2 10'
= [1- -000008468...]*
= 1-| [-000008468...],
o
approximately by the Binomial Theorem,
= 1- -000004234...
= •9999958....
Ex. 2. Solve approximately Die equation
sin 6 - -52.
•1 IT
Since sin 0 is very nearly equal to - , 8 must be nearly equal to g .
Let then 0 = % + x, where x is small,
o
.-. -52 = sin ^ ^ + x ^ = sin ^ cos x + cos ^ sin x
o
1 «/3 .
= g cos x + ~ sin x.
Since x is very small, we have
cosx=l and sin x = x nearly.
.-. x= -02 x \ radians = 1-32° nearly.

Hence 0 = 31° 19' nearly.
EXAMPLES. XL.
Taking jt equal to 3-14159265, find to 5 places of decimals the
value of
1. sin 7'. 2. sin 15". 3. sin 1'.
4. cos 15'. 5. cosec 8". 6. sec 5'.
[Exs. XL.] EXAMPLES. 267
Solve approximately the equations
7. Bin 9= -01. 8. ainff = -48.
9. cos + 0W49. 10. cos 0 =-999.
11. Find approximately the distance at which a halfpenny, which is

an inch in diameter, must be placed so as to just hide the moon, the
angular diameter of the moon, that is the angle its diameter subtends at
the observer's eye, being taken to be 30'.
12. A person walks in a straight line toward a very distant object, and
observes that at three points A, B, and C the angles of. elevation of the
top of the object are a, 2a, and 3a respectively ; prove that
AB=3BC nearly.
13. If 8 be the number of radians in an angle which is less than
a right angle, prove that
, «2 el
cos e is < 1 - g- + jg .
14. Prove the theorem of Euler, viz. that

sin 0 = 0 . cos g0 . 00s 6- . cos -,
6 ad. inf.
We have sin 9 = 2 sin -0 cos ^0 = 22 sin -a

6 cos ^
6 cos ^0
[
= o> • 9p cos 6 cos 2j
2J Bin 8 cos ^9 =
= o« • 9 oos2-
2»8in2ix 6 C0822-
0 008 28
6 008 6
Make n indefinitely great so that, by Art. 228 Cor. ,
2»sm|i=0.
Hence sin 0= 0 . cos 2-6 . cos —,

0 0
2^ cos 7-.
2s* ad inf. "1J
15. Prove that
- tan2 0 (l - tan* J) (l - tan2 J) ad inf.
= 0.cot0.
268 TRIGONOMETRY.
233. Area of a circle.

By Art. 225, the area of a regular polygon of n sides,
which is inscribed in a circle of radius It, is
n _ . 2tt
-if* sin — .
2 n
Let now the number of sides of this polygon be inde
finitely increased, the polygon always remaining regular.
It is clear that the perimeter of the polygon must more
and more approximate to the circumference of the circle.
Hence, when the number of sides of the polygon is
infinitely great, the area of the circle must be the same as
that of the polygon.
Now jj if sin — = 5 R1
2 n 2
sin 0 , . 27T
= 7TX12 . —n , where 6 = — .
0 n
When n is made infinitely great, the value of 6 becomes
infinitely small, and then, by Art. 228, is unity.
The area of the circle therefore = wR2 = tt times the
square of its radius.
234. Area of the sector of a circle.
Let 0 be the centre of a circle, AB the bounding arc
of the sector, and let Z A OB = a radians.
By Euc. VI. 33, since sectors are to one another as the
arcs on which they stand, we have
area of sector A OB _ arc AB
area of whole circle circumference
__ lia _ a
AREA OF A CIRCLE. 2G9
.". area of sector AOB = ^- x area of whole circle
EXAMPLES. XLI.
1. Find the area of a circle whose circumference is 74 feet.
2. The diameter of a circle is 10 feet ; find the area of a sector whose
arc is 22$°.
3. The area of a certain sector of a circle is 10 square feet ; if the
radius of the circle be 3 feet, find the angle of the sector.
4. The perimeter of a certain sector of a circle is 10 feet ; if the
radius of the circle be 3 feet, find the area of the sector.
5. A strip of paper, two miles long and -003 of an inch thick, is rolled
up into a solid cylinder ; find approximately the radius of the circular ends
of the cylinder.
6. A strip of paper, one mile long, is rolled tightly up into a solid
cylinder, the diameter of whose circular ends is 6 inches ; find the thick
ness of the paper.
7. Given two concentric circles of radii r and 2r ; two parallel
tangents to the inner circle cut off an arc from the outer circle ; find its
length.
8. The circumference of a semicircle is divided into two arcs such
that the chord of one is double that of the other. Prove that the sum of
the areas of the two segments cut off by these chords is to the area of the
semicircle as 27 is to 55.
9. If each of three circles, of radius a, touch the other two, prove that
the area included between them is nearly equal to ^ 4 as.
270 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XLL]
10. Six equal circles, each of radius a, are placed so that each
touches two others, their centres heing all on the circumference of
another circle ; prove that the area which they enclose is
11. From the vertex A of a triangle a straight line AD is drawn

making an angle I) with the base and meeting it at I). Prove that the
area common to the circumscribing circles of the triangles ABD and
ACDin
Ï (u»y + c2/3 - be sin A) cosec2 в,
where ß and у are the number of radians in the angles В and С respec
tively.
235. Dip of the Horizon.

Let 0 be a point at a distance h above the earth's
surface. Draw tangents, such as ОТ
and ОТ', to the surface of the earth.
The ends of all these tangents all
clearly lie on a circle. This circle is
called the Offing or Visible Horizon.
The angle that each of these tangents
ОТ makes with a horizontal plane POQ
is called the Dip of the Horizon.
Let r be the radius of the earth,
and let В be the other end of the diameter through A.
We then have, by Eue. in. 36,
ОТ1 = OA . OB = h (2r + h),
so that ОТ = \/A(2r + A).
This gives an accurate value for ОТ.
In all practical cases, however, h is very small com
pared with r.
[r = 4000 miles nearly, and h is never greater, and
generally is very considerably less, than 5 miles.]
DIP OF THE HORIZON. 271
Hence A2 is very small compared with hr.

As a close approximation, we have then
0T=</2hr.
The dip =zTOQ
= 90° - /L COT = z. OCT.
Also, tanOCT=UT = —
so that, very approximately, we have
Z OCT = a /— radians
V r
2h 180\° ["180 x 60 x 60
236. Ex. Taking the radius of the earth as 4000 miles, find the dip
at the top of a lighthouse which is 264 feet above the sea, and the distance
of the offing.
Here r=4000 miles, and h = 264 feet =^ mile.
Hence h is very small compared with r, so that
EXAMPLES. XLII.
[Unless otherwise stated, the earth's radius may be taken to be 4000
miles.']
1. Find in degrees, minutes, and seconds, the dip of the horizon from
the top of a mountain 4400 feet high, the earth's radius being 21 x 10°
feet.
2. The lamp of a lighthouse is 196 feet high ; how far off can it be
seen?
272 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XLIL]
3. If the radius of the earth be 4000 miles, find the height of a

balloon when the dip is 1°.
Find also the dip when the balloon is 2 miles high.
4. From the top of the mast 'of a ship, which is 66 feet above the
sea, the light of a lighthouse which is known to be 132 feet high can
just be seen; prove that its distance is 24 miles nearly.
5. From the top of a mast, 66 feet above the sea, the top of the
mast of another ship can just be seen at a distance of 20 miles; prove
that the heights of the masts are the same.
6. From the top of the mast of a ship which is 44 feet above the
sea-level, the light of a lighthouse can just be seen; after sailing for
15 minutes the light can just be seen from the deck which is 11 feet
above the sea-level ; prove that the rate of sailing of the ship is nearly
16-33 miles per hour.
7. Prove that, if the height of the place of observation be n feet, the
distance that the observer can see is A/ -5- miles nearly.
8. There are 10 million metres in a quadrant of the earth's circum

ference. Find approximately the distance at which the top of the Eiffel
tower should be visible, its height being 300 metres.
9. Three vertical posts are placed at intervals of a mile along a straight
canal, each rising to the same height above the surface of the water. The
visual line joining the tops of the two extreme posts cuts the middle post
at a point 8 inches below its top. Find the radius of the earth to the
nearest mile.
CHAPTER XVIII.
INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS.
237. If sin 6 = a, where a is a known quantity, we

know, from Art. 82, that 8 is not definitely known. We
only know that 0 is some one of a definite series of
angles.
The symbol "sin-1 a" is used to denote the smallest
angle, whether positive or negative, that has a for its sine.
The symbol " sin-1 a " is read in words as " sine minus
one a," and must be carefully distinguished from -^-^
which would be written, if so desired, in the form (sin a)-1.
It will therefore be carefully noted that "sin-1 a " is an
angle, and denotes the smallest numerical angle whose
sine is a.
So " cos-1 a " means the smallest numerical angle
whose cosine is a. Similarly "tan-1 a," "cot-1 a," "co-
sec-1 a," "sec-1 a," " vers-1 a," and "covers-1 a," are defined.
Hence sin-1 a and tan-1 a (and therefore cosec-1 a and
cot-1 a) always lie between - 90° and + 90°.
But cos-1 a (and therefore sec-1 a) always lies between
0° and 180°.
L. t. 18
274 TRIGONOMETRY.
238. The quantities sin-1 a, cos-1 a, tan-1 a,... are

called Inverse Circular Functions.
The symbol sin-1 a is often, especially in foreign
mathematical books, written as " arc sin a " ; similarly
cos-1 a is written " arc cos a," and so for the other inverse
ratios.
239. When a is positive, sin-1 a clearly lies between

0° and 90° ; when a is negative, it lies between — 90° and
0°.
Ex. sin-1 \ = 30° ; sin"1 ^* = - 60°.
When a is positive, there are two angles, one lying

between 0° and 90° and the other lying between —90°
and 0°, each of which has its cosine equal to a. [For
example both 30° and —30° have their cosine equal to
in
^- .] In this case we take the smallest positive angle.
Hence cos-1 a, when a is positive, lies between 0° and 90°.
So cos-1 a, when a is negative, lies between 90° and
180°.
Ex. oob"1-^ = 45° ; eos-i ( ~ |) = 12<>°-
When a is positive, the angle tan-1 a lies between 0°

and 90° ; when a is negative, it lies between — 90° and 0°.
Ex. tan"1 V3 = 60° ; tan"1 ( - 1) = - 45°.
240. Prove that sin~x-=-3 co*-1 —

12 = sin-1 ^=
16 .
o Id oo
Let sin-1^3o = a, so that sino = 5,
3
5
and therefore coso=i // *~25
9 = 5'
4
INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS.
Let cos-1 12 = /3, so that cos/3 = —

12 ,
and^ ^ ,
therefore ■ Q
Bm^=y/ ,1 - 144
^= 6 .
Let sin 'gg=7, so that sin 7 = gg •

We have then to prove that
o-/J=7,
t. e. to shew that sin (a - f9) = sin 7 .
Now sin (a - /3) = sin a cos j3 - 00s a sin /S
_3 12 45' j^_86-20_16_
~5'13 .
13" 65 - 65 _8mr
Hence the relation is proved.
Ex. a. Prove that 2 tan'1 \ + fan-1 i = j .
3 7 4
Let tan-1 o5 = 0, so that tan 0 = 5,
o
and let tan-1 ^ =/3, so that tan jS = ^ .
We have then to shew that
Now 2 tan a
tan 2a ~l-tan2o
2
3 6 3
8 1
4+7 21 + 4; = 25
~ = l, = xtan i
" 3 l~28-3~25 ""U-
4*7
276 TRIGONOMETRY.
, 3. Prove that
4taB"1g-tan~,2T9 = i-
Let tan-1 \o = o, so that tan a = \5 .
Then , 2 tan a
tan 2a= l-tan2a 5_
= 12'
10
and tan 4a = • 12 _120
i 119 '
144
so that tan 4a is nearly unity, and 4a therefore nearly j .
Let 4a=T4 +tan-1x.
120 = tan (j + tan-i x^j = ~± (Art. 100).
119
Hence 4tan-^-tan-1J-9 = |.
. 4. Prone ffcat
(an-1 a + tan-1 6 = tan-1 a + b
1-ab'
Let tan-1 a = a, so that tan a = a.
Let tan_16=/S, so that tanj8=6.
Also, let tan' so that tan y- a + b
l-ab'
We have then to prove that
a+/3=-y.
.tan (a
, +, /S)
„, = ,—r
tana + tan/3 a+ b ,
Now r/ 1 -tan a —ttan /3 = —I-j
1-ab = tan 7,
so that the relation is proved.
INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS. 277
The above relation is merely the formula
expressed in inverse notation.

For put tan x = a, so that z = tan"1 a,
and tan // = (1, so that j/:- tan"1 ft.
Then tan (x + У) =
i.e. tan"1 a + tan-1 6 = tan"1 ,-— ..

1 — ao
In the above we have tacitly assumed that ab < 1, so that ^-' is posi-
л. — du
tive, and therefore tan"1 ,--г lies between 0° and 90°.

1-ab
If, however, ab be> 1, then =—-= and therefore according to our defini
tion tan"1 . —-г is a negative angle. Here у is therefore a negative angle

and, since tan (1-1-7)- tan 7, the formula should be
tan-1 a + tan"1 6 = IT + tan"1 -=-5- .

1-ab
Ex. 5. Prove that

cos'1 2v + 2 tan-1 5= sin"1 -= .
DO 55
Since 65a-632 = 162, we have
cos"1 |f= tan"1 if-
Also, as in Ex. 1, sin"1! = tan"'|.
We have therefore to shew that
tan"1 И + 2 tan-1 1 = tan"1 f.
so that 2 tan"1 ¿ = tan"1

278 TRIGONOMETRY.
Thus tan [tan-1 Jf + 2 tan-1 1] = tan [tan-1 J| + tan-1

_192 + 315_
"1-tt-A 756-80
i.e. tan
Ex. в. Solve the equation

tan-i *±| + tan-i ?^=ian-1 ( - 7).
Taking the tangents of both sides of the equation, we have

tan [tan-1 |±1] + tan [tan-1 ^J
1 -tan [tan-1 1±*] tan [tan
= tan {tan-1 (-7)}

= -7,
я+1 я-1
-+
g -l e
i.e. x -x— __
1-х
so that .?;.-= 2.
This value makes the left-hand side of the given equation positive, so
that there is no value of a; strictly satisfying the given equation.
The value x = 2 is a solution of the equation
tan-1•X— 1 + tan-1 —X - =5r+tan-1 ( - 7).'

EXAMPLES. XLIII.
Prove that
, sm-i
1. , , 3 + sm-=sm-i.
. . 8 .77
2. sin- + sin-icos-i.
.4 .3 , .27 . ,4 .12 .33
3. cos-1-= + tan~1í=tan-1T7. 4. cos-1 j + cos-1^^ cos-1 ^=.
о о 11 o lo bo
5. cos-
6.
7. tan"1 5 + tan-1 1 = sin-1 4? + cot-1 3=45°.

¿ ó \/5
8. tan-^ + tan-i^tan-1?. 9. tan~i ? = | tan-> ^ .
10. tar1 3+tan-»! » 5 oar1 1.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15. 4tan-1^tan-1i
16. tan-^ = 2em-1l. 17. tan-^-tan-1"^^.

119 13 n m+n 4
18. tan-'í + tan-'j^tan-1^,
if í<:"75 or >\/3, and = T + tan-1 ~„-2 if t>-j= and <J3.

280 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XLIIL]
19. ta
^ап-л/^М^Ии.
Л' ab
nt\ l l Tin
20. а-Ь Ъ-с с- а =.

21. ta
22. сов (% tan-1 ^ = sin U tan"1 ^ .
23. sin 2a 008,0 J '

24. tan"1 я = 2 tan-1 [cosec tan"1 x - tan cot"1 ж].
лр rti -i Г" Ct. i "" P\~l i 8ÍU и COS ó
25 2 l£Ul~ I tfltl — tail I — — — i 1 — tftQ*~ ——
L 2 \4 2yj sin /3+ eos o
26. Shew that
8 , V/a-x . . /x-b
^b = sm V ^b = ooi. . VI í^í
a-t
27. И cos""1 - + cos"1 1 = a, prove that

Л О
Solve the equations
28. to-'
29. tan~12i; + tan-13s = j. 30. tan'1 ^ + tau""1 - = .

4 x—о Д?*|~в4
31. tan-1 (x + 1) + cot-1 (ж - 1) = sin-1 1 + coa-1 1 .

o o
32. tan-1
33. 2tan-1(cosx) = tan-1(2coseoa;).

[EXS. XLIIL] INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS. 281
О 1
34. tan-1 x + 2 cot"1 x = - IT. 35. tan cos"1 x= sin cot-1 ¡r .
.1 z
36. cot"1 г - cot-1 (x + 2) = 15°.
37.
38.
ЧО ' -l ' -1 2 - - ЛЛ ' -1 3 • -1 12 _ *
-'— g- 4U. ВШ - + 8Ш — = -.
41. tan-1 - + tan-1 - + tan-1 - + tan'1 - = - .

x x x x 2
42. sec-1 - - sec"1 Г = sec-1 b - sec"1 a.
а о
43. oosec"1 x = cosec"1 a + oosec""1 b.
44.
CHAPTER XIX.
ON SOME SIMPLE TRIGONOMETRICAL SERIES.
241. To find the sum of the sines of a series of angles,

the angles being in arithmetical progression.
Let the angles be
a,a+ß, a + 2/3, ...... {a +(n -!)£}.
Let
8 = sin a + sin (a + /3) + sin (a + 2/9) . . . + sin {a + (n - 1 ) ß]
By Art. 97 we have
2 sin о sin ^ = cos (« - 2) ~ cos Va + 2/ '
2sin(a + /3)sin^ = cosU + ^J-cosia +тгЬ

О / Ч/"?\ / ^Д\
2 sin (a + 2/3) sin | = cos fa + -j-j - cos fa + -|ч ,
2sm{a+(íi-2)¿S}sin|=cos{a+(?i-|)/S}-cos{a+(7i-|)/9})
and
By adding together these n lines, we have

SIMPLE TRIGONOMETRICAL SERIES. 283
the other terms on the right-hand sides cancelling one

another.
»A.|.a.I-n{« + pjl)/8}>m^.
i.e. S= A •
sing
Ex. By putting /3 = 2o, we have

sin o + sin 3a + sin 5a + ... + sin (2n- l)a
_ sin { a + (n - 1) a} sin na _ sin4 na
sin a — sin a
242. To find the sum of the cosines of a series of
angles, the angles being in arithmetical progression.
Let the angles be
a, a + p, et + 2/S, ... a + (n-l)/3.
Let
8= cos a + cos (a+/3) + cos(a + 2/3) + . . . + cos {a + (n - .
By Art. 97, we have
2 cos a sin ^ = sin + ^ — sin —^,
2 cos (a + /8) sin ^ = sin + - sin +^,
2 cos (a + 2/3) sin | = sin (a + ^) - sin (« + ^) ,
2cos {a+(n-2)/3}sin|=sin{o+(n-f)/3}-sin{a+(?i-f)/3},
284 TRIGONOMETRY,
and
2 cos {a+ (n- 1)0} sin | =sin {a+(n-£)£} -sin {ot+(n-§)£}.
By adding together these n lines, we have
2S x sin^ = sin {a + (n- £) 0} - sin ja - ^| ,
the other terms on the right-hand sides cancelling one

another.
2S x sin | = 2 cos ja + ^ £j sin ^ ,
cosi|a+-5-/3]sm-^
i.e. S=.
-I
243. Both the expressions for S in Arts. 241 and 242

vanish
ish when sin^
s is zero, i.e. when ^ is equal to any
multiple of ir,
, n0
i.e. when = pir,
where p is any integer,
i. e. when 0= p. — .
^ n
Hence the sum of the sines (or cosines) of n angles,
which are in arithmetical progression, vanishes when
the common difference of the angles is any multiple
of —
n
cos o + cos + + ooa + + . . . to n terms= 0,
and sino+sin ô + ^^ + sin â + ^^ + ... to n terms =0.

244. Ex. 1. Find the turn of
sin a - sin (a +/S) + tin (a + 2/3) - . . . to n termt.
sin (a + /S + ir) = - sin (a + jS),
sin (o + 2/3 + 2*-) = sin (o + 20),
sin (a + 3/3 + 3ir) = -sin(a + 3/3),
Hence the series
= sina + sin (a+/3 + ir) + sin {a + 2 (/3 + t)}
•+sin{a + 3(/3 + x)} + ...
= —! ^ , by Art. 241,
sm-2
sinjg + ^_V + T)[Bin^)
COS j5^
Ex. 3. find tfte sum o/ tfte series
cos3 a + cos3 2a + cot3 3a + to n termt.
cos 3a = 4 cos3 a - 3 cos a,
so that 4 cos3 a=3cosa + cos 3a.
So 4 cos8 2a = 3 cos 2a + cos 6a,
4 cos3 3a=3 cos 3a + cos 9a,
Hence, if 8 be the given series, we have
iS = (3 cos a + cos 3a) + (3 cos 2a + cos 6a) + (3 cos 3a + cos 9a) + . . .
= 3 (cos a + cos 2a + cos 3a + . . .) + (cos 3a + cos 6a + cos 9a + ... )
COS ■ a+ n 2- 1 • aj-l.na
sin [„ + n—^-
cos |3a - 1 . 3a
„ • sin
. n——. 33a
■ -a
sin .3a
sin^
n + 1 a Bin
.no,
— cos 3(n + l) a sm
. 3na
cos —2— —^— ^
=3 + .
■sm a= .3a
sm —
286 TRIGONOMETRY.
In a similar manner we can obtain the sum of the cubes of the sines
of a series of angles in A. p.
Cor. Since
2 sin2 o = l- cos 2o, and 2eos2a=l + eos2a,
we can obtain the sum of the squares.
Since again 8 sin4 a = 2 [1 - cos 2a]2
= 2 - 4 cos 2a + 2 cos2 2o = 3 - 4 cos 2a + cos 4a,
we can obtain the sum of the 4th powers of the sines. Similarly for the
cosines.
Ex. 3. Sum to n terms the series
сог a ein ß + cos За »in 2/3 + eos 5a sin 3ß+ ... to n terms.
Let 5 denote the series.
Then
2S = {sin (a+ß) -sin (a-ß)} + {sin (3o + 2j3) - sin (За -2/3)}
+ {sin (5a + 3/3) - sin (5o - 3/3)} + ..
- i sin (a - /3) + sin (3a - 2/3) + sin (5a - 3/3) + . . . }
sin j(a + j8) + ™-^- (2a + /3)1 sinn --"^"-"
sin J(e_fl+"
! 1 Va-fll
g——i sinrc?^ , by Art. 241,
. I я + 1„) . n
sm ^na+~ß^ sm ^
. 2a + /3
. ( я+lJ . n(2
sm -jna - s~Pf sm ~â-|8)
Ex. 4. AÂ^.A^ is a regular polygon of n sides inscribed in a circle,
whose centre is 0, and P is any point on the arc AnAl such that the angle
POA1 is 0 ; find the sum of the lengths of the lines joining P to the angular
points of the polygon.
Each of the angles A-fiA2, AiOA3,...A„OA1 is 2t — , so that the angles
POAlt POA2,... are respectively
0,. e+
„ 2jt
— . 4ir
n , e + —,...
n
Hence, if r be the radius of the circle, we have
„. = 2r
iM1 _ sin
. — POAt- =2r
a Bin
. 0= ,
„ . „ sin
PA2=2r . POA. „ sin
-^=2r . (s
(0 + -J.
«r\
„. „ Bin
PA,=2r . -g-'-Sr
POA, „ «n
. ^
10 + -J
2t\ ,
Hence the required sum

= 2r [sin ? + sin (| + + sin (i + + to n terms]
. r0 n- 1 w~\ . » «•
sin 5 + —5- - sin s . -
(Art. 241)
2n
= 2r cosec-.sin[_- + I-^J
= 2r cosec 2k
=- cos
\2 2n)
EXAMPLES. XLIV.
Sum the series :
1. cos 0 + cos 39 + cos 50 +... to n terms.
2. cos Ag + oos 2.d + cos 1A
y+ ... to n terms.
Prove that
„ sina + sin 2o + sin3o+ ... + sin no . n + 1
3. s ... +cos »io
cos o + cos2a+ = tan -S"
2 <
288 TRIGONOMETRY. [ExS. XLIV.]
4. sin a + sin 3a
k ++ sin
—?5a + ... + sm (2n- 1) rr-aa = tan
, na.
cos a + cos do cos 5a + . . . + cos 7H
(2n - 1)
. sino-sin(a + /S) + sin(o + 2/3) + ... to n terms
cosa-cos(a + j3) + cos(a+2£) + ... to n terms
=ten |o + -^(t+/S)|
Sum the following series :
- cos„ 7T , +cos = 3tT 7 + cos^ Sir = + ... to n terms.
6. 2*1+1 2n+l 2n + l
7. cos o- cos (a+/S) + cos (o+ 2/3) - ... to 2n terms.
-8. sin0+sin
. « . «-4„0. + sin . —-
n-6 0„ + ... to n terms.
n-2 n-2
9. cos x + sin 3x + cos 5a; + sin7x+ ... + sin (in- 1) at.
10. sin a sin 2a + sin 2a sin 3a + sin 3a sin ia + ... to n terms.
11. cos a sin 2a + sin 2a cos 3a + cos 3a sin 4a
+ sin 4a cos 5a + . . . to 2n terms.
12. sin a sin 3a + sin 2a sin 4a + sin 3a sin 5a + ... to n terms.
13. cos a cos jS + cos 3a cos 2/S + cos 5a cos 3^ + ... to n terms.
14. sin2 a + sin2 2a + sin2 3a + . . . to n terms.
15. sin2 d + sin2 (6 + a) + sin2 (0 + 2a) + . . . to n terms.
18. cos4 a + cos4 2a + cos4 3a + . . . to n terms.
19. cos $ cos 26 cos 30 + cos 20 cos 36 cos 40 + . . . ton terms.
20. sin a sin (a +/3) -sin (a +/3) sin (a + 2/3) + ... to 2» terms.
21. From the sum of the series
sin a + sin 2a + sin 3a + . . . to n terms,
deduce (by making a very small) the sum of the series
1 + 2 + 3 + .. , + n.
22. From the result of the example of Art. 241 deduce the sum of
1 + 3 + 5... to n terms.
23. If
prove that 2 (cos a + cos 2a + cos 4a + cos 8a)
and 2 (cos 3a + cos 5a + cos 6a + cos 7a)
are the roots of the equation
z2 + x-4=0.
[ElS. XLIV.] SIMPLE TRIGONOMETRICAL SERIES. 289
24. ABCD... is a regular polygon of n sides which is inscribed in a

circle, whose centre is О and whose radius is r, and P is any point on the
arc AB such that POA is в. Рготе that
PA . PB + PA . PG + PA .PD + PB . PC+...
25. Two regular polygons, each of n sides, are circumscribed to and

inscribed in a given circle. If an angular point of one of them be joined
to each of the angular points of the other, then the sum of the squares of
the straight lines so drawn is to the sum of the areas of the polygons as
26. Alt ¿(2,...v42n+1 are the angular points of a regular polygon in

scribed in a circle, and 0 is any point on the circumference between Al
and Aín+-í ; prove that
27. If perpendiculars be drawn on the sides of a regular polygon of n

sides from any point on the inscribed circle whose radius is a, prove that
L. T. 19
CHAPTER XX.
ELIMINATION.
246. IT sometimes happens that we have two equa

tions each containing one unknown quantity. In this
case there must clearly be a relation between the
constants of the equations in order that the same
value of the unknown quantity may satisfy both. For
example, suppose we knew that an unknown quantity
x satisfied both of the equations
ax + b = 0 and ся? + dx + e = 0.
From the first equation, we have
and this satisfies the second, if
i.e. if 62c - abd + d>e = 0.

This latter equation is the result of eliminating x
between the above two equations, and is often called their
eliminant.
ELIMINATION. 291
246. Again, suppose we knew that an angle в
satisfied both of the equations
sin3 в = Ь, and cos* в = с,
so that sin в = b , and cos в = с .
Now we always have, for all values of в,
sin2 в + cos2 0=1,
so that in this case 6* + с = 1.
This is the result of eliminating в.
247. Between any two equations involving one

unknown quantity we can, in theory, always eliminate
that quantity. In practice, a considerable amount of
artifice and ingenuity is often required in seemingly
simple cases.
So, between any three equations involving two un
known quantities, we can theoretically eliminate both
of the unknown quantities.
248. Some examples of elimination are appended.

Ex. 1. Eliminate в from the equations
and
Solving for eos в and sin в by cross multiplication, or otherwise,
we have
сов в _ sing 1
6/- ce ~ cd - af~ bd - ae '
so that
292 TRIGONOMETRY.
Ex. 3. Eliminate в between

ax by
(1),
cos в sin6~
ax sin 0
and
From (2) we have ax sin8 6= - by cos3 0.
sin в _ cos g _ ^/sin2 g + cos8 g
(Hall and Knight's Higher Algebra, Art. 12)

1
Hence
and —
008 * («и)*
so that (1) becomes
fax. ^- -
L (ax)*
The student who shall afterwards become acquainted with Analytical

Geometry will und that the above is the solution of an important problem
concerning normals to an ellipse.
Ex. 3. Eliminate в from the equations

X 1Í
- COS в - v «¡H0 = (1),
a b
and ~ sine + cos 0 = 2 »in 20 (2).

a b
ELIMINATION.
Multiplying (1) by cos 0, (2) by sin 0, and adding, we have
- = cos 8 cos 20 + 2 sin 0 sin 29
a
= cos 9 + sin 0 sin 20 = cos 0 + 2 sin2 9 cos 9
Multiplying (2) by cos 9, (1) by sin 9, and subtracting, we have
| = 2 sin 20cos0-cos 20sin0
6
= sin 29 cos 9 + sin 6 = sin 9 + 2 sin 9 cos' 9
Adding (3) and (4), we have
| + 1 = (sin 9 + cos 6) [1 + 2 sin 9 cos 9]
= (sin 9 + cos 9) [sin2 9 + cos5 9 + 2 sin 8 cos 9]
= (sin 0 + cos 0)3,
that sin 9 + cos *=f^ + |)
Subtracting (4) from (8), we have
- - ? = (cos 9 - sin 9)11-2 sin 9 cos 0)
a o
= (cos 8- sin 0)3,
othat cos 0- sin 0 = ^ - |^ ..;
Squaring and adding (5) and (6), we have
»-(H)*+(H)f-
EXAMPLES. XLV.
Eliminate 9 from the equations
1. a cos 0 + 6 sin 0 = c, and 6 cos 0 - a sin 0 = d.
2. £ = acos (0-a), and y = b cos (0-/3).
3. o cos 20 = 6 sin 0, and c sin 20 = d cos 0.
4. a sin a - 6 cos a = 26 sin 0, and a sin 2a - 6 cos 20 = a.
e xsm • 8-y
„ „ *Jx2
/-» + y2,5 andj Sm20 OOS20
5. cos 8= ' —;-
a-1 + 62 -3-+1,-j/2„.
.^- = x2
19—3
trigonometry". [Exs. XLv.]
x oos 8 y sin 0
0. a H b, — = 1,
and xsin0-^cos 0 = s/a? sin2 8 + b2cos* 8.
7. sin 9 -eos 8 =p, and oosec 0- sin 0 = g.
8. x = a cos 0 + 6 cos 20, and y = a sin 8 + 6 sin 29.
9. If m=cosec0-sin 8, and n=sec 0- cos 0,
prove that m~z2 + ri*2 = (mn) 2
10. Prove that the result of eliminating 8 from the equations
xcos (0 + a) + ?/sin (0 + a)=asin20,
and y cos (8 + a) - x sin (0 + o) — 2a cos 20,
is (x cos a + y sin a)' + (x sin a - ^ cos a) * = (2a)$.
Eliminate 0 and 0 from the equations
11. sin0 + sin0=a, cos0 + cos0 = 6, and 0-0 = a.
12. tan0 + tan0=x, cot 8 + cot 0 = y, and 0 + 0 = a.
13. a cos5 0 + 6 sin20=c, ft cos2 <p + a sin2 0 = d,
and a tan 0= ft tan 0.
14. cos 0 + cos 0 = ct, cot0 + cot0 = 6, and cosec 0 + cosec 0=c.
15. asin0=ftsin0, a cos 0 + fccos0=c, and x=^ tan (0 + 0).
16. o-cos0 + f6 sin0 = l, a-cos0 + ?ft sin0=l,
and a2 sin |4 sin ^4 + ft2 cos f6 cos ^2 = c2.
CHAPTER XXI.
PROJECTIONS.
249. Let PQ be any straight line, and from its ends,
P and Q, let perpendiculars be drawn to a fixed straight

line OA. Then MN is called the projection of PQ
on OA.
29C TRIGONOMETRY.
If MN be in the same direction as OX, it is positive ;

if in the opposite direction, it is negative.
250. If 6 be the angle between any straight line PQ

and a fixed line OA, the projection of PQ on OA is
PQ cos 0.
Whatever be the direction of PQ draw, through P,
a straight line PL parallel to OA and let it and QN, both
produced if necessary, meet in R.
Then, in each figure, the angle LPQ or the angle A UQ
is equal to 6.
Also MN =PR=PQ cos LPQ = PQ cos 6,
by the definitions of Art. 50.
Similarly, the projection of PQ on a line perpendicu
lar to 0A=RQ
= PQ sin LPQ = PQ sin 6.
The projections of any line PQ on a line to
which PQ is inclined at any angle 9, and on a
perpendicular line, are therefore PQ cos 0 and
PQ sin 6.
251. We might therefore, in Art. 50, have defined
the cosine as the ratio to OP of the projection of OP on
the initial line, and, similarly, the sine as the ratio to
OP of the projection of OP on a line perpendicular to
the initial line.
This method of looking upon the definition of the
cosine and sine is often useful.
252. The projection of PQ upon the fixed line OA
is equal to the sum of the projections on OA of any
broken line beginning at P and ending at Q.
PROJECTIONS. 297
Let PEFGQ be any broken line joining P and Q.
Draw PM, QN, ER, FS, and QT perpendicular to OA.
The projection of PE is MR and is positive.

The projection of EF is RS and is negative.
The projection of FO is ST and is positive.
The projection of GQ is TN and is negative.
The sum of the projections of the broken line PEFGQ
therefore
MR-SR + ST-NT
A similar proof will hold whatever be the positions of

P and Q, and however broken the lines joining them
may be.
Cor. The sum of the projections of any broken
line, joining P to Q, is equal to the sum of the projections
of any other broken line joining the same two points;
for each sum is equal to the projection of the straight
line PQ.
253. General Proofs, by Projections, of the Addition
and Subtraction Theorems.
Taking the construction of Art. 88, the projection of OP
298 TRIGONOMETRY.
on OA is equal to the sum of the projections on OA of

ON and NP; but ON and NP are the projections of
OP on OB and a perpendicular line.
M Q
Hence the projection of OP on OA

= cosAOB x projection of OP on OB
+ cos (90° + AOB) x projection of OP on a perpen
dicular to OB, [since the direction NP is inclined to OA
at an angle 90° + A OB].
.-. OPcosAOP
=cosAOBxOPcosBOC-smAOBxOPsmBOC. (Art. 250.)
i.e. cos (A + B) = cos A cos В — sin A sin A
So, projection of OP on a line perpendicular to
04
= sum of projections of ON and NP on a line perpen
dicular to OA
= sin A OB x projection of OP on 05
+ sin (90° + A OB) x projection of OP on a perpendicular
to OB,
PROJECTIONS. 299
i.e. OP sin A OP
= sin A OB x OP cos BOC+ cos A OB x OP sin BOC,
i.e. sin (A + B) = sin A cos £ + cos J. sin 5.
The above proof holds, as in the subjoined figures, for

all positions of the bounding lines OB and OC.
254. In the case of the subtraction theorem, taking

the construction of Art. 90, the line OC is inclined to OB
at an angle which, with the proper sign prefixed, is — B.
The projections of OP on OB and a perpendicular
to OB are therefore OP cos (- B) and OP sin (- B),
ie. OP cos B and - OP sin B.
B
Since OB and its perpendicular make angles A OB and

(90° + A0B) with OA, we thus have
300 TRIGONOMETRY.
OP cos (A -B)
= projection of OP on OA
= sum of the projections on OA of the projections of OP"
on ОБ and a perpendicular
= OP cos В x cos AOB + (- OP sin B) x cos (90° + AOB)
= OP cos 5 cos A + OP sin В sin J.,
i.e. cos (A — B) = cos A cos J5 + sin A sin A
Similarly, projecting the same lines on a perpendicular
to OA, we have
OP sin (A - B) = OP cos B x sin AOB
+ (- OP sin B) sin (90° + A OB}
= OP cos В sin A — OP sin В cos J.,
г'.е. sin (A — B) = sin A cos Б — cos A sin 5.
These proofs hold whatever be the positions of the
bounding lines OB and OC, as, for example, in the sub

joined figure.
ANSWERS.
L (Page 5.)
2 301 45569
3* 360" 64800'
A. 19 K 9 3 681 I! J 311
7. 33*33*33-3". 8. 90s. 9. 153" 88' 88-8".
10. Sg^^S-a*. 11. 261"34,44-4V.
12. 528" 3' 33-3". 13. 1| rt. l ; 108°.
14. -453524 rt. l ; 40° 49' 1-776".
15. -394536 rt. l ; 35° 30' 29 664".
16. 2-550809 rt. l ; 229° 34' 22116".
17. 7-590005 rt. l ; 683° 6' 1-62".
28. 5° 33' 20"; 66° 40'. 29. 47^°; 42£f°.
31. 33° 20'; 10° 48'.
H. (Page 10.)
1. 25132-74 miles nearly.
2. 19-28 miles per hour nearly.
4. 3-14159... inches. 5. 581,194,640 miles nearly.
ni. (Pages 13, 14.)
1. 60°. 2. 240°. 3. 1800°.
4. 57° 17' 44-8". 5. 458° 21' 58-4". 6. 160".
L. T. 20
ii TRIGONOMETRY.
7. 233* 33v 333v\ 8. 2000*. 9. %. 10. ^
n
ll. 703
mlC. io
12. 3557
J^^. 19
13. 79
14 W 15' 2040- 16- 1726268'-

17. 81°; 9°. 18. 24°, 60°, and 96°.
19. 132° 15' 12-6". 20. 30°, 60°, and 90°.
21. \ , ^ , and y ~ \ radians-
22. (1) ~; 108°. (2) ^; 128f.

(3) 135°. (4) 150°. (5) 15814°.
23. 8 and 4. 24. 10 and 8. 25. 6 and 8.
26. J. 27. (1) ^ = 75° = 83^;

(2) 7^C = 70° = 77^; (3) ^=112J°= 125-.
28. (1) At 7^ and 36 minutes past 4 ; (2) at 28^ and

48 minutes past 7.
IV. (Pages 17, 18.)
Take ir=3-14159... and -='31831.
1. 20454° nearly. 2. | radian ; 34° 22' 38-9".

3. 68-75 inches nearly. 4. -05236 inch nearly.
5. 24-555 inches nearly. 6. 1° 25' 57" nearly.
7. 3959-8 miles nearly. 8. w ft. = 3-14159 ft.
9. 5 : 4. 10. 31416.
„ 4ir 9ir 14ir 19x . 24ir ,.
1L 35' 35' "35 ' 35 .^^- radians.
12. 65° 24' 30-4". 13. 2062-65 ft. nearly.
14. 1-5359 ft. nearly. 15. 262-6 ft. nearly.
16. 32142-9 ft. nearly. 17. 38197-2 ft. nearly.
ANSWERS. iii
18. 19-099'. 19. 1105-8 miles.

20. 238,833 miles 21. 21600 ; 6875 5 nearly.
22. 478 x 10" miles.
VI. (Page 31.)
°- 4'V15 5'13' 60' 61' 60' 5'3"

40 41 3 4 15 3
9l 9~; 40- 5; 5; 5; 3' 4"
12. g;£. 13- " lo4
15. for^. 16. ft. 17. ». 18. -L or 1.
19. \. 20. ^. 21. l + N/2.

2- jr
2x(x+l) 2x+l
22.
2x* + 2x+l' 2x> + 2x+l'
VIII. (Pages 44—46.)

1. 34-64... ft.; 20ft. 2. 160ft. 3. 225ft.
4. 136-6 ft. 5. 146-4... ft.
6. 367-9... yards; 454-3... yards. 7. 86-6... ft.
8. 115-359... ft. 9. 87-846... ft.
10. 43-3... ft.; 75 ft. from one of the pillars.
11. 94-641... ft.; 54-641... ft. 12. 1-366... miles.
13. 30°. 15. 13-8564 miles per hour.
16. 25-98... ft.; 70-98... ft.; 85-98... ft.
17. 32^/5 = 71-55... ft. 19. 10 miles per hour.
20. 86-6... yards. 21. 692-8... yards.
IX. (Page 63.)

, 2250 2500 , 81
L 6289 w ' 6289 * and 331 * radlanS-
20—2
IV TRIGONOMETRY.
wv_/ т;*_7 il
^ X*
1 ¡
8. an4 .4. 9. в == 60°.
tanM
10. In 1^ minutes.
X. (Pages 74, 75.)
4. -•366... ; 2-3094. 5. -1-366... ; -2-3094.
6. 0; 2. 7. 1-4142... ;-2.
8. 1-366...; -2-3094 9. 45° and 135°.
10. 120° and 240°. 11 . 135° and 315°.
12. 150° and 330°. 13. 150° and 210°.
14. 210° and 330°. 15. - cos 25°.
16. sin 6°. 17. - tan 43°. 18. sin 12°.
19. sin 17°. 20. - cot 24°. 21. cos 33°.
22. - cos 28°. 23. cot 25°. 24. cos 30°.
26. cot 26°. 26. — cosec 23 27. — cosec 36°
28. negative. 29. negative. 30. positive.
31. zero. 32. positive. 33. positive.
34 positive. 35. negative.
36. . and ^s"; 73and73-
XI. (Pages 83, 84.)
,ew
L •r+<-l 2. me — (-l)"i-
3. •»+(-1 4. 2mr
)*f- *т-
5. 2""'"-i176' 6. 2wr*^.
4
7. ПТГ + - .
3
Sir IT »
8. nir + - 7- . 9. nw+ 4- 10. 2и ^ ñ •
3
4
11. 12. 13.
ANSWERS. V
14. W7T±^. 15. JMr±7;. 16. M1T±T.

o o 4
17. »T*g. 18. (2n+l)» + |. 19. 2wr-£.
20. 105° and 45°; (» + ™) * * g + ( ~ 1)" ^ . and
_._n)„_ + (_l).Bl
-where m and n are any integers.
21. 187J" and 142£° ;
^ + T;» + g*lj and («-2j'r-8st12-
22. (1) 60° and 120°; (2) 120° and 240° ; (3) 30°
and 210°.
23. (1)2; (2)1; (3)1; (4)1; (5)1.
XII. (Page 86.)
1. fMr + (-iyJ. 2. 2n**=^.
3. »w + (-l)"J. 4. eos0 = ^p.
5. sin 0 = ± = sin 18° or sin (- 54°) (Art. 1 20).
6. 6 = 2mr ± J. 7. $ = nir + ^ or nir + % .

6 4 o
c /. 2jt 5ir . A . 1 1
8. 6 = nir + -s- or mr + . 9. tan0 = - or - T .
3 6 a b
10. 6 = nir±%. 11. 6 = 2nir or 2jmt + t-
4 4
12. wir ± ^6 . • 13. nir or 2wir ± ô .
14. 2n7r«fc^ or 2nir±%. 15. sin0 = l or -i.

o o o
VI TRIGONOMETRY.
Iß 4. / 1\n 17 —
J-U. _ ' \ "/ ЛЛ « At« -
18. 2tMT or v^p- . 19. -or- --.

5 m-w m+n
20. ( 2n + ñ ) -^ or 2?мг — к •
-}- 21. 2mr or
2J5
22.
2/ m + n
24.
25.
27. (»+к)5г*я. 28.

29. T* s- 30. n,r*^. 31.
. 2jm-n'
32. tanö = -"
33. 6=
34
35. 45° and 60°. 36. g or |.

47
**'• J. 1q Vo
/К >• .ь 91 V/К
"•
r
ХШ. (Pages 91, 92.)
_ 133 _ 84 „ 1596 3444
2Ü5' ~2Ö5' ' 3445' 3445'
220 171 220
22Ï"' 221' 21 '
XIV. (Pages 96, 97.)
30. 2sin(0 + w<¿>)sm-^>. 31. 2 sin (0 + пф) cos ^ .
ANSWERS. Vil
XV. (Pages 98, 99.)

1. cos 20 -cos 120. 2. sin 120 -sin 20.
3. cos 140 + cos 80. 4. cos 12° -cos 120°.
XVI. (Page 102.)

i. 34. ' 3. i.
XVH. (Pages 109, 110.)
24 120 2016
(2)-' <3>69- 3- <*•

XVin. (Pages 123-126.)
18
-2- *Тя'
13 *^Т
713 or<fc 713 169
s J Щ-
16 49 4 JL 1 3
305' 305' 572' *3; *4'
e. 4.
.7*-
2^/2
_ a l) + 74 + 272.
8. ./ —„^-С,— . 23. + and -. 24. - and -.
V a + tr
25. - and -.
29. (1) 2w7T+j and 2nir+ ^; (2) 2wir+ -^ and 2nir+ -^;
7Г 7Г ÎT ЗтГ
(3) 2nir — -r and 2w7T + T: (4) 2»мг+ т and 2пя-н .
4 4.4 4
Vlll TRIGONOMETRY.
30.'. (1) 2гетг-- and
(2) 2fi7T + and ~
(3) 2wir + —r- and 2ия- + - -- .

4 4
XIX. (Page 130.)
12. The sine of the angle is equal to 2 sin 18°.
,„ nir
13. _a
XXI. (Pages 143, 144.)
„
2.
_ / 1\ IT , . / 1\ 5Г , ,,-ЧГ
3. ( и + 2 ) 2 or ' ' I n + 2) 3 °Г И7Г + ^ ~ ^ 6 '
c 2»мг / I
5. — or (îî + 'r or
r.
6.
8. ,¡or
10. mr+(—
v l)"^r6 or ÍMT + Í—
v 1)*=гк
' 10 or птг — (v — 1)"
' TTC
10 •
12. mir or ~ Гтоя- - ( - l)m |j . 13. 2тя- or - - -г .

n* l
9„
14. "^- or (2r + l) -^-. 15. (!
m+n m— n
... mir ( 1\ ir
16. mir or T or ( m + ñ - .
я-1 \ 2/ и
17.
ANSWERS. ix
18. +x ' 4 o 19. 2n7r + y.

4
20. nir + £+(-l)»T- 21. 2n7r+^*yi.

6 ' 4 4
22. - 21°48' + n . 180° + ( - 1)" [68° 12'].
23. 2w. 180° + 78°58' ; 2n. 180° + 27°18'.
24. ».180°+45°jn.l80o+26''34'. 25. 2»wr or 2nir+
26. 2w7r or 2nir + ^. 27. 2nir + ^ or 2«ir-^.
28. 2nx + ^ or 2wtt - ^ . 29. wir.
30. sin^^?-1. " 31. co,*-^"3

4
nir±^7T or nir+'^JT . 33. 2wjt± ^ ; 2jmt±t •
o.J 3 4
36. nir + T .
4
37. 6 = -j- or nir ± ^ ; also 0 = wr ± ^ , where cos a -- ^ .
38. (n+\)l 39. +l .
XXin. (Pages 157, 158.)

1. T-90309; 3-4771213; 2-0334239; lj4650389.
2. -1553361 ; _ 2-1241781 ; -5388340; 1-0759623.
3. 2; 2; 0; 4; 2 ; 0; 3. 4. 312936.
5. 1-32057; 5-88453; -461791.
6. (1)21; (2)13; (3)30; (4) the 7th; (5) the 21st;
(6) the 32nd.
7" (1) c~^Y-a' {2> 4c-36-a' W o+36-2e'
26 (2a -6) 2a6
V; 5a6 + Sac - 26" - 26c 5a6 + 3ac - 262 - 26c '
where a = log 2,5 = log 3, and c = log 7.
X TRIGONOMETRY.
8. -22221. 9. 8-6415. 10. 9-6192.
11. 1-6389. 12. 4-7162. 13. -41431.
XXIV. (Pages 168—170.)

1. 4-5527375; 1-5527394.
2. 4-7689529; 3-7689502.
3. 478-475; -004784777. 4. 2-583674; -0258362.
5. (1) 4-7204815; (2) 2-7220462; (3) 4-7240079;
(4) 5273-63; (5) -05296726; (6) 5-26064.
6. -6870417. 7. 43° 23' 45".
8. -8455104; -8454509. 9. 32°16'35"; 32°16'21".
10. 4-1203060; 4-1218748.
11. 4-3993263; 4-3976823. 12. 13°8'47".
13. 9-9147334. 14. 34°44'27".
15. 9-5254497; 71°27'43". 16. 10-0229414.
17. 18° 27' 17". 18. 36° 52' 12".
XXV. (Pages 172, 173.)

1. 13°27'31". 2. 22T28".
3. 1-0997340; 65° 24' 12-5".
4. 9-6198509; 22°36'28".
5. 10°15'34". 6. 44° 55' 55".
7. (1) 9-7279043; (2) 9-9270857; (3) 10-1958917;
(4) 10-0757907; (5) 10-2001337;
(6) 10-0725027; (7) 9-7245162.
8. (1) 57°30'24"; (2) 57°31'58"; (3) 32°31'15";
(4) 57° 6' 39".
9. -5373602.
10. (1) cos (a; — y) sec x sec y ; (2) cos (x + y) sec x sec y ■
(3) cos (x — y) cosec x sec y ;
(4) cos (x + y) cosec x sec y ;
(5) tan2 x ; (6) tan x tan y.
ANSWERS. xi
XXVI. (Pages 180, 181.)

i 1 1 a 9
4 3 8 40 24 496
Z- Vil' 5' and WjiV iP 25' and 1025 "
,34
3. g( and 1.
a
4. 5 T>
n, 12 and co. c
5. 4 56 and, ^.
-, 12
6. and 7. 60°, 45°, and 75°.
XXVH. (Pages 186—188.)
23. 16| & 25. §. 2& HI .

XXVIII. (Page 191.)
1. 186-60... and 193-18.
2. 26° 33' 54"; 63° 26' 6"; 10^5 ft.
3. 48° 35' 25", 36° 52' 12" and 94° 32' 23".
1 75° and 15°.
XXIX. (Pages 194, 195.)
1. 90°. 2. 30°. 4. 120°.
5. 45°, 120° and 15°. 6. 45°, 60°, and 75°.
7. 58°59'33". 8. 77°19'11". 9. 76°39'5".
10. 104° 28' 39".
11. 56°15'4", 59°51'10" and 63°53'46".
12. 38°56'33", 47°41'7" and 93°22'20".
13. 130° 42' 20-5'', 23°27'8-5", and 25°50'31".
XXX. (Pages 199—201.)
1. 63°13'2"; 43°58'28". 2. 117°38'45"; 27°38'45".
3. -8^/7 feet; 79° 6' 24"; 40° 53' 36".
4. 87° 27' 25-5"; 32° 32' 34 5".
xii TRIGONOMETRY.
5. 40° 53' 36"; 19° 6' 24"; J7 : 2.

6. 71°44'30": 48°15'30". 7. 78° 17' 40"; 48°36'20".
8. 108° 12' 26"; 49° 27' 34".
9. ^ = 45°; 5 = 75°; c = V6. 10. ; 15° ; 105°.
11. -8965. 14. 40 yds.; 120°; 30°.
15. 7-589467; 108°26'6"; 18°26'6"; 53°7'48".
16. 2-529823. 17. 226-87; 73°34'50"; 39°45'10".
18. .1 = 83° T 39"; JB = 42°16'21"; c= 199-099.
19. £ = 110°48'15"; C = 26°56'15"; a =93-5192.
20. 73°1'51" and 48° 41' 9".
21. 88°30'1" and 33° 30' 59".
XXXI. (Pages 207—209.)
1. There is no triangle.
2. ^ = 30°, 01 = 105°, and 52 = 60°, C2 = 75°,
and 62 = J6.
3. " ^=30°, £, = 120°, and 6, = 100; ^=90°, C2 = 60°,
and 62 = 200.
5. 4J3±2J5.
6. 100^/3 ; the triangle is right-angled.
8. 33°29'30" and 101°30'30". 9. 17-1 or 3-68.
10. (1) The triangle is right-angled and B = 60°.
(2) ■B1 = 8°41'andC1=141°19'; B>= 111° 19' and 38° 41'.
11. 65° 59' and 41° 56' 12".
12. 5-988... and 2-6718... miles per hour.
13. 63°2'12" or 116°57'48".
14. 62°31'23" and 102°17'37", or 117°28'37" and 47°20'23".
15. 5926-61.
XXXII. (Page 210.)
1. 7 : 9 : 11. 4. 79-063.
5. 1 mile; 1-219714... miles. 7. 2097616... ft.
8. 6-85673... and 5-4378468... feet. 9. 404*4352 ft.
10. 233-2883 yards. 11. 2229 yards.
ANSWERS. xiii
XXXTTT. (Pages 215—218.)

1. 100 ft. high and 50 ft. broad ; 25 feet.
2. 257834 yds. 3. 33 07... ft. ; 17 J ft
4. 18-3... ft. 5. 120 ft. 6. h tan a cot /3.
7. 1939-2... ft. 8. 100 ft. 9. 61-224... ft.
10. 100^/2 ft.
15. PQ = BP = BQ = 1000 ft. ; AP = 500 ( ^6 - J2) ft ;
AQ = 1000^2 ft.
16. -32119 miles. 17. -1736482 miles ; -9848078 miles.
18. 119-2862 ft. 19. 132-266 ft.
20. 235-8034 yds. 21. 1-42771 miles.
22. 125-3167 ft.
XXXIV. (Pages 222-227.)
3. 20 ft; 40 ft.
2
4. I cosec y, where y is the sun's altitude ; sin y — y .
5. 3-732... miles; 12-342... miles per hour at an angle,
whose tangent is J3 + 1, S. of E.
6. 10-2426... miles per hour.
7. 16-3923... miles; 14-697... miles.
8. 2-39 miles; 1-366 miles.
2 9
9. It makes an angle whose tangent is ^ ; ^ hour.
13. c sin /3 cosec (a + /3) ; c sin a sin /3 cosec (a + ^3).
14. 9yds.; 2yds. 16. p j.
375
20. At a distance -j^ ft. from the cliff.
21. c(l-sina)seca. 22. 114-4123 ft. 24. 1069-745645 ft.
26. The angle whose tangent is ^ . 29. 45°.
32. 1 8° 26' 6". 34. tan a sec j8 : 1 .
37. 91-896 ft. 38. 1960-95 yds.
39. 2-45832 miles. 40. 333 4932 ft.
xiv TRIGONOMETRY.
XXXV. (Pages 229, 230.)
1. 84. 2. 216. 3. 630. 4. 3720.
5. 270. 6. 117096. 7. 1470.
8. 1-183.... 12. 35 yds. and 26 yds.
13. 14-941... inch. 14. 5, 7, and 8 ft. 15. 120°.
17. 45° and 105°; 135° and 15°.
18. 17-1064... sq. ins.
XXXVI. (Pages 237, 238.)
3. &§■, 1J, 8, 2, and 24 respectively.
XXXVII. (Pages 247—250.)
35. 2-1547... or -1547 times the radius of each circle.
39. An = l + {-\y.1".(A-^,
XXXVIII. (Pages 255—257.)

1. (1)3 ^105 sq. ft. ; (2) 10 J7 sq. ft. 3. 1 * and 2* ft.
XXXIX. (Pages 259—261.)
• 1. 77-98 ins. 2. -5359.
3. (1) 1-720.., sq. ft.; (2) 2-598... sq. ft. ;
'(3) 4-8284... sq. ft. ; (4) 7-694... sq. ft. ;
(5) 11-196... sq. ft.
4. 1-8866... sq. ft. 5. 3-3136... sq. ft.
6. 2 + V2 : 4 ; J2 + : 2. 12. 3.
14. 6. 15. 9. 16. 20 and 10.
17. 6 and 5, 12 and 8, 18 and 10; 22 and 11, 27 and 12,
42 and 14, 54 and 15, 72 and 16, 102 and 17, 162 and 18,
2
342 and 19 sides respectively. 19. k >/3 ; ^6.
o
XL. (Pages 266, 267.)
1. -00204. 2. -00007. 3. -00029.
4. -99999. 5. 25783-10077. 6. 1-0000011.
7. 34'23". 8. 28°41'7". 9. 39'42".
10. 2°33'44". 11. 114-59... inches.
ANSWERS. XV
XLI. (Pages 269, 270.)
1. 435-77 sq. ft. 2. 4-9087... sq. ft.
3. 127° 19' 26". 4. 6 sq. ft.
5. 11-0004 inches. 6. -00044625 inch.
2
7. girr.
XLII. (Pages 271, 272.)
L 1°10'22". 2. 17-14 miles.
3. -61 miles; 1° 48' nearly.
8. About 61800 metres = about 38i miles.
9. 3960 miles.
XLIII. (Pages 279—281.)
28. ±Vsin~2/}. 29. 30. 8L *4\/l'
32. - 8 or - . 33. rnr, or nv + j. 34. J3.
35. 36. - V3 or -(2 + N/3). 37. V3-
38. n, or«2-n + l. 39. |^/|- 40. 13.

41. x is given by the equation
Xi~x'(ab + ac + ad + bc + bd + cd) + abed = 0.
42. There is no admissible value for x.
43. ab + [Ja>-l+Jb>^\]. 44.
XLIV. (Pages 287—289.)

1. ^ sin 2nd cosec 0.
„ 3n-l . . 3n . 3 1
2. cos —;— A sin —r A cosec T A. o. s.
4 4 4 2
7. sin jji+^w-^/jJsinwySsec^. 8. — su.^ 0.
9. sin 2nx (cos 2nx + sin 2wa;) (cos x + sin a;) cosec 2x.
10. j [(w + 1 ) sin 2a - sin (2w + 2) o] cosec a.
xvi TRIGONOMETRY.
11. 5 sin (2n + 2) a . sin 2na cosec a.
12. ^ cos 2a — \ cos (ra + 3) a sin na cosec a.

cos (2na - o) cos (n + 1) (3 - cos (2na + o) cos n/3 + cos a (1 - cos /3)
13. 2 (cos /3- cos 2a)
14. j [(2?i + 1) sin a — sin (2w + 1) a] cosec a.
15. ™— \ cos [26 + (n — 1) a] sin na cosec a.
lft." t3 sui
. +„—l a sin
.no— cosec a5 - j1 sin
. 3„n + l a . sin
. 3na
- cosec 3a .
17. ' 5[3»-4cos(n + l) a sin na cosec a + cos (2» + 2) a sin 2»a cosec 2a].
o
18. ^[3m+4'cos (n + 1) asinnaooseca + cos (2n + 2) a sin 2na cosec 2a].
8
19. T sin cos _— o + cos - — 6 + cos 0 cosec s
t 2 L " 2 2J2
1 . 3w0 3w + 9„ 36
+ 7 sm -jr cos —-— 6* cosec -jr- .
4 2 2 2
20. - \ sin (2a + 2re/3) sin 2rc/J sec /3.
XLV. (Pages 293, 294.)
1. a2 + i2 = <? + d2.
2- i4-2i6°^-®=^(«-®-
3. a (2c2 — dF) = bdc. 4. a sin a + b cos a = ^26 (a + b).
a2 62 a 6
7. (p2 + l)2 + 2q {? + 1) (f> + f) = 4 (j, + q)>.
8. (a* + y2 - 62) (sc2 + y2 - a3 - 6s) = 2a26 (x + b).
11. a2 + b" = 2 + 2 cos a. 12. ay = {y - x) tan a.
13. a"(a-c)(a-d) = b*(b-c)(b-d).
14. 86c = a{4&2 + (&2-c2)2}.
15. x(<?-ai-b2)=yj(a + b+c)(-a+b + c)(a—b+c)(a+b—c).
16. 62 [as (b* - a2) + a (a2 + 62)]2 = 4c4 [62a:2 + a2*/2].
PART II.
ANALYTICAL TRIGONOMETRY.
CHAPTER I.
EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC SERIES.
1. IN the following chapter we are about to obtain

an expansion in powers of x for the expression a", where
both a and ж are real, and also to obtain an expansion for
loge (1 + #), where x is real and less than unity, and e
stands for a quantity to be defined.
(l\n
1 + - ) , when
n/
n becomes infinitely great and is real.
Since - < 1, we have, by the Binomial Theorem,
.2 n2 1.2.3
n t n \ nl \ n
'
.2' ' "
+ ..................... (D-
This series is true for all values of n, however great.
Make then n infinite and the right-hand side
L. T. II.
TRIGONOMETRY.
/ 1\я
1\
Hence the limiting value, when n is infinite, of 1 1 + - 1
is the sum of the series
The sum of this series is always denoted by the

quantity e.
Hence we have
n=e
where Lt stands for " the limit when n = oo ."
M — 00
Cor. By putting n = — , it follows (since m is zero

when ii is infinity) that
Lt (1 + m)™ = Lt (I + -}П = e.
ro=-0 м = *Л
3. This quantity e is finite.

For since
we have
e< 1 + 1++ + ...... ad inf.
< 1 + 2, i.e. < 3.

Also clearly e > 2.
4
*
i *. '*'
S
THE QUANTITY 6. 3
Hence it lies between 2 and 3.

By taking a sufficient number of terms in the series, it
can be shewn that
e = 2-7182818286....
4. The. quantity e ie incommensurable.
For, if possible, suppose it to be equal to a fraction - , where p and q
are whole numbers.
We have then
Multiply this equation by |£, so that all the terms of the séries (1)
\q
become integers except those commencing with -~ . Hence we have
j» |i-l - whole number + ^ + i + J|g + ....
(2).
But the right-hand side of this equation is > -=• , and
i.e. is <.
?
Hence the right-hand side of (2) lies between —- and -, and is there
fore a fraction and so cannot be equal to the left-hand side.
Hence our supposition that e was commensurable is incorrect and it
therefore must be incommensurable.
5. Exponential Series. When x is real, to prow
that
a? a?
' = 1 + x + 75 +f= + ... ad inf.,
l± 15
1—2
4 TRIGONOMETRY.
and that
a? (tyj* a)3 + ... ad inf.
ax = 1 + x loge » + |2
When n is greater than unity, we have
{K)T=K)"
, 1 nx(nx — 1)1 nx (nx — 1) (nx — 2) I
= l+nx- + —\ o -,+ , 0 o -* + •■•
n 1.2 n2 1.2.3 n3
x (x — a; fa: — fa; — -)
In this expression make n infinitely great. The left-

hand becomes, as in Art. 2, e*.
The right-hand becomes
a? a?
1 + a,+ [2 + t3+-
Hence we have
x2 +jg
ex=l+x + |2 x3 + ...adinf. (1).
Let a = ec, so that c = logeo.
.-. ax = ecx = l + cx + -^- + j3 + . . . ad inf.,
by substituting cx for a; in the series (1).

.• . ax = 1 + x log, a + x3^ (log, a)a + (loge a)s+. . . ad inf.
E £
•(2).
6. It can be shewn (as in C. Smith's Algebra, Art. 278) that the
series (1), and therefore (2), of the last article is convergent for all real
values of x.
EXPONENTIAL THEOREM.
7. Ex.1. Prove that ¡¡(e — \ = l + -^ + -^ + ... adinf.

¿\ el l
By equation (1) of Art. 5 we have, by putting x in succession equal
to 1 and - 1,
and e-1=]
Hence, by subtraction,
i.e.
Ex. 3. Find the sum of the series

1+2 1+2+3 1+2+3+4
(2 ' |3 + J4
The nth term =

[n - ¡n
_1 n + 1 _1 Г(п-1) + 2-]_1 Г 1 , 2 "I
2 |n-l ~ 2 L [я-l J ~ 2 L|"~2 [я-lj '
provided that и > 2.
Similarly
the3rdterm=4ri+T!~|.
Also the 2nd term = 5 fl + — [ ,

• L |1J
and the 1st term =?

6 TRIGONOMETRY.
Hence, by addition, the whole series
Se
8. Logarithmic Señes. To prove that, when y is

real and numerically < 1, then
In the equation (2) of Art. 5, put

a=l+y,
and we have
......(1).
But, since у is real and numerically < unity, we have
(x-\)(x- 2)
............... (2).
The series on the right-hand side of (1) and (2) are
equal to one another and both convergent, when у is
numerically < 1. Also it could be shewn that the series
on the right hand side of (2) is convergent when it is
arranged in powers of x. Hence we may equate like
powers of x.
Thus we have
+ ... ad inf.,
l
LOGARITHMIC SERIES. 7
9. If y = l, the series (3) of the previous article is equal to
1 2 1 3 4 + ... ad inf.
which is known to be convergent.
If y = -1, it equals - 1 -- - - - i... ad inf. which is known to be
divergent.
In addition therefore to being true for all values of y between - 1 and
4- 1, it is true for the value y = l; it is not however true for the value
!f=-l.
10. Calculation of logarithms to base e.
In the logarithmic series, if we put y = 1, we have
loge2 = l-| + |-i+ ... ad inf. ...(1).
If we put y= 1,
we have
3 / 1\
loge 3 - log. 2 = log, - = log^l + 2)
1 _ 1 11 J. _ 1 1
2 2'2a 3"2S 4"24+ ( ''
If we put y =5,
o
we have
log<4-log.8-log.^l+gj-g-5.s + 5. F<+...
(3).
From these equations we could, by taking a sufficient
number of terms, calculate log« 2, log„ 3, and loge 4.
It would be found that a large number of terms would
have to be taken to give the values of these logarithms to
the required degree of accuracy. We shall therefore
obtain more convenient series.
8 TRIGONOMETRY.
11. By Art. 8 we have
and, by changing the sign of y,

log. (1-2/) =-2/ -\tf-\tf -\
In order that both these series may be true y must
be numerically less than unity.
By subtraction, we have
(3).
_ . m—n
Let
where m and n are positive integers and m > n, so that
1 +y _m
l-y~ n '
The equation (3) becomes
i я* о Г/т—п\ l /m— n\s 1 (m— n\f
1 =
Put m = 2, n = 1 in (4) and we get log« 2.

Put m = 3, n = 2 and we get loge 3 — log«, 2, and there
fore log« 3.
By proceeding in this way we get the value of the
logarithm of any number to base e.
12. Logarithms to base 1O. The logarithms of

the previous article, to base e, are called Napierian or
natural logarithms.
LOGARITHMS TO BASE 10. 9
We can convert these logarithms into logarithms to

base 10.
For, by Art. 147 (Part I.), we have, if N be any number,
loge N = logIO N x loge 10.
Now Ioge 10 can be found as in the last article and

then -.-=-7: is found to be '4342944819... .
loge 10
Hence logw N = log« N x -43429448. . . ,
so that the logarithm of any number to base 10 is found
by multiplying its logarithm to base e by the quantity
•43429448.... This quantity is called the Modulus.
EXAMPLES. I.
Prove that
, _(i
1. 1, + e-i),.,111
= l+-+g+ -•+...
2.
i+r+-)=i+(i+rf5+-)-
(Ill \2 /11 \2
234 e ^246
+ + +-= - 5- +++-=e '
111
1 ¡2+Ht + l + -
= g-1
2s 3s 43
10 TRIGONOMETRY. [BXS. L]
Find the sum of the series
„1111111
9> 2-2-2¿ + 3-2*-4-2Í
Prove that
il.
12.
13.
provided that 2x be not > 1.

14. og.*-og.s-og.*-=2
15.
17. 21Uë —7—7\'!

008 V+ï)
18. If в be > д and <ir, prove that
(1) sin в +3 sin8 в + 5 sin6 0 + ... ad inf.

о О
t| + |oot'| + gcot^+... ad inf.],
and, if в be >0 and •< ^ , prove that
eins0+jsin4E
(2) ÍBÍnse+ísin4e+gSÍne9+... ad inf.
2 —^. _ tan8— + — tanllj— + ... ad inf. 1

[Eza. I.] LOGARITHMS TO BASE 10 11
19. If tana 8 < 1, prove that
tana 0-5 tan4 0 + 5 tan8 0- ... ad inf.
= Bin20 + -Bin40+gsin60+... ad inf.

20. Prove that, if 20 be not a multiple of ic,
log cot 0= cos 20 + ^ cos3 20 +\ cos5 20+... ad inf.
21. Prove that the coefficient of xn in the expansion of

{log. (!+*))«
ii -i)» r, 1 1 1-1
n L 1 + S2 + 5+...
3 + n-lj
T .
22. Use the methods of Arts. 11 and 12 to prove that
log102 = -30103...
and log103= -47712....
23. Draw the curve j/ = log,x.
[If x be negative, y is imaginary ; when x is zero, y equals - a> ; when
x is unity, y is nothing ; when x is positive and > 1, y is always positive ;
when x is infinity, y is infinity also.]
24. Draw the curve j/ — log10z and state the geometrical relation
between it and the curve of the last example.
[Use Art. 147, Part L]
25. Draw the curve y= a*.
13. The two following limits will be required in the
next chapter but one.
14 To prove that the value of (cos ^ , when n is

infinite, is unity.
We have
12 TRIGONOMETRY.
Now, by putting
-sin2- = m,
n
we have
f - sin2-tt)\ 8i n8 »a =Lt {1+ m}m

Lt \1 — = e. (Art. 2, Cor.)
Also, by Art. 228 (Part I.),

s sin2
rsin^
n .
x^- = lxO = 0,
71
when m is infinite.
Hence, when n is infinite,
cos -«1 = e°„ = ,1.

raj
Aliter. This limit may also be found by using the
logarithmic series.
For, putting ^cos = u, we have
l0ge U = ra loge COS | = | loge COS2 ^
= - o sin2 - + „ sin4 - + q sin6- +...).

2\ n 2 «3 n /
(Art. 8.)
TWO IMPORTANT LIMITING VALUES. 13
The series inside the bracket lies between sin2- and

n
the series.
sin3 - + sin4 - + sin6 - + ... ad inf..
n n n
i.e. lies between
sin2-
ot , n
sin2- and ,
n , . ,a
1 — sm2-
n
i.e. lies between sin2 - and tan2 - .

n n
t
Hence — log u lies between

n . „o i w, _a /ns
к sm2- and stan2- ...............(1).
2 n Z n ^
But
(. a\»
31П - \
—
a
n
and
(Art. 228, Part I.)

Hence in the limit both quantities (1) become 0, so
that log и becomes zero also, and therefore, in the limit,
u-1.
14 TRIGONOMETRY.
a\ »
15. To prove that the limiting value of [ - J
when n is infinite, is unity.

We have shewn, in Art. 227 (Part I.), that sin 0, 6 and
tan 6 are in ascending order of magnitude.
Hence sin-,-, and tan-

n n n
are in ascending order.
a
Hence 1, W , and -
' . a' a
sin - cos -
n n
are in ascending order.
Therefore (l\
| ——- \ lies between 1 and ( ~M" so
a
sin — l cos - /
n \ 11/
lies between 1 and (cos-^ .

\ nj
But, by the last article, the value of ^cos jj^ is unity,

when n is infinite.
81D -
Hence, when n is infinite, the value of [ -
a
n
is unity.
TWO IMPORTANT LIMITING VALUES. 15
16. There is one point in Art. 2 that requires some examination.

We ought to shew rigidly that the value of the series on the right
hand of (1) is equal, when n becomes indefinitely great, to the series (2).
Take the ptb term of the series (1), viz.
-40
l£ " ......... *""""{
When a, b, с ...... are all positive quantities and less than unity, we
have
and (l-o)(l-b)(l-c)>(l-a-Z>) (l-c)>l-a-b-

and so on, so that
(1 -a) (1-6) (1-е)...... >l-(a + 6+c + ......).
Hence the numerator of (1) lies between unity and
i. e. between unity and 1-
Therefore the quantity (1) lies between

-L and \p
|p a" 1_! jL_
2n |p-2'
Hence the whole series (1) of Art. 2 lies between
+- + ad inf.,
i.e. 1 + 1 + 70 + ^+ ad inf.
Il 11
16 TKIGONOMETRY.
Now the series 1+ —- н—r+ ...ad inf. is, as in Art. 6, convergent, so

II lit
that the quantity — [l + -¿ + -s+... ) is, when я is made indefinitely
¿n \ ц£ |_ /
great, ultimately equal to zero.
Therefore, finally, the series (1) of Art. 2 is equal, in the limit, to
A similar argument will apply to the series in Art. 5.

CHAPTER If.
COMPLEX QUANTITIES. DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM.
17. Complex quantities. The quantity x + y V— 1,

where x and y are both real, is called a complex quantity.
A complex quantity consists therefore of the sum of two
quantities, one of which is wholly real and the other of
which is wholly imaginary.
18. A complex quantity can always be put into the

form r (cos 8 + V — 1 sin 8), where r and 8 are both real.
For assume that
x + y V — 1 = r (cos 8 + V — 1 sin 8)
= r cos 8 + V — 1 . r sin 8.
Equating the real and imaginary parts on the two
sides of this equation, we have
r cos 8 = x (1),
and rsmd = y (2).
Hence, by squaring and adding, we have r3 = x>+y1,
so that r = *Ja? + y*.
L.T. II. 2
18 TRIGONOMETRY.
It is customary to take the positive square root of

a?+y* and hence r is known.
From (1) and (2) we then have
cos 0 = , X and sin 6 = ^
Whatever be the values of x and y, there is one value

of 0, and only one value, lying between — v radians and
+ 7r radians which satisfies these two equations.
The quantity x + y V — 1 can therefore always be
expressed in the form r (cos 0 + J — 1 sin 0).
Def. The quantity + Jx* + y2 is called the Modulus
of the complex quantity, and that value of 0 (lying
between — ir and + ir) which satisfies the relations
cos 0 = —; and sm0= J —
&2 + y2 + \/a? + y1
is called the principal value of the Amplitude of
x + yJ — 1,
19, Bat. 1. Express in the above form the quantity 1 + ^-1.
Here 1 + V~^l=r (cos0 + sin S),
so that rcos0 = l,
and r sin 6 = 1.
We therefore have r= + aJi + 1=
and then cos 8 = ~ and sin 8 = i ,
so that 9 = 47 .
Hence 1+ £coSj + V- 1 sillj] >
so that is the modulus and j is the principal value of the amplitude

of the giveu expression.
COMPLEX QUANTITIES. 19
Ex. a. Quantity - X + J^3.

Here -1+J^Ï J3=r (cose + J^
so that r cos 9= - 1, and т sin 9=^/3.
Л ^ + ^/1 + 3= +2,
.andthen cos9 = -5 and
so that 9=£.
a
- 1 + 7-3=2 [cos + V~l sin
Ex. 3. Quantity - 1 - „/^3.

Here rcostf= -1, and rsin9=-4/3,
so that r= + Vï + 3 = +2, cos 9= - and sin 9= - .

2 2
Hence (since we choose for 0 that value which lies between - я- and
+ TT) we have 0= - -^-.
о
20. In Art. 18 the equations

QC
cos 0 = -=== and sin в =
+ v ж2 + у2 + Vж2 + y*
are satisfied by more than one value of в. For the cosine
and sine of an angle repeat the same values when the
angle is increased by any multiple of 2тг radians, so that,
if в denote the value between — TT and + TT satisfying the
above relations, the general solution is

This is expressed by saying that the amplitude of a
2—2
20 TRIGONOMETRY.
complex quantity is many-valued. The principal value
is that particular value of the amplitude that lies between
— tr and + ir.
If to the principal value of 8 we add any multiple of
2ir we obtain one of its many values.
To sum up; If 8 be that value, lying between — tt
and + 7r, which satisfies the equations
cos 8 = , X and sin 8 = , = (1),
Var1 + y* sia? + f
then
x + y sP-i = Va^ + y2 [cos (2mr + 6) + J~l sin (2«tt + 0)].
The quantity 2?wr + 8 is called the amplitude and 6 is
called its principal value.
For brevity we often write equations (1) in the form
tan# = ^, i.e. 0 = tan-1^,

x x
but it must be understood that here the angle denoted is
the one that satisfies the conditions (1).
21. De Moivre's Theorem. Whatever may be the

value of n, positive or negative, integral or fractional, the
value, or one of the values, of
(cos 8 + J — \sind)n is cosnd + J — l sin nd.
Case I. Let n be a positive integer.
By simple multiplication we have
[cos a + V — 1 sin a] [cos 0 + V— 1 sin /3]
= cos a cos /3 — sin a sin /S + V — 1 [sin a cos 0 + cos a sin /3]
= cos (a + y8) + sJ~\ sin (a + 0).
DE moivre's theorem. 21
So
[coso + V - 1 sina] [cos# + V - 1 sin/9][cos7+ V — 1 sin7]
= [cqs (a + P) + V - 1 sin (a + &)] [cos y + V^l sin 7]
= [cos (a + /S) cos 7 — sin (a + /3) sin 7]
+ V — 1 [sin (a + /8) cos 7 + cos (a + /3) sin 7]
= cos (a + /3 + 7) + V"^l sin (a + /8 + 7).
This process may evidently be continued indefinitely,
so that
[cos a + V — 1 sin a] [cos # + V — 1 sin y9][cos 7 + V — 1 sin 7]
to n factors
= cos (a + y3 + 7 + . . . to n terms) + V— 1 sin [a + /8 + 7 +. . .
to n terms].
In this expression put
a = /3 =7= = 0,
so that we have
[cos 0 + V — 1 sin 0]n = cos n0 + J — 1 sin n0.
Case II. Let n be a negative integer and equal to
— m.
We have, by the ordinary law of indices,
(cos 0 + V^T sin 0)n = (cos 0 + V^TL sin 0)~m
= 1 = 1
(cos 0 + V — 1 sin 0)m cos m0 + V — 1 sin m0 '
by Case I
cos in6 — V — 1 sin m0
(cos m0 + V — 1 sin m6) (cos m0 — V — 1 sin m0)
cos m0 — V — 1 sin vn.0 n , —=■ . n
= cos2—-— ^——3—
ma + sm2 m0 = cos mo — v — 1 sm mO
= cos (— m) 0 + V — 1 sin (— wi) 0
= cos «0 + V — 1 sin w0.
22 TRIGONOMETRY.
Case III.
Let n be fractional and equal to - , where
q
q is a positive integer and p is an integer, positive or
negative.
By the previous cases, we have
j^cos ^ + V sin = cos . + V — 1 sin (q . ~^
= cos 0 + V — 1 sin 0.
Therefore cos - + V — 1 sin - is such that when multi-

q q _
plied by itself q times it gives cos 0 + V — 1 sin 0.
Hence cos - + V — 1 sin - is one of the oth roots of

q q
cos 0 + V - 1 sin 0,
0 . 0
i.e. cos - + V - 1 sin -
q q
is one of the values of
i
(cos 0 + J^T sin 0)q .
Raise each of these quantities to the pth power.
We then have that one of the values of
[cos 0 + V — 1 sin 0]q is (cos- + V - 1 sin -J ,
i.e. is cos — + V — 1 sin*—.

q q
22. The quantity i is always used to denote V — 1
and will be often so used hereafter. The expression
cos 0 + i sin 0 therefore means cos sin 0.
DE MOIVRES THEOREM.
Ex. 1. Simplify
(cos 39+ i sin 30)" (cos в -i sin 0)8
(сое 50 + i sin 56)' (eos 20 - i sin 20)* '
We have cos 39 + i sin 30 = (cos в + i sin 0)3,
cos 0-¿sin0=cos (-0) + isin (- 0) = (cos 0+¿ sino)-1,
eos 50 + i sin 50 = (eos 0 + i sin 0)5,
and eos 20 - i sin 20 = eos ( - 20) + i sin ( - 20) = (eos 0 + ¿ sin fi)-
The given expression therefore
_ (cos 0 + i sin 0)" (cos 0 + г sin 0)~3
~ (cos 0 + г sin 0)35 (eos 0 + г sin 0)-1«
= (cos в + i sin 0)~13= cos 130 - ¿ sin 134.
Es. 2. If 2созв=х+- and 2согф=у + -,
prove tlutt one of the values of я

is
We have x" - 2x cos 0 = - 1.
(a; - cos 0)2 = - 1 + cos2 0 = - siu3 0.
so that xm = cos m0 + i sin m0,

and — = cos ro0 — t sin m0.
Similarly
so that y
and —
= (cos m0 + i sin m0) (cos пф + i sin Я0)

+ (cos mff-i sin m0) (eos n^> - i sin пф)
= cos (m0 + пф) + i sin (ro0 + n0)
+ coa (тв + пф) - i sin (тв + пф)
Similarly it could be shewn that one of the values of

s + Q is 2 cos («*-«*)•
24 TRIGONOMETRY.
Ex. S. If sina + sinf} + siny=cosa. + cosf}+co8y=0,
prove that cos 'da + cos 3/3 + cos 37=3 cos (0 + 18 + 7),
and sin 3o + sin 3/3 + sin Sy = 3 sin (o + |S + 7).
This is an example of the many trigonometrical identities which are
derived from algebraical identities.
For we know that if a + 6 + c=0,
then a*+b3 + c*=3abc.
Let a=cosa + i sin a, i = cos/3 + i sin/3, and c = cos y + i sin 7,
so that we have a + b + c=0.
.: (cos o + i sin a)3 + (cos /3 + i sin /S)3 + (00s 7 + i sin 7)3
= 3 (cos a + i sin o) (cos /3 + i sin /S) (cos 7 + 1 sin 7),
so that, by De Moivre's Theorem,
(cob 3a + cos 3/3 + cos 37) + 1 (sin 3a + sin 3/3 + sin 37)
= 3 cos (a + /3 + 7) + 3tsin (a + /3 + 7).
Hence, by equating real and imaginary parts, we have the required
results.
EXAMPLES. IL
Put into the form r (cos 0 + i sin 0) the quantities

1. l+t. 2. -1-1. 3. -V3 + 1'-
4. 3 + 4i. 5. l+V2 + i. 6. 2-V3 + i.
Simplify
_ (cos0-isin0P _ (cos a + i sin q) (cos /3 + i sin fl)
' (cosa + isina)1"' ' (COS7+1 sin 7) (cos S + i sin S) '
(cos 20 - i sin 29)7 (cos 30 + i sin 30)-8
8" (cos 40 + 1 sin40)12 (cos 50 - i sin 50)~8 "
IV cos =6 - 1 sin ,T0/) /
1- (cosa +. zBina)4
• • \j
/ ir . . ttU * U" (sin/S+icos/3)«"
(OOS6+,8m6)
12. { (cos 0 - cos (j>) + i (sin 0 - sin0) }n + {cos 0 - cos <p - i (sin 0 - sin 0) } ".
[Exs. n.] DE moivre's theorem. 25
13. Prove that
(sini+i cos at)*=coBn ^ -x*J + isinn ^-xj t
and...that. Ifl + sin<p—:

+ i cos -<p\" /nir
-r- - nd> J\I +t. Bin
. IIn* - n<b \1 .
\l= + sm<j>-ioos<p) ) = cos (\2 \2 J
If x, y, $ and u stand respectively for
cosa + tsina, cos 0 + i sin /S, 0087+18^17, and cos5 + isin£,
prove that
14. (X + y) (Z + U) = 4 003—^008-^2— I oos —
ie
15. -. nl ;= - -.1 coseo a-p
-jr^-eosee 7-Jr
-n cos 0+/S+7
—J--^— +5
(x-y)(z-u) 4 2 2 L 2
-,8m a J-
16. ^ + ^=2oo8^±^8[oo8^^-îsin^±l±-5].
17. From the identity

(a> - V) (c» - <P) = (cJ - 6s) (aa - cP) + (as - c1) (o2 - <P)
prove, by putting a = 00s a + i sin a and similar expressions for the other
letters, the identity
sin (a-/3) sin (7- J) = sin (o- J) sin (7-/8) + sin (a - 7) sin - 5).
18. From the identity
(x-b)(x-c) (x-c)(x-a) (x-a)(x-b) _
\a-b)(a-c) (6-c)(6-o) (c-a)(c-6)
deduce, by assuming x = cos 20 + i Bin 20 and corresponding quantities for
a, b, and c, that
sin (0 - Ci_—:
—)(a P) sin (0 - 7) . . , _ . , , ... = 0..
sin - /3) sin (a - 7)L. sin 2 (0 - a) + two similar expressions
r
Similarly, deduce identities from the identity
1 1 1
26 TRIGONOMETRY. [ElS. II.]
19. Prove that
(a + hi)' + (a - bi)" = 2 (o1 + b*^ cos (jf tan"1 ^ .
20. H 2cosfl=x+i,
prove that 2eosrS=xr+^.
21. If 2cos0=z + -, 2cos^. = w + i,

i » y
prove that 2cos(0 + 0 + ...)=zyz...+ 1
xyz...
22. If xr=coB^-r+J^lBin^,
prove that x1.xi.xi. ... ai inf. = cos v.
23. Using De Moivre's Theorem solve the equation
X* - a^+z* - a: + 1=0.
23. In Art. 21 we have only shewn that
cos - + J — 1 sin -
2 2
is one of the values of
l
(cos0+ V^lsintf)5.
The other values may be easily obtained. For
i i
(cos sin 0)q = [cos (2ri7r + 0) + f^l sin (2nw+ 0)]* ,
where n is any integer, and one of the values of the latter
quantity is
2mr+0 r-- . 2nv + 0
cos 1- J — 1 sin .
I 2
By giving n the successive values 0, 1, 2, 3, ... (q — 1)
we see that each of the quantities
0 0
cos - + V — 1 sin - .
2 2
DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM. 27
2tt + e , ,—: . 2tt + 0

cos h J — 1 sin ,
2 2
4-7T+0 l T . 47T + 0
cos h J — 1 sin ,
2 1
cos — (- v — 1 sin —-— (1),
is equal to one of the values of

i
(cos 0 + J~^l sin 6f.
The highest value that we need assign to n is q — 1 :
for the values q, q+ 1, q + 2,... will be found to give the
same result as the values 0, 1, 2,....
Also no two of the quantities (1) will be the same.
For all the angles involved therein differ from one another
by less than 2tt and no two angles, differing by less than
2tt, have their cosines the same and also their sines the
same.
To sum up; By giving to n the successive values
0, 1, 2, ... q — 1 in the expression
2wtt + 0 i—= . 2nir + 0
cos — + J — 1 sin
« 2
we obtain q, and only q, different values for
i
(cos0 + y^lsin0)?.
24. By the use of the last article we can now obtain

trigonometrical expressions for any root of a quantity
which is of the form a; + yi.
28 TRIGONOMETRY.
For we proved in Art. 20 that

x+yi = p [cos (2»7г + в) + 7^1 sin (2mr + в)],
where p = + Ja? + if,
and в is such that
cos0=- and sin0
P P
Hence
J ^Г 2тиг+0 ,— .
(x + yi)4 = P4 cos ---h >/ - 1 sin
By giving n in succession the values 0, 1, 2, ... g — 1,

we obtain the q required roots.
25. Ex. 1. Find the values of
I * /^ . 7T\i
(cos g + V- l«"¡jj J •
We have
êos|+ V^ïsin ^* = [cos (fcw+ + Vo
where n is any integer,

llmr тг\ i—- . lïntr ir\
(4 + Î2J + ^1&m (T +Ï2J •
Giving n in snccession the values 0, 1, 2, and 3 we have as our answers

the quantities
ISir /^r . 13ir . 19я- /—,. . 19тг
The student will note that the value it- 4 will not give us an additional
value. For it gives
003 21Г+
DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM. 29
which is the same as cos ^ + - 1 sin ^ ,

and this is the first of the quantities already found. Similarly the values
n=5, n=6, and n = 7 would only give respectively the remaining three
quantities, and so on.
Ex. 2. Find all the values o/( - 1)4.
Since cosir=-l, and sin«- = 0,
we have (-l)^ = (cosx+ J- lsinir^
=[cos (2nir + ir)+ J^l sin (2kt + t)]^
= oos 2mr + t +V-lsin
/ —j- . 'inr +w.
—-— —-—
Giving n the values 0, 1, and 2, the required values are
cos; + *J - lsin 5 , cos ir + - 1 sin ir, and cos ^+ ^/ - lsin ^ ,
—| , -l.and—J«— .
Ex. 3. So£»e tft« equation xP - x' + x*- 1 = 0.

The equation is (ac5 + 1) (a* - 1) = 0.
Taking the first factor, we have
x»= -l = cos (2r+l)ir+>/^Tsin(2r + l))r,
., ,
so that x=cos 2r+l5 7T+ „y - 1 sin —g— 2r + l t.
Giving r the values 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 successively we have as solutions

cos 36°+ ,/^Tsin360, cos 108° + V^Tsui 108°, cos 180°+ ,/^Tsinl80c,
cos 262° + v'^Tsin 252°,
and cos 324° + Bm 324°.
Taking the second factor, we have
£*=l = cos 2nrr+ ^/"^Tsin 2ri7r,
so that x=cos — + V-lsm-g--
Giving n the values 0, 1, 2, and 3 we have as solutions 1, J- 1, - 1,
and - aJ -1.
Hence all the roots are known.
30 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. III.]
EXAMPLES. III.
Find all the values of
1. l*. 2. (-1)*. 3. (-i)*.
4. (-1)Л. 5. (l + x/^ï)*. 6. (1 + V^8ÍV;
7. а-ч/^- 8. (v/S+V^ï)^. 9. U/S-V^ï)*-
10. 16*. 11. 32*. 12. (l + ^^3)'»+ (l -V~8)»«.
13. SimpUfy fcosy + isin^y
and express the results in a form free from trigonometrical expressions.
14. Find the continued product of the four values of
15. Prove that the roots of the equation xlo + 11ж5 - 1 =0 are
16. Solve the equation я12- 1 = 0 and find which of its roots satisfy
the equation я4 + x2 + 1 = 0.
Solve the equations
17. ж7 + 1=0. 18.
19. Prove that %/а
has n real values and find those of
ь + i-^b
20. Prove that the n nth roots of unity form a series in G. p.
21. Find the seven 7th roots of unity and prove that the sum of their
nth powers always vanishes unless n be a multiple of 7, n being an integer,
and that then the sum is 7.
26. Binomial Theorem for Complex Quantities.
It is known that for any real values of n and z, provided
that z be less than unity, we have
n(n—I)
vt 2 ' ¿*+ n(n
v —l l)(n
^3-'— 2) z*+ ...
""'".... ..... (D-

BINOMIAL THEOREM. 31
When z is complex (=x+ yJ — 1) and n is a positive

integer, the ordinary proof applies and the theorem (1) is
still true.
When z is complex, and n is a fraction or negative, it
can be shewn that
1 + nz + ^^-K^ (2)
is one of the values of (1 + z)n, provided that the modulus
of z, i.e. JaP + y*, is less than unity. When this modulus
is equal to unity, the theorem is only true (1) when n is
positive, and (2) when n is a negative proper fraction and
z is not equal to — 1.
The proof is difficult and beyond the range of the
present book. We shall therefore assume the result.
The student may hereafter refer to Hobson's Trigo
nometry, Arts. 211 and 212, or Chrystal's Algebra, Vol. II.,
page 262.
CHAPTER m.
EXPANSIONS OF sin 710 AND COSW0. SERIES FOR Sin 8

AND COS0 IN POWERS OF 0.
27. By the use of De Moivre's Theorem we can

obtain the expansion of cos n6 and sin n0 in terms of the
trigonometrical functions of 0.
For we have
cos nd + i sin nd = (cos 6 + i sin 0)n.
Since n is a positive integer, the Binomial Theorem
holds for (cos 0 + i sin 0)n.
Hence, by expanding, we have
cos n0 + i sin n0 = cos" 0 + n cos"-1 0 . i sin 0
Hence, since
i- = -l, = i* = l, »• = »,...
we have
cos n# 4- i sin n0 = cosn0 v cos"-2 0 sin2 0
n(n-l)(n-2)(n-3)
+ -i /v0 P i cos""4 <?n sin1
. 0„ + . . .
1.2.d.4
+ i [» cos""1 0 sin 0 - "("-y^-g) cos„-3 ^ 8ins f + . . .J.
TANGENT OF A SUM OF ANGLES. 33
By equating real and imaginary parts, we have

cos »10 = cos" в - П ^ ~ ^ cos»-2 в sin2 в + ...... (1 ),
L * ¿i
and
sin и0 = и cos"-1 в sin 6>_?l(!L~ll)~2) Cos»-<» 0 sin3 в
+ n»i-»i-n-n-
-i- т а о , . --cos"-50sms0- „, . ... ...... (2).
1.2.3.4.0
The terms in each of these series are alternately
positive and negative. Also each series continues till one
of the factors in the numerator is zero and then ceases.
28. From equations (1) and (2) of the last article

we have, by division,
sin no
tan пв =
cos no
(" 1)" 2)cos»-39sin3t> + ......
1.2.3
JL • л • О * 4
Divide the numerator and denominator of the right-

hand member of this equation by cos" в, and we have
1.2.3
29. The values for cos пв and sin пв in Art. 27 may also be obtained.
by Induction, without the use of imaginary quantities.
For assume (1) and (2) to be true for any value of n. Then, since
cos (n + 1) 0= cos пв cos в - sin пв sin в,
L. T. II. 3
34 TRIGONOMETRY.
we obtain the value of cos + 8, which, after rearrangement, is found
to be obtained from (1) by changing it into +
Similarly for sin (n + 1) 8.
Hence, if the formulae (1) and (2) are true for one value of n, they are
true for the next greater value.
But it is easy to shew that they are true for the values n = 2 and n= 3.
Hence, by Induction, they can be proved to be true for all values of n.
30. From De Moivre's Theorem may be deduced

expressions for the sine, cosine and tangent of the sum of
any number of unequal angles in terms of the tangents of
these angles.
For we have
cos(a + /8 + 7+ ...) + isin(a + /S + 7 + ...)
= (cos a + i sin a) (cos /8 + i sin /3) (c6s y + i sin 7). . .(1).
Now cosa + i sin a= cos a [1 +i tana],
cos sin /3 = cos /3 (1 + 1 tan /3),
Hence (1) may be written

cos (a + /3 + 7+ ...) + t'sin (a + /3 + 7+ ...)
= cosacos/8cos7... (1 +itana)(l +ttan/S)(l +itan7)...
= cosacos/Scos7...[l +i(tana + tan 0 + tan 7+ ...)
+ i2 (tan a tan /S + tan /3 tan 7 + . . .)
+ 1'3(tan atan /3 tan 7+tan/3 tan 7 tan 8...)
+ ] (2).
Using the notation of Art. 125 (Part I.), this equation
may be written
cos(et + /3 + 7+ ...) + rsin(oc + /3 +7+ ...)
= cos a cos /8 cos 7 ... [1 + — s3 — isa + s4 + iss — ss .. .].
EXPANSIONS OF SIN T10 AND COS nd. 35
Hence equating real and imaginary parts, we have

sin(a4-/3+7...)=cosacosy3cos7... [«, -s3+ss—s7 ...].. .(3),
and
cos(a + /9+y...)=cosacos/9cos7...(l — s2 + s4 — «,...). ..(4).
Hence, by division,
tan(a + ^ + 7 + ...) = ^^-^...(5).
The signs in the expressions on the right hand of (3)

and (4) are alternately positive and negative.
The relation (5) was shewn, by Induction, to be true
in Part I., Art. 125.
31. Ex. Prove that the equation
a? cos8 6 + 62 tin1 6 + Iga cos B + 2/6 sin 0 + c = 0
has 4 roots, and that the sum of the values of 8 which satisfy it is an even
viultiple of 7T radians.
n
Let t = tan - .
2tan| l-tan*|
Then since (Art. 109, Part I.), sinfl= and cos0 = ,
1 + tan'- l + tan»-
the equation above becomes
or, on reduction and simplification,

t* (a2 - iga + c) + ifbt*+ 1" (46a - 2as + 2c) + ifbt + a5 + Iga + c = 0 (1).
This is an equation having 4 roots.
Also 8, = sum of the roots = —„ ,
a1- Iga + c
...two at. a time
s„ — sum taken .. = 462-2a2
—s—-- + 2e ,
a"-2ga + c
f8 = sum taken three at a time= ■ ifb
ga + c'
and s4 = sum taken four at a time = a' + 2aa + c
a*-2ga + c'
3—2
36 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. IV.]
Since s1=?t, it follows, by the last article, that
tan -i 2-s—3 — 4 ) = —*— =0 = tannT.
V 2 ; l-»2 + s4
[The denominator 1 — «, + s4 does not vanish unless a2 = 6*.]
/. 0t + 02 + 0S + 04 = 2 . nr radians
= an even multiple of it radians.
[The student who is acquainted with Analytical Geometry will see that
this is a solution of the problem " If a circle and an ellipse intersect in
four points, prove that the sum of the eccentric angles of the four points
is equal to an even multiple of two right angles."]
EXAMPLES. IV.
Prove that
1. cos40=cos40-6cos20sin20 + sin40.
2. sin 60=6 cos5 0 sin 0 - 20 cos3 0 sin3 0 + 6 cos 0 sin" 9.
3. sin 70= 7 cos6 0 sin 0 - 35 cos4 0 sin3 0 + 21 cos2 0 siu6 0 - sin7 0.
4. cos 90= cos9 0-36 cos7 0 sin2 0 + 126 cos5 0 sin4 0
- 84 cos8 0 sin6 0 + 9 cos 0 sin8 0.
5. cos 80 = cos8 0-28 cos6 0 sin2 0 + 70 cos4 0 sin4 0
-28cos20sin60 + sin80.
Write down, in terms of tan 0, the values of
6. tan 60. 7. tan 70. 8. tan 90.
9. Prove that the last terms in the expressions for cos 110 and
sin 110 are
- 11 cos 0 sin10 0 and - sin11 0.
10. Prove that the last terms in the expressions for sin 80 and sin 90
are - 8 cos 0 sin7 0 and sin9 0 respectively.
11. When n is odd, prove that the last terms in the expansions of
sin >10 and cos n8 are respectively
n-l n-l
( - 1) 2 sin" 0 and n ( - 1) 8 cos 0 sin"-1 0.
12. When n is even, prove that the last terms in the expansion of
sin nff and cos n0 are respectively
w-2 n
n(-l) 2 cos0sin"-10 and (-l)2sinB0.
13. If a, /3, and y be the roots of the equation
x3 +px* + qx +p = 0,
prove that tan-1 o + tan_1/3 + tan_17=n)r radians
except in one particular case.
SIN a AND COS a EXPANDED IN A SEHIES. 37
14. Prove that the equation
sin 30 = a sin ff + 6cos 6 + c
has six roots and that the sum of the six values of 6, which satisfy it, is
equal to an odd multiple of ir radians.
15. Prove that the equation
ah secd-bk cosee 0= a* - 6*
has four roots, and that the sum of the four values of 6, which satisfy it,
is equal to an odd multiple of r radians.
16. If a, /S, 7,... be the roots of the equation
sin mx - nx cos mx = 0,
prove that tan"1 -a + tan"'^+
p ... + tan_1 -=0.
y
EXPANSIONS OF THE SINE AND COSINE OF AN ANGLE IN

SERIES OF ASCENDING POWERS OF THE ANGLE.
32. As in Art. 27 we have
cos"-4 0 sin4 0-
Put nd = a, and we have
cos a = cosn
3 0V \J 5^ cos""3
WD 0V sin2
OIU 01
■ SS-06-')6-»)
"■" 11.2.3.4
O O A cos""4 0 sin1 0-...
38 TRIGONOMETRY.
In equation (1) make в indefinitely small, a remaining

constant and therefore и becoming indefinitely great.
Then . is, in the limit, equal to unity and so is
every power of ( —^- ). (Art. 15.)

Also cos в is, in the limit, equal to unity and so also is
every power of cos в. (Art. 14.)
Hence (1) becomes
. a2 , a* a" , . ,
cos a = 1 — ,— + -^ — --- + ... ad inf.
33. To expand sin a. in terms of a.

As in Art. 27, we have
sin пв = n cos""1 в sin в - " , q\!~ ' cosn-"0 sin3<9 + . . ..
-I. . ¿ . ó
As before put пв = a, and we have
sin a = cos"-1 6» sin в - u w ' 4^-i cos"-3 (9 sin3 в

U Tt л. • 2l . О
.l . n2 . A., . 4. . o- cos"-6 » sin5
As in the last article make в indefinitely small, keeping

a finite, and we have
TAN в EXPANDED IN A SERIES. 39
34. There is no series, proceeding according to a

simple law, for the expansion of tan в in terms of 6,
similar to those of Arts. 32 and 33.
We shall find the series for tan в as far as the term
involving 6s. &
s
в
+{в--в- У 1
+U S4TV J
by the Binomial Theorem,
neglecting в' and higher powers of в,

Ö 5
on reduction and neglecting powers of в above 0°.

A similar method would give the series for tan в to
as many terms as we please. The method however soon
becomes very cumbrous and troublesome.
36. In Arts. 32 and 33 we tacitly assumed that a

was equal to the number of radians in the angle con
40 TRIGONOMETRY.
sidered. For, unless this be the case, the limit of —3- is

о
not unity when в is made indefinitely small.
When the angle is expressed in degrees we proceed as
follows. -J,
Let a° = x radians, so that
a x
and hence »==-57-0.

loU
Then cos a° = cos of
_ x* a? _ of
~ + + '"
_ 1 7r2a2 1 тг4^ 1 тгвав
- ~'
So also
sin a° = sin я? = x — -7; + -r
o ,5 "
36. Sines and cosines of small angles. The

series of Arts. 32 and 33 may be used to find the sines
and cosines of small angles.
For example, let us find the values of sin 10" and
cos 10".
Since 10"
__
C4800/'
SINES AND COSINES OF SMALL ANGLES. 41
we have
Sm 64800 |3 1,64800,' + [6 V64800J
and coslO'^l-i^y+l^J-.... %
Now = -000048481368...,
0^Q^f= -0000000023504...,
and (g^QJ =-000000000000113928....
Hence, to twelve places of decimals, we have

sin 10" = 000048481368,
and, cos 10=1, -0000000023504

=
= 1- -000000001175
= -999999998825.
37. Approximate value of the root of an

equation. The series of Art. 33 may also be used to
find an approximate value of the root of an equation.
The method will be best shewn by examples.
_bx. ,1. If
T,sin6 = 1349 , prove ...... , 8„ is. very nearly equal to
that the angle
it/i
15 radian. «
We know that, the smaller $ is, the more nearly is S1" - equal to
a
unity. Conversely in our case we see that 6 is small.
42 TRIGONOMETRY.
In the series for sin 0 (Art. 33) let us omit the powers of 6 above the
third, and we have
6 ~ 1350_ 1350*
... 1—L.
1350 225
Hence 0 = ^ , so that the angle is ~ of a radian nearly.
15 15
If we desire a nearer approximation, we take the series for sin 0 and
omit powers above the 5th. We then have
„ 0* 0*
0 ~ 1350 "
Thisgives r-W— ™—
Hence, by solving,
- 10± v/22480 _ 150- 149-933312... _ -Q66688
15 — 15 15
_ 1-00032
= 15a "
.-. 0. = —=~=—
1-00016 radian.
..
15
This differs from the first approximation by about th part.
Ex. 2. Solve approximately the equation

cos + = -49.
Sinoe *49 is very nearly equal to i , which is the value of cos 5 , it
follows that 0 must be small.
icos*-^sin*=-494-4 (1).
For a first approximation omit squares and higher pq,wers of 0. By
Art. 33 this equation then becomes
1 , Vi ._i 1
INDETERMINATE EXPRESSIONS. 43
so that
9. = V3
2 I00=860
1 2^3 =-300-
3-4641... = '011547 "radmn-
,.
For a still nearer approximation, omit onbes and higher powers of 9.

The equation (1) then becomes
2 V ~"2 a 100*
^ + 2^ = 4-
.'. 0 = - v/3 + ^^=-0115086... radian.

The first approximation is therefore correct to 4 places of decimals.
The angle 6 is therefore very nearly equal to "0115 radian, i.e. to
about 40'.
The accurate answer is found, from the tables, to be -01 15075...
radian.
38. Evaluation of quantities apparently inde

terminate. We often have to obtain the value of quan
tities which are apparently indeterminate.
Suppose we required the value of the expression
3 sing -sin 36
0 (cos 0 - cos 30) '
when 0 is zero.
If we substitute the value 0 for 0, we have
0-0
0x0'
which is apparently indeterminate.
The expression however, for all values of 0,
3sinfl-(3sin<7-4sin3fl) 4 sin'fl
~ 0 (cos-0 - (4 cos30 - 3 cos 0)} ~ 0 {4 cos 0 - 4 cos30}
sin30 sintf 1 sin 0
0cos#sinatf 0cos0 cos 0; x - 0
44 TRIGONOMETRY.
Now, the smaller 0 is, the more nearly do both

1 , sin 0
^ and —q-
cos 0 0
approach to unity. Hence, when 6 is actually zero, the
given expression = 1x1 = 1.
Such an expression as the one we have discussed is
said to be indeterminate. We should more properly say
that the expression is " at first sight " indeterminate.
39. In many cases the real value is very easily

found by using the series for sin 0 and cos 0. The method
is shewn in the following examples, of the first of which
the example in the preceding article is a particular case.
Ex. 1. Find the value of
n sin 8 - sin n$
8 (cos 8 - cos n$) '
The expression
■('-i+E-")-r--F+T6---)
~ rYi e* ô* N (■> n>e- n*e* \i
1$ — fl flP in
—nr— 8* it— 0s + higher powers of 0
\6 ■ !£
n" —
—j^—0a1 n4 — 1 0* + higher powers of 8JH
ft3 - n
—ra »* r=—
— «„„ , . , powers
02 + higher
" »('2
— - 1 n4 n—
- 1 02 + higher powers
li 11
When 8 is zero, this expression
«s - n n2 - 1 n
INDETERMINATE EXPRESSIONS. 45
Es. 2. Find the value, when x is zero, of the expression
e* -(l+x)
Since log, (1 + х) = х-- ---...,

¿ o 4
and e*=l+x + + +... (Arts. 6 and 8),

E li I*
this expression
- 77J + higher powers oí x - тг + powers of x

\¿ Ё
•Tjr + higher powers of a; W*" Powers °f x
L If
When x is zero, this latter expression
~i~
Es, 3. Find the value, when x is zero, of
/tanx\x
(0\e
-I .
But it also =I 1 / (Art. 34).

Now, by Art. 2, Cor., the value of
is e, when x is zero.
Hence the expression = e з = e° = 1 .
The value of the expression may be also found Ъу finding the value of
its logarithm.
46 TRIGONOMETRY.
EXAMPLES. V.
sin 0 _ 1013
L " 0 ~1014'
prove that 0 is the number of radians in 4° 24' nearly.
sin 0 _ 863
prove that 0 is equal to 4° 47' nearly.

sina 9 _
3- f - 5045
0 "5046fniei
prove that the angle 0 is Io 58' nearly.
. If sing _ 2165
4' 0 ~ 2166 '
prove that 0 is equal to 3° 1' nearly.
. „ sin 0 _ 19493
°- 0 ~ 19494'
prove that 0 is equal to Io nearly.
6. If tan 0 = 1,
find an approximate value for 0.
Find the value, when x is zero, of the expressions
7. x-sinx x2 _9. -r-TT-
sin ox
Xsi— • 8. ,1 - cos mx • sin ox
tan x- sin x 11 tan2x-2sinx versin ax
sin3x
^2 m sin x - sin mx . a2 sin ax - 6s sin 6x
m (cos x - cos mx) ' 1 Zrtan ax - a2 tan ix '
62 sin2 ax - a2 sin8 6x . xlog«(l + x)
' ft2 tan2 ax -a2 tan2 6x' 1 1-cosx
. ex- l + loge(l -x) x + 2 sinx- sin 3x
sin3x ' x + tanx-tan2x "
sin x + sin 6.r - 7x sin8 nx - sin2 mx
x5 1-cospx
[EXS. V.] INDETERMINATE EXPRESSIONS. 47
sin2 ^Jmnx -emmx sinnj;
(1 - cos mx) (1 - cos nx)
3 sin x - sin Sx
23. ic — am x
f^sinx-2sm^j
. xV + (l-cosx)s
24.
sin x Bin 2x - 8 cos x sin2 x5-54 sin4 x
2 3
8
a1-!)1 /tanxN*1
25. m 26. f¥)
27. I cos — +sin ■— ) .
\ m m]
Find the value, when x equals - , of
„ (cos x + sin 2x + cos 3x)2
(sinx + 2 cos 2x - sin 3x)8 '
29. (sinx)tan *. 30. sec x- tan as,
Find the value, when n is infinite, of
31. (cos?)". 32. (cos?)"'. 33. (cos?)"'.
1
34. If n be >1 and 0=g nearly, prove that (sini?)" is very nearly
equal to
(n-l) + (n + l)sinfl
(n + l) + (n-l) sin 8 '
35. In the limit, when 8= a, prove that
o sin 3 - 8 sin a . , . .
0 cos 8^—^
- 8 cos a = tan (a - tan-1 a ).
36. Prove that
4ten~1s-r=ten"I289'
and deduce that in a triangle ABC, in which C is a right angle and CA is
five times CB, the angle A exceeds the eighth part of a right angle by
3' 36", correct to the nearest second.
48 TRIGONOMETRY. [EXS. V.]
37. Find a and Ъ во that the expression a sin x + b sin '¿.к may be as
close an approximation as possible to the number of radians in the angle
x, when x is small.
38. Ity=x-esinx, where e is very small, prove that
tan|=tanf l-
and that
where powers of e above the second are neglected.

39. If in the equation sin (w - в) = sin w cos а, в be very small, prove
that its approximate value is
2 tan w sin2 ~ ( 1 - tan2 w sin2 1 J .
40. К Ф De known by means of sin ф to be an angle not > 15°, prove

that its value differs from the fraction
28 sin 20 + sin 4</>
12 (3 + 2 cos 20)
by less than the number of radians in 1'.
40. H«. Prove that the roots of the equation

8a;3-4x2-4x + l = 0 ........................... (1)
?r Sir , 5ir
art cos = , cos— , and cos — ,
and hence that cos = + cos -=- + cos -=- = ъ ........................ (2)
/ t t ¿
ir 3ir Sir Sir 5т те 1 ,„.
COS -fj COS -j + COS— COS — + COS — COS ^= - g ......... (3)
IT Sir Sir l ...

and cos- cos — cos -^-=- g ........................ (4).
First Method. Let у = cos 8 + i sin в, where в has either of the values
т Sir Sir Shr Ibr , 13ir
7' T' T' ""' T' ~T 7 '
Then
.
Now the root y = — I corresponds to the value $ = ir.
EXAMPLES.
The roots of the equation
y*-ys+y*-yt+yi-y + l=0
are therefore cosfl + t'sin 8, where 6 has either of the values
r7 ' Ji
7 ' 5i7 * 9r
7 ' llir 13r
7,0r7"
Put 2x=u+- = cos 9 + isin 0H . ■ .

* y cos 9 + 1 sin $
=cos0 + i sinfl + cosS-t sind=2cosd,
so that V'+i = ^ + ^y-2 = 4xa-2,
and j,'+i = (s, + £) {(y+^'-s} = 8*«-6*.

On dividing equation (5) by y* it becomes
i.e. 8x,-4x»-4x + l = 0
The roots of this equation are
cos îr , cos —
3tt , cos —
5x , cos —
9ir , cos llir
y- and, cos -y-
13* .
a.
Since cos 13ir
-=— = cos t= , cos llir = cos —3*- ,
7 7 7 7
d97T cos — =cos — , 5t
7 7
the roots of (6) are therefore
7r cos —
cosy, Sir , and, cos Sir
—.
We then have
a- 3ir Sr 4 = -,
COS -+COBy+COSy=g 1
3ir + COS 3r
COS^ COSy 5t + COSy
y COSy 5ir COS ^7r = -g-
— 4= 1
and3 cos =x cos 3?r

— cos 5x 1
— = --.
7 7 7 8
The equation
(cos0 + isinfl)7 = -1 I
i.e. cos 70 + i sin 70= -1
L. T. II. 4
50 TRIGONOMETRY.
is clearly satisfied when 0 has either of the values
r 3x 5x 9x llx , 13x
Writing e for cos 9 and < for sin 0, the equation (7), on being ex
panded by the Binomial Theorem, becomes
t?+ Wi - 21cV - 35icV+ 35A« + 21ieV - 7c«« - it1 = - 1.
Equating the real parts on each side, we have
e7 - 21cV + 35c3*4 - 7m6 = - 1.
Putting s3 = l-c':, we see that the cosine of each of the angles (8)
satisfies the equation
64c' - 112c5 + 56c3 - 7e + 1 = 0 (9),
i.e. (c+1) {8c»-4c'-4c + l}1=0 (10).
But
cosx=-l, cos 13-r x cos -Hit- = cos 3x , 9x 5x
7_ =cos-, —7 and cos -==cos —
7 7 7 7,
so that the roots of (10) are - 1 and cos ^ , cos ^ , and cos y, the
latter three being twice repeated.
Hence cos Z , cos and cos ^ are the roots of the equation
7' 7 7
8c3-4c*-4c + l=0.
But this is equation (6).
The equation (9) may also be obtained by putting n = 7 in equation (2)
of Art. 49, which is in the next chapter.
Third Method. When only a small number of angles are introduced
the equation (6) may be easily obtained without using imaginary quan
tities.
Let 9 denote any of the angles (8).
Then 79= an odd multiple of x.
.: cos 40= - cos 30,
i.e. if cos 0 = c, we have
2{2c«-l}»-l=-{4c«-8e},
i.e. 8c*-8cs+l = 3c-4c',
i.e. 8c« + 4c3-8c2-3c + l=0,
i.e. (c + l)(8c3-4c1-4c+l)=0.
EXAMPLES. 61
Hence as in the Second Method the roots of
8c3-4c,-4c + l=0
are cos - , cos 3r
t — , and, cos 5r
-=- .
7' 7 ' 7
41. From the preceding article we can obtain an equation giving
sec'J,
7 ' sec'^*,
7 ' and see' —7 .
In equation (6) of that article put 4 = yt and therefore x= -=.. It
x Jy
then follows that the quantities
sec*^,
7 ' sec2^,
7 ' and sec'^
7
or, on rationalizing,
y»-24i/' + 8Oy-64 = 0 (1).
Again, putting y=l + i, then, since sec' 0=1 + tan3 0, it follows that
tan' ^ , tan' ^ , and tan' ~
7 7' 7
(l+x)3-24 (l + *)«+80(l + *)-64=0,
i.e. «3-21«' + 35z-7=0 (2).
The equation (2) may he easily obtained directly.
For, if 6 stand for either of the angles
r 2x Sr 4ir 5x 6ir ,
7' T" T' T' T* T
then tan 70=0,
i.e. by Art. 30,
7t-TC,. t»+7Cs.t5-7C7«7=0,
or t7-21f + 35t3-7t=0,
i.e. t {f-21r4 + 35<'-7}=0 (3).
But
tanx=0, „ tan-y=-tan^,
. 6* x tany=-tan
5?r 2x
— and. tan-y=-tan
4ir 3tt
—.
4—2
52 TRIGONOMETRY.
The roots of (3) are therefore
n ±. j.tan =w , ± tan —
0, 3ir and, ±, tan 5ir
—.
'77 7
Hence, putting t2=2, the quantities
tan2 % , tan2 ^ , and tan2
7 7 7
are the roots of (2).
EXAMPLES. VI.
1. Prove that
I x - 2 cos-j J I x-2co8 — 1 [x- 2 cos — J Is -2 cos — \
=x* + 2x3-i2-2x+l.
2. Prove that the roots of the equation
8x*+4xa-4j;-l=0 are cos ^ , cos^, and cos ^ .
3. Prove that sin ^ , sin ^ and sin ^ are the roots of the equation
Prove that
1 1 1
4. s- + 5- +
4-seca-=- 4 -sec8— 4 -sec2 —
7 7 7
5. COS4.itg + COS4,2ir + COS4.3tt
— + COS',4t = 19 .
6. sec4. 7Tg + sec4, 2tT

— + sec4a3tT
-g- + sec4, ^7T
— = ......
1120.
x 3r +COS —
7. COSjj-+COS— 5ir + COS—
7jt +COS 9jt 1
-jj = ^.
8. Form the equation whose roots are
tan2^-, tan2^, tan2|^, tan2 1^ and tan2 ^ .
[Commence with equation (3) of Art. 30.]
'B*H] [1A •saiHKvxa
OAOJJ %WU
'6 Tf + t'00 ^ + 5'00 + 5,00 ^ + ,,0° =
-0I 11^ + ^,.098 + ^^ + ^^ + ^^

'IT SOO -*g -*9 + BOO —
+^ BOO 51 -«8I = T-8TA
r^— •
"gX BOO — + +-^T-SO0 BOO ?-T- = —

•* -*i -»TI -"ST I
'£1 SOO SO0+— — + BOO — 8O0+ =— •--
oaoij juqn uis SI si « jooi ;o oqi nopvnbo

+»*08-9*f9 '0=T-tx»Z
52 TRIGONOMETRY.
The roots of (3) are therefore
n0, ± tan - , ± tan —
3tt andi ± tan
, 5x—.
Henee, putting t2=2, the quantities
tan2 % , tan2 ^ , and tan2
7 7 7
are the roots of (2)
EXAMPLES. VI.
1. Prove that
I/ x - 2„ cos 2*\
-g- J I(a -2„ cos—
4x\J /(x-2cos-g-
. 6tt\I I/ a: - 2. cos 8ir\J
=a4 + 2i3-a2-2a!+l.
8xs+4x2-4x-l=0 are cos ^ , cosy , and cos^ .
3. Prove that sin ^ , sin ^— and sin are the roots of the equation
Prove that
1 1 1
+ s-=l
4 - sec* -=- 4 - sec3 — 4 - sec-1 —
7 7 7
Air + CO84-g-+C0S4-jr+C0S4-g-=Jg.
5. C0S4g .2tt ,3x .4ir 19
6. sec4 ^ + sec4 y + sec4 — + sec4 — = 1120.

ir COS 3ir
7. COS jj+ yj+ COS 5ir COS 7ir
jj+ COB 9x = 1
8. Form the equation whose roots are
tan2^-, tan2^, tan2 5^, tan2 1^ and tan2 ^ .
[Commence with equation (3) of Art. 30.]
[Ей. VI.] EXAMPLES. 53
Prove that
9. C0t2
~, , . n v „ 2ir „ Зтг 0 4ir л 5ir

10. see" yj + sec3 yj + sec2 д + sec2 jj + sec2 д = 60.
2я- бя- 18т VI»-!
П. oos^+cos^ + cos-^^-^.
lOir HIT 22ir -JU-1
12. 008-^+008-^+008^=-^--
lir Итг 13ir 1
14, Prove that sin — is a root of the equation

CHAPTER IV.
EXPANSIONS OF SINES AND COSINES OF MULTIPLE ANGLES,

AND OF POWERS OF SINES AND COSINES.
[On a first reading of the subject the student is recommended

to omit from the beginning of Art. 48 to the end of the chapter.]
42. In this chapter we shall shew how to expand
powers of cosines and sines of an angle in terms of cosines
and sines of multiples of that angle, and also how to
express cosines and sines of multiple angles in terms of
powers of cosines and sines.
Throughout the chapter n denotes a positive integer.
43. Let x = cos 6 + i sin 0, so that
1 1 cos 0 — i sin 0 . . . „
-— n ——n = Th ~Ta = COS 6 — 1 SILL 0.
x cos0 + isin0 cos20 + sin20
Hence x + — = 2 cos 0,
x '
and x — -=2i sin 0.
x
Also, by De Moivre's Theorem, we have
xn = cos n0 + i sin n0,
and -4 = cos n0 — i sin n0,'

xn
so that xn + -4 = 2 cos n0,
and xn —\ = 2t sin nd.

xn
EXPANSION OF COS" в. 55
44. To expand cos" в in a series of cosines of multiples

of в, п being a positive integer.
From the previous article we have
n(n-l)
- . 1
= xn
n(n-l) 111
+ 1.2 x™* xn-* + ti""-"- •" ' '•
Taking together the first and last of these terms, the
second and next to last, and so on, we have
(2 cos 0)" = (#" H— ) + n(#"~2 + —— )
n (n - 1) / _^_
1 -I О I ' --•*> —^
But by the last article we have

ж" + — = 2cosn0, a?"-i+;;s^ = 2cos(n-2)o,....
Hence
2" cos" 0 = 2 cos no + n . 2 cos (n - 2) 0
i.e. 271-1 cos" в = cos wo + n cos (n — 2) в

+ rc(!t"91)cos(tt-4)<?+ ...... (2).
1 • 26
If n. be odd, there are an even number of terms on the
right-hand side of (1), so that the terms take together in
pairs and the last term contains cos в.
56 TRIGONOMETRY.
If n be even, there are an odd number of terms on the

right-hand side of (1), so that after all the possible pairs
have been taken there is a term left not containing x.
This term will, when divided Ъу 2, form the last term on
the right-hand of (2).
In
It could easily be shewn that the last term is *-- cos в if n be
ln-1 n+l
odd, and •=1 I" 3 if n be even.

Ч
45. Ex. 1. Expand cos8 в in a series of cosinei of multiples of 9.

(1\8
Z + -1
X*
+8 (*e+a) +28 (x4+¿) +56

= 2 . cos 80 + 8 . 2 cos 60 + 28 . 2 cos 40 + 56 . 2 cos 29 + 70,
л 27 cos8 0 = cos 89 + 8 cos 69 + 28 cos 49 + 56 cos 29 + 35.
Ex. 2. Expand cos7 9 in a series of cosines of multiples of 9.
We have (2 cos 9)7 = fx + Л
=я'+7 . ж» + 21га + 35z +35. - + 21 . -. + 7 . ^ + ^
it ж8 г5 x7
=2 . cos 79 + 7 . 2 cos 59 + 21 . 2 cos 39+ 35 . 2 cos 9,

л 26 cos7 9 = cos 79 + 7 cos 59 + 21 cos 39 + 35 cos 9.
46. To express sinn в in a series of cosines or sines of
multiples of в according as n is an even or odd integer.
By Art. 43 we have
2г sin в = x ,
ж
so that 2" г" sin" в = (œ - -
EXPANSION OF SIN" в. 57
Case I. Let n be even, so that the last term in the

expansion is
+ 1, and ¿» = (-1)1
The equation (1) is therefore
n(ro-l) „1 11
^ X ' n-* ~nx- n^"1" n ...... ' '
= 2 . cos пв - n . 2 cos (n - 2) в + П ^ ~ ^ . 2 cos (и - 4)

Хеш
as in Art. 44.
.-. 2"-1 (- 1)2 sin" в = cos пв - n cos (n - 2) в
Since n is even, there are an odd number of terms in

(2), so that there will be a middle term which does not
contain x. This term, on being divided by 2, will be the
last term in equation (3).
This last term could easily be shewn to be ^1 ( - 1)2- -,- I«
2x Í ri\ * 4~s •
W
Case II. Let n be odd, so that the last term in the
expansion (1) will be
- -i , and г" = i . г"-1 = г (- 1) ~.
ОС
58 TRIGONOMETRY.
The equation (1) then becomes

2" . г . (- I)"1" . sin» в = xn - nx .
п(и-1) „l 11 ~
_ M , n(n
&-*i 1.
Now, by Art. 43, a!" --- = 2г sin я0,
и;7*
- -^л = 2г sin (n - 2) о,
Hence (4) becomes

д-1
ö-re. 2isin(n-2)ö
я-1
so that 2"-1 (- 1) 2 sin» ö
ОТ l Yi - w- T \
= sin wo — n sin (и — 2) ОН--v sin (n — 4) 0— ......
1>2 .........(5).
Since n is in this case odd, there are an even number
of terms in (4), so that (4) can be divided into pairs of
terms, and there is no middle term. The last term in (5)
therefore contains sin в.
This last term could easily be shewn to be ( - sin в.
47. Язь 1. Expand sin' в in a series of cosines of multiples of в.

Wehaye 2« i« sin6 e=(x--\*
EXPANSION OF SIN" в. 59
во that -Bn= + _+ + +
= 2 cos ее- 6. 2 cos 49 + 16. 2cos 29 -20.
Л - 2s sin5 0= cos 69 - 6 cos 49 + 15 cos 29 - 10.
Ex. Л. Expand tin7 в in a series of tines of multiples of в.
I IV
We have 27¿7sin79=(ac — 1
«a:7 -7*» + 21*»- 35* + 35. --21. i +7. ¿g -g?
Л - 27 . i . sin7 9 = 2t sin 79 - 7 . 2t sin 59 + 21 . 2» sin 39 - 35 . 2í sin 9.

л - 2е sin' 9 = sin 79 - 7 sin 59 + 21 sin 39 - 35 sin 9.
Sx. в. Expand со«5 9 tin7 в in a series of sines of multiples of в.

We have
ÎY>, and 27»7sin79 = (x - iY.
Hence 212.¿7.cos59sm79=[a;2-Í;Y (*--)*
Hence, as before, we have

- 2" cos9 9 sin7 0= sin 129 - 2 sin 109 - 4 sin 89 + 10 sin 69 + 5 sin 49
-20 sin 29.
EXAMPLES. VIL
Prove that
1. sin' S = т» [ein 59 - б sin 39 + 10 sin 9].
2. cos" 9 = ^ [сов 99 + 9 cos 79 + 36 cos 59 + 84 cos 39 + 126 cos 9].

60 TRIGONOMETRY. [ElS. VII.]
3. coslo0=
i [coa 100 + 10 cos 80 + 45 cos 60 + 120 cos 40 + 210 cos 20 + 126].
4. sin" 0= ~ [oos 80-8 cos 60 + 28 cos 40 - 56 cos 20 + 85].
5. sin9 0 = — [sin 90 - 9 sin 70 + 36 sin 50 - 84 sin 30 + 126 sin 0].

6. 2s sin40 cos20=cos 60-2 cos 40 - cos 20 + 2.
7. 2s sin5 0 cos* 0 = sin 70 - 3 sin 50 + sin 30 + 5 sin 0.
8. - 210 sin30 cos80 = sin 110 + 5 sin 90 + 7 sin 70 - 5 sin 50 - 22 sin 30
- 14 sin 0.
##48. To express ^n a series of descending

powers of cos 0.
If x be < 1, we have
=— , S1° -' ; = sin 0 + x sin 20 + x1 sin 30 + ...
1 — 2x cos 0 + a?
+ x"-1 sin n0 + ... ad inf. (1).
This may be shewn by multiplying each side by
1 - 2x cos 0 + a?,
when it will be found that the right-hand member will
reduce to sin 0.
A more rigorous proof will be found in Chap. VIII.
Equating coefficients of <c"-1 in (1), we have
. = coefficient of *n_1 in [1 — 2x cos 0 + a?l-1
sin 0 L J
= coefficient of a:"-1 in [1 — x (2 cos 0 — x)]*1
= coefficient of #n_1 in
1 + x (2 cos 0 - x) + a? (2 cos 0 - xf +
+ a>»-» (2 cos 0 - x)n-» + (2 cos 0 - x)™
+ a!""1 (2 cos 0 - a?)""1 + xn (2 cos 0 - x)n + (2).
IN DESCENDING POWERS OF COS 0. 61
Now coefficient of
a;"-1 in x"'1 (2 cos 0 - a;)""1 = (2 cos 0)n~l,
coefficient of a;"-1 in xn~* (2 cos 0 — a;)"-1
= coefficient of x in (2 cos 0 — x)™-*
= -{n-2){2 cos 6)n-\
coefficient of x"^1 in xn~* (2 cos 0 — a;)"-3
= coefficient of a? in (2 cos d — x)"-*
=i î- i (2 cos 0)"-",
and so on.
Hence, from (2), picking out in this manner all the
coefficients of a;"-1, we have
Sm~ = (2 cos 0)"-1 - (n - 2) (2 cos 0)"-*
sin i
+ («-3)(»-4)(2coBgr,
_ (n-4)(.-5)(n-6) (2 cos ^ +
■-1
II n be odd, the last term could be proved to be ( - 1) 4 ; if n be even,
it could be shewn to be ( - 1) S-1 (ncos 9).
##49. To express cosnd in a series of descending

powers of cos 6.
If x be < 1, we have
1 — x2
-— a——„ = 1 + 2a; cos 8 + 2a? cos 28 + 2x* cos 38 + . . .
1 — 2a; cos 0 + x-
... + 2a;" cos n0 + ... ad inf. (1).
This may be shewn by multiplying both sides by
1 - 2a; cos 0 + a;2,
62 TRIGONOMETRY.
when it will be found that all the terms on the right-hand

side will reduce to 1 — x~.
A more rigorous proof will be found in Chap. YIII.
Equating coefficients of ж" on the two sides of (1), we
have
2 cos пв = coefficient of xn in (1 — af) [1 — 2# cos в + o?]~l
= coefficient of xn — coefficient of ж"~3 in
[1- ж (2 coso -ж)]-1
= coefficient of xn — coefficient of ж"~2 in
1 + x (2 cos в - x) + я? (2 cos в - xf + ...
. . . + ж"-2 (2 cos в - ж)"-2 + ж"~1 (2 cos в - а;)»-1
+ хп (2 cos в - ас)" + ж»+1 (2 cos 0-ж)п+1+ ... .
Picking out the required coefficients as in the last

article, starting with the term
xn (2 coso -ж)1»,
we have 2 cos пв
= (2 cos 0)" - (n - 1) (2 cos 0)"-" + (?l~2)(rc-3) (2cos в)*-*
- Г(2 cos о)"-2 - (n - 3) (2 cos 0)"-*

+ («-«H-*) (2
COS 110 IN DESCENDING POWERS OF COS 0. 63
so that, finally,
2 cos nd = (2 cos 0)n - n (2 cos 0)™ + n(fo~3) (2 cos 0)n~*
-w(wr.2)(3~5)<2cosg)B-'+ »
The last term could be shewn to be

n-1 n
(-1) s .n.(2cos») or (-l)s.2,
according as n is odd or even.
##50. To expand in a series of ascending

powers of cos 0.
S*P"f = coefficient of a;"-1 in fl - 2a; cos 0 +
sin 0 L J
= coefficient of a;"-1 in [1 + x (x — 2 cos 61)]-1
= coefficient of xn~l in
1 - x (x - 2 cos 0) + x3 (x - 2 cos 0)* -
+ (- 1)' of (x - 2 cos 0)r + (1).
Case I. Let n be odd, so that (n — 1) is even.
The lowest term in (1) which gives any coefficient of
a?*-1 is then that for which
n-1

^-tt = coefficient of as"-1 in 1 — x (x — 2 cos 0) + ...
sin 0
n-1 n-1 n-1 n+1 n+1 n+1
+(-1) 2 a; 2 (a;-2cos0) 2 +(-1) 2 x 2 (a:-2cos0) 2
n+3 n+3 n+8
+ (-1) 2 x 2 (x- 2 cos 0) 2 +
+ (_ l)»-i a^-i _ 2 cos +
-
64 TRIGONOMETRY.
Picking out the required coefficients as in Art. 48, we

have
п + 1 n-l
"+1
2 " 2
(- 2 cos
sinö 1.2
и + 3 Ti + 1 n-l и-3
"+8 о • о ' 9 ' 9
>2- 12.3.4 (-Seos*)'*...
+ (2 cos 0)"-1.
Hence, finally, when n is odd, we have
_ (n* -l«) (n*

~ -8») (я« -5») cos, ö _
.(2).
Case IX. Let n be even, so that n — 1 is odd.
The lowest term in (1) which gives any coefficient of
1 is then that for which

' .—75- = coefficient of xn~1 in 1 — x (x — 2 cos в} + ...
v
= + (- iy+1 af +1 (x - 2 cos
+ (-l)2 x* (ж -2 coso)2 +...

+ (- l)"-1 л"-1 (x - 2 cos 0)"-1 +
^rrlr
BIN V in ascending powers of cos 0. 65
Picking out the required coefficients, we have
S+Offl'S-1)
+ (- If +a. ^ 1.2.3 4 5 (- 2 C09 6?
+ +(2 cos
Hence, finally, when re is even, we have
?-+isin«fl
1 ^ sin0
. rc(wa-2*) 3 n(na-2a)(na-4a)
= n cos 0 *-r- ^ cos3 0 H— ' cos'0
|3 ^ [5
- +(-l)»+1(2cos(9)"-1 (3).
N.B. It will be noted that equations (2) and (3) of this article are
simply the series of Art. 48 written backwards. This is clear from the
method of proof, or the statement could be easily verified independently.
**51. To expand cos n0 in a series of ascending
powers of cos 6.
2 cos n0 = coefficient of xn — coefficient of a;"-2 in
(1 - 2x cos 0 + oc-)-1
= coefficient of xn — coefficient of <E"-a in
1 - x (x - 2 cos 0) + a? (x - 2 cos 0f -
+ (- l)r of (x - 2 cos 0)r + (1),
as in Art. 49.
L. T. II. 5
ее TRIGONOMETRY.
Case I. Let n be odd, so that и — 1 is even.

The lowest terra in (1) which will give any of the
coefficients we want is that for which
Hence 2 cos пв = coefficient of xn — coefficient of a;""2

in
n-l n-l »—1
1 -x (x- 2 coso) + ...+(- 1) * x* (a;-2cos0)~ä~
«+1 n+l n+1 я+8 n+3 «+3
+ (-1) 2 X 2 (X- 2 COSO) 2 +(-1) * X * (Ж- 2
+ ......... Ч- (- l)n«n(a;-2cos 0)"......
n + l w— 1 »г — 3
n+l
n+l 9 ' 9~ ' 2
(— Л\ 2 —го—(-2cosö>3
re + 3 n + l n — l
»+3
(- 2 cos 0)3
1.2.3
n — l и — Зто — 5
~2 2 2 2 2~
(- 2 cos
1.2.3.4.5
• (2 cos 0)n.
n-l
.: (-1) 2 .2cos»i0
+ (-1) 2 (2 COSO)"
COS nd IN ASCENDING POWERS OF COS 6. 67
Hence, finally, when n is odd,
(-1) 2 COSI10
= w cos 0 ^5—- cos8 8 + ,~ cos» 6

E II
n-l
- ( - 1) 2 . 2"-1 cos" 0 (2).
Case II. Let « be even.
The lowest term in (1) which will give any of the
required coefficients is that for which
n-2
Hence we have
2 cos nd = coefficient of xn — coefficient of xn~* in
n i n-2 n-2
l-a(«r-2cos0) + ...+(-l) 2 & 2 (a;-2cos0) 2
n h n n+2 n+2 n+t
+ (-iyx*(x-2cos0y + (-l) 2 a; 2 (ic-2cos0)Si
+ + (- 1)* & (x - 2 cos ff)n +
n n— 2
= (-1) 2 [~l]+(-l)i l-i_|-(-2cos^
n+2 n
n+2
+ (-1) 2 -|72^(-2co8«)'
ra + 2 n n-2 n — 4
2 '2" 2 ' ~2~
( - 2 cos ey
1.2.3.4
5—2
68 TRIGONOMETRY.
"n + 4 n+2 n w- 2
n+4
2 '2' 2 • (-2 coso)4
1.2.3.4
n + 4 n+2 n n — 2 n — 4 n — 6
(/ - 02 cos
+ (2cos0)n. e
•. ( - 1)1 . 2 cos пв
C.
+ .............,. + (-1)2. (2 cosö)".
Hence, finally, when n is even,
(3).
N.B. As before, the equations (2) and (3) of this article are only the
series (2) of Art. 49 written backwards.
# #62. From equation (2) of Art. 50 and equation (2)
of Art. 51 we have, if n be odd,
......(1),
EXPANSIONS IN POWERS OF SIN 6. 69
— П (ri> — 1s)
and (— 1) 2 cos пв = n cos в --^—¡^-- cos3 в
+ .(»•- !•)(«'- 3-) C03. „ + ...... +(_1)¥2„001,i
£ ......(2).
7Г
In these equations change в into -5 — в, and therefore
4
cos в into sin #.
Then sin пв will become
(тг \ n-1
-^• — ndj, i.e. (— 1) 2 cosno,
and cos пв will become

fmr \ "~*
cos(-n--n0J, i.e. (—1) 2 sin no.
On making these substitutions we shall have, if n be
odd,
'- „-1
+ (- 1)~ . 2"-1 sin"-1 в\ .........(3),
and
. .. . . n(n2-!2) . ... п(и2-12)(7га-32) . ,a
sin пв = n sin в --Ц=—' sin3 в + —-г^-' sin" в
[3 [5
»-i
+ ...... + (-1) 2 2"-1sinnö ......(4).
#*53. Again from equation (3) of Art. 50 and
equation (3) of Art. 51 we have, if n be even,
nn"-22
70 TRIGONOMETRY,
and
(- ly cos nd = 1 - -jr cos2 0 + K- ' ^cos« 6 -
I li
n
+ (_!)« 2"-1(cos»0) (2).
In these equations change 0 into ^ — 0, and therefore

cos 0 into sin ft
Then sin nd will become
sin — > *-e- (— sm
and cos nd will become
cos — , i.e. (— 1)* cos «0.
On making these substitutions we have, if n be even,
n- = nam0 ^-75—- sin'0 + sin8# . . .

cos 6 p 5
+ (-l)*+1(2sin<?)«-1 (3),
and
cos n0 = l- gsin'g + - (n' ~ ^sin' 0 '
1! li
n
+ (- If 2"-1 sin" 0 (4).
#*54. Equations (1) and (2) of Art. 52 and equa

tions (1) and (2) of Art. 53 give the expansions of sin n 9
and cos n0 in ascending powers of cos 0 for the cases when n
is even or odd. Equations (3) and (4) of the same two
articles give the expansions of the same two quantities in
terms of sin 8.
EXPANSIONS OF SIN пв AND COS пв. 71
EXAMPLES. VIII.
1. sin 79 = 7 sin 9-56 sin3 в + 112 sin5 9-64 sin7 в.
2. cos 79 = 64 cos7 9 - 112 cos» 9 + 56 cos3 9 - 7 cos 9.
3. sin 89= sin 9 [128 cos7 9 - 192 cos5 9 + 80 cos3 9 - 8 cos 9].
4. cos 89 = 1 - 32 sin2 в + 160 sin4 9 - 256 sin« 9 + 128 sin8 в.
5. Bin 99 = sin 9 [256 cos8 9 - 448 cos6 9 + 240 cos4 9 - 40 cos2 9 + 1].
6. Express cos 69 in terms of cos 9 only and verify for the cases
respectively.
4- -Ï
7. Prove the algebraic identity
Deduce that
2 cos n9 = (2 cos 9)" - n (2 cos 9)"-2 + ^Ц^3) (2 cos 9)»-4 - .. ..
# % 55. Ex. Find the value of
lec 9+«ec( 9 + — )+«ec ( 9 H-- ) + ... to n term»,

\ «/ \ »/
««C19 + iec2(e+—}+вес*(в +— \ + ... to n terms.
\ n/ \ «/
From equations (2) and (3) of Art. 51, we know that
...
(3 |5
Я-1
= (-l)2 cosn9 .............................. (1),
when n is odd,
and that
...... (2),
when n is «теп,
where in each series с stands for cos в,
72 TRIGONOMBTBY.
If cos no be now given, the equations (1) and (2) give cos 0,
But since cos 7(0 = cos (пв + 2т) = cos (пв + 4т)
these equations would also give
£), со. в + .....

Hence, in each case, the roots are
cos в, cos 0 + -} , cos +~ ....... to n terms.
In (1) and (2) put c = - and multiply by y».

9
We have then the equations
(-1)"ГсоаП9х^-п.2/"-1 + "-^^^»-»-... = 0 ........ (3),
when n is odd,
and l>«+y»-«_...=o.................(4),
when n is even.
The roots of these equations are respectively
Call these ft, У„ .... «/„.

Then
H — + 2/n=sum of the roots
n-l
-= ( - 1) a « sec пв, when n is odd,
(-1) 2 cosnfl
and =0, when n is evea.
Also
= n2 sec2 n9, when n is odd,
-2. 5-= = , when и is even.

13 ^
-1| cosno-l l-(-l) совпв
EXAMPLES. 73
EXAMPLES. IX.
Find the value of
1. cos $ cos + 008 {^ + ~^ 008 + •
2. sin 6 sin + sin + ) sin |*+ (n_1) ^ •
3. cosec30+cosec2 ^0 + ^^ + cosec2 to " termB-
4. tana 0 + tan2 ^0+ + tan2 + to n terms-

[For the following 5 questions commence with equation (5) of Art.
30.]
5. tan 0 + tan ^0 + ^ + tan ^fl + ^T^ to n termB.
6. cot0+cot^0 + ^ + cot^0 + ^^ to n terms.
7. tan 0 tan ^0 + |- J tan ^ 9 + to n factors.
8. tan2 9 + tan2 ^0 + jjj + tan2 + -£j + to n terms.

9. If n be odd, prove that S= 3C= n2 - 1, where
S=sec2 -nan
+ sec2 — + sec2— + to n - 1 terms,
and C = cosec2 -n + cosec2 —

n + cosec2 ^
n + ton-1 terms.
10. Find the sum of the products, taken two at a time, of expressions
of the form sec ^0 + \ > where r has all values from zero to n - 1.
CHAPTER V.
EXPONENTIAL SERIES FOB COMPLEX QUANTITIES. CIRCU

LAR FUNCTIONS FOR COMPLEX ANGLES. HYPERBOLIC
FUNCTIONS.
56. When s is a real quantity we have proved in

Art. 5 that
e* = l +a:+ + j^ + ad inf. (1).
When x is not real but is complex, i.e. of the form

a + h J — 1, the expression e* has no meaning at present.
Let us so define it that for all values of x (whether
real or complex) it shall mean the series
l + a; + ^ + j| + adinf. (2).
57. We can easily shew that this series is convergent

when x is complex.
For let x = r (cos 6 + J — 1 sin 6).
COMPLEX QUANTITIES. EXPONENTIAL SERIES. 75
Then ec=l+x + ~^ + ^ + ad inf.
, a . . m r% (cos 20 + i sin 20)

= 1 +r(cos 0 + xsva. 0)-\ ^ ig '
E
r3 (cos 30 + i sin 30) , . e
+— jg + ad inf.
- r2 COS 20 7*005 30
= l+rcos0 + —+ ^— +
#—5 T • n r3 sin 20 r»sin30

+ si - 1 |r sin 6 + — — + jg— +
The quantity
r1 r3
1 + r cos 0 + j|- cos 20 + ^ cos 30 + ad inf.
is <l+r + ^+|g + ad inf.
and is therefore convergent since this series is convergent

for all real values of r. (Art. 6.)
Similarly the quantity
r*
r sin 0 + j~ sin 20 +
E
is convergent.
Hence the series for is always convergent.
58. When a; is a complex quantity the quantity ex
is then a short way of writing
1+x+\2 + \3+
Unless x be real, the e in e* does not mean the series
1 + 1 + ]2 + |3+
76 TRIGONOMETRY.
When x is complex, stands for a series of the same form

as that series which, when x is real, has been proved
to be equal to
Instead of ez the expressions E (x) and ezp (x) are sometimes used.
59. By a proof similar to that of Art. 304, C. Smith's

Algebra, it may be shewn that
e* . e* = er'+v,
whether x and y be real or complex quantities, so that
the functions e? and ey obey a law of the same form as
the index law.
60. If x be put equal to 6%, where 6 is real, we

then have
= cos 0 + i sin 6. (Arts. ,32 and 33.)

So e-fli = cos 6 — i sin 6.
and, by subtraction,
COMPLEX QUANTITIES. CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS. 77
Circular functions of complex angles.

61. When a; is a complex quantity, the functions
sin x and cos x have at present no meaning.
For real values of x we have already shewn in Arts.
32 and 33 that
a? of x1 , . ,
sm x = x — -r^+T- — lw + ad int.
I3. \1 11
sqU g&
and cos x = 1 — + -r — — + ad inf.
(2 |4 |6
Let us define sin x and cos x, when x is complex,
so that these relations may always be true, i.e. for all
values of x let
(V^ o$ cc^
81™ = *--+--^+ .....(1),
3? (xP
and CoSx=l-^+-^-~+ (2).
When x is complex, the quantities sin x and cos x are

then only short ways of writing the series on the right-haud
sides of (1) and (2).
62. We have then, for all values of x, real or

complex,
... , . . x2 x3i x*
COS X + l SUl X = 1 + XI - -r^r - -r- + j-
|2 |8 |4
. (xif (xif (xi)*
= 6"*. (Art. 56.)

So cos a; — i sin a; = e-*'.
78 TRIGONOMETRY.
Hence for all values of x, real or complex, we have

e*1 + e-** e*1 — e~**
cos x = _ , and sin x = — .
2 21
These results are known as Euler's Exponential Values.
63. We can now shew that the Addition and Sub

traction Theorems hold for imaginary angles, i.e. that,
whether x be real or complex, then
sin (x + y) = siu x cos y + cos x sin y,
cos {x + y) = cos x cos y — sin x sin y,
sin (x — y) = sin x cos y — cos x sin y,
and cos (as — y) = cos a; cos y + sin a; sin y.
Since
e*' + e-** exi — er*1,
cos a; = ~ and sm«= — — ,
2 zi
we have sin a; cos y + cos a; sin y
2» 2^2 2i
e*' 2evi — e-** 2e_y£ g(*+w* — e~ix+y)i
= — ~ ■ gi (Art- 59)
= sin (x + y).
Similarly the other results may be proved.
64. It follows that all formulae which have been

proved for real angles and which are founded on the
Addition and Subtraction Theorems are also true when
we substitute for the real angle any complex quantity.
For example, since
cos 30 = 4 cos3 0 - 3 cos 6,
COMPLEX QUANTITIES. CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS. 79
where 8 is real, it follows that
cos 3 (x + yi) = 4 cos8 (x + yi) — 3 cos (x + yi).
Again, since, by De Moivre's Theorem, we know that
cos nO + i sin n6
is always one of the values of
(cos 6 + i sin 9)n,
when 6 is real and n has any value, it follows that
cos n (x + yi) + i sin n (x + yi)
is always one of the values of
[cos (x + yi) + i sin (x + yi)]n.
65. Periods of complex circular functions. In

equations (1) and (2) of Art. 63 let x be complex and let
y= 2?r.
Then sin (x + 2ir) = sin x cos 27r + cos x sin 2ir
= sin x,
and cos (x + 2tt) = cos x cos 2ir — sin x sin 2ir
= cos X.
Hence sin x and cos x both remain the same when x
is increased by 2-tt. Similarly they will remain the same
when x is increased by
4tir, 6ir, 2rwr.
Hence, when x is complex, the expressions sin x and
cos x are periodic functions whose period is 27r.
This corresponds with the results we have already
found for real angles. (Art. 61, Part I.)
80 TRIGONOMETRY.
EXAMPLES. X.
_, «
Assuming that cosx= —5- and sinz = —-p— prove that, for
a ¿I
all values of x and y, real or complex,
1. cos2 x + sin* x =1. 2. cos(-a;) = oosx.
3. sin (-«)=- sin s. 4. cos2a;=co811¡i!-sinaa!=l-2sin1!x.
5. sin 3o;= 8 sin x -4 sin3 ж. 6. cos x- cos у =2 sin - sin -5

л 2
7. sini- siny=2cos—5^ sin —~.
Prove that
8.
9.
10.
66. In the formulae of Art. 62 if as be a pure imaginary
quantity and equal to yi, we have, since
& -- 1,
совуг
and
e¡rf.í_e-¡/i.»
67. Hyperbolic Functions. Def. The quantity
2 '
whether у be real or complex, is called the hyperbolic
sine of у and is written sinh y.
HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS. 81
Similarly the quantity

ey + e~y
a
is called the hyperbolic cosine of y and is written
cosh y.
[It will be observed that the values of sinh y and cosh y are obtained
from the exponential expressions for sin y and cos y by simply omitting
the t's.]
The hyperbolic tangent, secant, cosecant, and cotangent
are obtained from the hyperbolic sine and cosine just as
the ordinary tangent, secant, cosecant, and cotangent are
obtained from the ordinary sine and cosine.
sinh y _ ev — e~"
Thus tanh y = cosh y ~ ev + F» '
12
cosech y = sinh y ey — e~v '
_1 2
sech y = cosh y ev + e~r '
1 _e» + er»
and coth y = tanh y ey — e~v '
The hyperbolic cosine and sine have the same relation

to the curve called the rectangular hyperbola that the
ordinary circular cosine and sine have to the circle.
Hence the use of the word hyperbolic.
68. From Arts. 66 and 67 we clearly have

cos (yi) = cosh y,
and sin (yi) = i sinh y.
So tan (yi) = i tanh y.
L. T. II. 6
82 TRIGONOMETRY.
69. Corresponding to most general trigonometrical

formulae involving the ratios of angles there are formulae
involving the hyperbolic ratios.
For example, we have, for all values of the angle x,
cosa x + sin2 x = 1,
so that cos2 (yi) + sin2 (yi) = 1,
and hence, by the last article,
cosh5 y — sinh3 y = 1.
[This may be deduced independently from the definition of the hyper
bolic functions. For
e«-e-«\*
4— 4
Again, for all values of и and v we have

sin (u + v) = sin и cos v + cos u sin v.
Put u=xi and v = yi,
so that
sin [(x + у) г] = sin (un) cos (уг) + cos (xi) sin (yi).
The expressions of the last article then give
г sinh (x + y) = i sinh x cosh у + cosh ж x г sinh y,
л sinh (x+ y) = sinh ж cosh 3/ + cosh x sinh y.
[Directly from the definition of the hyperbolic ratios we have
sinh x cosh ?/ + cosh x sinh j/
_
ex + e~x e« - e~v
~ 2 2
on multiplication, =sinh(x
Again, for all values of 6, we have

na 3 tan 0- tan3 0
tan 30 = —5-7—r^— .
1 — 3 tan' 0
Put then 0 = xi, and we have
v 7 1-3 tan' (<n)

Hence the substitutions of Art. 314 give
• i l /r. \ 3t tanh a; — i* tanh3 a;
z tanh v(3a;)' = =—„ .„ -—=-
l-3i2tanh2a;
_ 3i tanh x + i tanh3 x
1 + 3 tanh3 a; '
, . i_ /« \ 3 tanh x + tanh8 x
so that tanh (3a;)
v ' = -—--—=-
1 + 3 tanh2 x .
As before, this may be easily proved from the definition
of tanh x.
70. In general it follows from (1) of Art. 68 that any

general formula which is true for cosines of angles is also
true if instead of cos we read cosh.
From (2) of the same article, since
sin3 (yi) = — sinh2 y,
it follows that any general formula involving the cosine
and square of the sine of an angle is true if for cos we
read cosh and for sins we read — sinh2.
Similarly from (3) we may turn a formula involving
tan2 into another by writing for tan2 the quantity — tanh2.
In this manner formulae and series involving the
hyperbolic functions may be obtained from 27, 28, 30, 44,
46, and 48—53 and also from Part I, Arts. 241 and 242.
6—2
84 TRIGONOMETRY.
71. From the values in Art. 67 it follows, by Art. 56,

that
cosh x = H (e* + e-*)
_ я? x* a?
~ [2 +¡4+|6 + ...... '
sinh x = -ц [e? — er*]

¿t
а? о? x7
=X+++ .......
These are the expansional values of cosh ж and sinh x.
#72. Periods of the hyperbolic functions.
For all values of в, real or complex, we have cos ffi = cosh 0.
Hence
cosh (x + yi) = cos { (x + yi) i} = cos (xi - y) = cos [ - 2я- + xi - y] (Art. 65)
= cos [(2iri + x + yi) i] = cosh fЧтп + x + yi]
= (similarly) cosh [4жг + x + yi] = ......
Hence the hyperbolic cosine is periodic, its period being imaginary
'and liquid to 2iri.
Again, since sinh 0= - i sin Oi, vie have
)= -iain{(x + yi)i}= -isin[xi-y]
= -гвт[-2тг+а;г-у]= -isin
= sinh[2iri + a;+yi],
so that the period of sinh (.c + yi) is 2n.
Similarly it may be shewn that the period of tanh (x+yi) is TÍ.
The hyperbolic functions therefore differ from the circular functions
in having no real period ; their period is imaginary.
73. B*- 1- Separate into its real and imaginary parts the expression
We have sin (o + /Si) = sin a cos Bi + cos a sin /Si
= Bin a —=2 h oos a —^—

2i
= sin a ¡¡ h t cos a =
= sin a cosh /3+ 1 cos a sink /3.
Ex. 2. Separate into its real and imaginary parti the expression
tan (a + /St).
We have tan (a + /3i) = BÍD (;a + f!|
v r ' cos(o + /3i)
_ 2 sin (a + /3i) cos (a - /Si)
— 2 cos (a + /Si) cos (a - /Si)
_ sin 2a + sin 2/3i
— cos 2a + cos 2/3i
_sin 2a + isinh2/3
~ cos 2a + cosh 2/3 ' (Art. 68.)
Aliter. Let tan (a + /Si) = x + yi, so that tan (a - /Si) = x - yi.
:. z=|[tan {a + Bi) + tan (a -Bi)]
_ Bin (a + /3i) cos (a - /3i) + cos (a + fti) sin (a - /Si)
~~ 2 cos (a + /Si) . cos (a - /3t)
sin 2a sin 2a
cos 2a + cob 2/3i cos 2a + cosh 2/3 '
Also y = i [tan (a + /Si) - tan (a - /Si)]
1 sin (a + /Si) cos (a - /Si) - cos (a + /Si) sin (a - gi)
2i cos (a + /3i) oos (a - /Si)
_1 sin2/3i sinh 2/3
—t oos 2a + cos 2/3i — cos 2a + cosh 2/3 '
.'. tan (a , „,. sin 2a+isinh23
1 + ^Bi)' — cos2a~ + cosh20
t—sir •
Ex. 3. Separate into its real and imaginary parts the expression
cosh(a + Bi).
86 TRIGONOMETRY.
a+ßi.—a-ßi
We have cosh (a + ßi) = -^- (Art. 67)
_ (Art.,
2 ~ 2
+ <ra) + ism;3(ea-<;-a) , . ,
2- -'sOos/Seosho + isinjSsmho.
Aliter, cosh (a + /Si) = coa { (a + j8i) ¿} (Art. 68)
= cos {ai-/3}
= cos (ai) cos ß + sin (oí) sinß
= cosh a cos /3 + ¿ sinh a sin /3.
EXAMPLES. XI.
Prove that
1. coeh 2x= 1 + 2 (sinh ж)2= 2 (cosh x)2 - 1.
2. cosh (a + ß) = cosh a cosh /3 + sinh a sinh ß.
3. cosh (o + ß) - cosh (a - ß) = 2 sinh o sinh ß.
5. cosh Зг =4 cosh3 я -3 cosh*.

6. sinh 3x = 3 sinh x + 4 sinh3 ж.
7. sinh (x + y) cosh (x - j/) = J (sinh 2x + sinh 2y).
8. cosh 2x + cosh Bx + cosh 8x + cosh llx
, 13x , ., , 3x
= 4 cosh — cosh 3x cosh -^- .
9. cosh x + cosh (x + j/) + cosh (x + 2¡/) + ...... to n terms
10. sinh x + smh (¿c + 3/) + sinh (a; + 2j/) + to и terms

sinh (x + n^- y\ sinh ^
sinhf
EXAMPLES. 87
11. sinh x + n sinh2x + - ^* ~ ^ sinh 3a; + to (n + 1) terms
=2* cosh" f sinh |

12. sinh /3 sin o+t cosh jS cos o=i cos (a + j3i).
13. sin 2a + i sinh 20 = 2 sin (a + f/S) cos (a - f/3).
14. cos (a + i/3) + 1 sin (o + i/3) = e-^ (cos a + i sin a).
15. If tan y = tan a tanh /3, and tan « = cot a tanh /S, then prove that
tan (y+z) = sinh 2/3 cosec 2a.
16. If u=logtan^j + 0 , prove that tanh ^= tan | .
Separate into their real and imaginary parts the quantities
17. cos(a + /Si). 18. cot(a + /3t).
19. cosec(a + jSt). 20. Bec(a + j3i).
21. sinh (a + /3t). 22. tanh(a+/3t).
23. sech(a+/3i).
nj Prove
24. t> n. * tan
that i u—„ + i» = sinu + tsinhur—■
2 cos u + cosh o
25. If sin {A + iB)=x + iy, prove that
x3 y2 _ j xa y1 _^
cosh2.B sinh2 5 — ' sin2 A cos2.4 —
26. If tan (A + iB) = x + iy, prove that
x2 + y* + 2a;cot 2A = 1, and xt + y1-2y coth2B + l=0.
27. If sul (9 + 4>i) — cob a + i sin a, prove that cos2 0 = ± sin a.
28. If sin (0 + <pi)=p (cos a + i sin a), prove that
p- = ^ [cosh 2<p - cos 20] and tan a = tanh # cot 0.
29. If cos (0 + tpi) = R (cos a + 1 sin a), prove that
, , . sin (0 - a)
*=4l0«sinT^-
30. If tan (0 + <pi) = tan a + i sec a, prove that e2* = ± cot £ , and that
29=nx + 2+a.
31. If tan (0 + <t>i) = cos a + i sin a, prove that
88 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XL]
32. If A. + iB = c tan (x + iy), then
33. If tan (0 + #i) = sin (a + iy), then

coth y sinh 2<p = cot x sin 25.
34. If tan (a-M'/3)=i, a and /3 being real, prove that a is indeter
minate and fi is infinite.
Prove that
Xs xa
35. i (sinhx+sinx)=x+ — + — + ad inf.
36. 4 (cosh x + cos x) = 1 + g + + ad inf.
# # 74. Inverse Circular Functions. When a and

y3 are real and a = cos /?, we defined, in Art. 237, Part I.,
the inverse cosine of a to be that value of /8 which lies
between 0 and it, and it was pointed out that /? was a
many-valued quantity.
If now x+ yi = cos (u + vi),
then similarly u + vi is said to be an inverse cosine of
x + yi.
But since
x + yi = cos (u + vi) = cos [2nir ±(u + vi)] (Art. 65)
it follows that 2mr ± (u + vi) is also an inverse cosine of
x + yi, where n is any integer.
The inverse cosine of x + yi is hence a many-valued
function. When the many-valuedness of the inverse
cosine is considered it is written
Cos-1 (x + yi).
The principal value of the inverse cosine of x + yi
is that value of 2mr ±(u + vi) which is such that either
2nw + u or 2?wr — u lies between 0 and it.
This principal value is denoted by cos-1 (x + yi).

We have then
Cos-1 (x + yi) = 2n7T ± cos-1 (x + yi).
##75. Similarly if
a + yi = sin (u + vi) — sin {ntr + (— 1)" (w + vi)},
then nir + (— 1)" (u + vi) is an inverse sine of x + yi. It is
a many-valued quantity and is denoted by Sin-1 (x + yi).
Its principal value is such that its real part lies between
7T 77" _
— -g and - , and is denoted by sin-1 (x + yi).
We then have
Sin-1 (x + yi) = mr + (— 1)" sin-1 (x + yi).
Similarly tan-1 (x + yi) and Tan-1 (x + yi) are denned,
so that the principal value of Tan-1 (x + yi) is such that
its real part lies between — ^ and + ^ , and
Tan-1 (x + yi) = nir + tan-1 (x + yi).

Similarly
Sec-1 (so + yi) = 2mr ± sec-1 (x + yi),
Cosec-1 {x + yi) = nir + (— l)n cosec-1 (x + yi),
and Cot-1 (x + yi) = nir+ cot-1 (x + yi).
# # 76. We shall henceforward use sin-1, Sin-1, cos-1,

Cos-1,... with the meanings above assigned.
##77. Inverse hyperbolic Amotions. If#=cosh?/

then similarly, as in Art. 74, we write y = cosh-1 x.
90 TRIGONOMETRY.
If x be real, we have
2 *
so that e2* - 2xeP + 1 = 0,
and hence ey = x±\x3 — l
-■ x + v x1 — 1 or
» + Va?-1 '
•'• 2/ = ± l°g (j» + — !)•
The positive value of the right-hand side is the one
always taken.
Hence, when x is real, cosh-1 a: is a single-valued
function.
Similarly sinh-1 x and tanh-1 x are denned ; they are
single-valued functions, when x is real.
##78. H a+j9t = cosh (x+yi), then x+yi is said to be an in
verse hyperbolio cosine of o + /St.
But oosh (x+yi) — cosh {2«7ri± {x + yi)}, as in Art. 72.
Hence 2nwid=(x+yi) is an inverse hyperbolic cosine of a + pi. Its
principal valne is that value whose imaginary part lies between 0 and
Tri, i.e. such that 2nw±y lies between 0 and it.
Similarly the inverse hyperbolic sine and tangent of a+/3t are denned.
In this case the principal values are such that the imaginary part lies
between -î and Ji.
# # 79. Ex. 1. Separate into real and imaginary parts the quantity
rite1 (cos 0 + i sin 8), where 8 is real.
Let sin-1 (cos 6 + i sin $) = x + yi,
so that cos 6 + i sin 8 = sin (x + yi) = sin x cos yi + cos x sin yi
= sin x cosh y +■ i cos x sinh y.
Hence sin x cosh y = cos 8 (1),
and cos x sinh y = sin 8 (2).
Squaring and adding, we have

1 = sin" x cosha y + cos3 x sinn2 y = sin2 x (l + sinh2 y) + cos3 x sinh2 y
л smha2/=cosaa;.
Hence from (2) we have cos2 ж = am 0, assuming sin y to be positive.
Therefore, since x is to lie between - £ and + ^ (Art. 75),
¿ ¿
we have cos x = + Vslu в, and hence x = cos"1 (Vein 0).
The equation (2) then gives
sinh у = +Ч/6Ш0,
so that e5» - 2e» ^/sin 0 = 1, a quadratic for é".
Hence e> = «/sin0 + Vl + sin 0,
£•«• ?/ = log [Vain 0 + Vl + sin 0].
Ex. 2. Separate into its real and imaginary parts the quantity
Let te.a-1(a+ßi) = (x+yi), so that tan (x

and tan(a;-i/i)=o — ßi.
_ (a + ßi) + (a - ßi) '¿a

~ ~
Again
92 TRIGONOMETRY.
ПО
Or again (1) gives tanh 2y = 1 + af+<3, >
so that y=
We should have Tan"1 (o + /Si) = nir + tan-1 (o + /Si)
EXAMPLES. XII.
Separate into their real and imaginary parts the quantities
1. tan"1 (cos в + i sin в).
2. сов"1 (cos в + г sin в), where о is a positive acute angle.
Prove that
m
3. flinh"1 x = log (x + Vie2 + 1). 4. taub"1 x = sinh"1 - ,- _• .
V 1 — X"
5. cosh-izslog^^-l+z). 6. tanh"1x=Jlog
7. Sin-1 (cosec 0) = {2и + ( - 1)"} + г ( - 1)" log cot .
8. Tan-M^)= + -
«9. m
Tan"1,tan20 + tanh2A + „
т—¡5^—-—¡-¡ri Tan"1,tane-tanhA
-————r-ï- = „
Tan-^coticothö).
tan29-tanh20 *
CHAPTER VI.
LOGARITHMS OF COMPLEX QUANTITIES.
80. IP a = e*, where a and x are real quantities, we

know that x is called the logarithm of a to base e and we
have shewn in Art. 6 that
у? я?
a = e?=l+x + — + —+ ......... ad inf.
e E
We may therefore look upon the logarithm, x, of a to
base e as being derived as a root of the equation
а = 1 + я + ^ + ^+ ...... ad inf. ...... (1).
If. e
As in other cases we shall now extend this result to
complex quantities.
81. Def. If x + yi be any complex quantity and if

a + ßi be a quantity which is equal to e"+yi, i.e. to the series
1± E
then x + yiis said to be a logarithm ofa + ßi.
94 TRIGONOMETRY.
We say "a" logarithm because, as we shall now shew,

there are with the above definition many logarithms of a
quantity.
We have a + £i = (F+vi (1).
Now, by Art. 62, we have, for all integral values of n,

emH _ cos 2mr + i sin 2mr = 1 (2).
Hence from (1) and (2) we have, by Art. 59,
a + /3i = e*+,rf . em" = e*"1"
According to the above definition we see that, if x + yi
be a logarithm of a + @i, so also is
x + yi + 2niri, i.e. x+(y + 2nir) i.
82. We proceed to find the logarithms of the com

plex quantity a + /3i, where a and /3 are real.
By Art. 20, we have
a + /Si = r [cos (2n7r + 6) + i sin (2nir + 6)],
where n is any integer, r = + Va2 + fi2, and 6 is that value
lying between — it and + it such that cos 6 is ^ and sin &
a
is — , i.e. with the restriction of Art. 20,
r
a
If x + yi be a logarithm of a + /3i, we have then
r [cos (2wr + 8) + i sin (2wr + 0)] =
= ea:.e^'^ • (Art. 59)
= ex (cos y + i sin y).
LOGARITHMS OF COMPLEX QUANTITIES. 95
By equating real and imaginary parts, we have

e* cos y = r cos (2wn- + 0),
and sin y = r sin (2?wr + 0).
Hence ex = r, and y = 2«7r + 0.
Since <c and r are both real, a; is the ordinary algebraic
Napierian logarithm of r, so that
cc = log, r.
Hence a logarithm of a + /Si is
loger + i (2nir + 0),
i.e. log, Vas + £» + i (2/wr + tan"1 ^ .
Since w is any integer we see that there are therefore

an infinite number of logarithms of a + /Si, and that these
only differ by multiples of 27n.
83. With the extended definition of a logarithm
given in Art. 81, it follows by the last article that the
logarithm of any number is many-valued.
When this many-valuedness is taken into consideration
we write the logarithm of a + /Si as Log (a + /3i).
Hence
Log (a + /Si) = log, Va3+/S3 + i (Znir + tan"1 ^ .
If we put n equal to zero in the value of Log (a 4- /Si)

the result is called the principal value of the logarithm
and is denoted by log (a + /3i), so that
log (a + /Si) = log, V(a2 + /33) + i tan"1 1 ,

and
Log (a + /3i) = 2)i?ri + log (a + /Si).
96 TRIGONOMETRY.
This distinction between log and Log is to be here

after assumed.
84. Any positive quantity has one real logarithm
and an infinite number of imaginary ones.
In the result of the preceding article put ß equal to
zero, and we have
Log a = 2птгг + loge a.
We therefore observe that, with our extended definition of
a logarithm, every real quantity a has a real logarithm
(which is equal to log, о as ordinarily defined) and an
infinite number of imaginary logarithms, which are
obtained by adding any multiple of 2тгг to its real
logarithm.
This might have been directly deduced from equation
(1) of Art. 80. For this is an equation of infinite degree
and therefore it has an infinite number of roots, of which
only one is real.
It will be noted that the principal value of the
logarithm (according to our extended definition) of a real
number is equal to its ordinary algebraic logarithm.
85. Logarithm of a negative quantity. In the result
of Art. 83 put ß = 0, and a = — x, where ж is a real
positive quantity.
ß
:. + Va2 4- /З2 = + я>, and tan"1 —
. у
[which is an angle such that its cosine is —— i.e. — 1,
+x
and its sine zero (Art. 20)] is equal to IT.
;. Log (— x) = Zniri + log« x + iri,
and log (— x) = log« x + tri.
LOGABITHMS OF COMPLEX QUANTITIES. 97
Hence the principal value of the logarithm of a

negative quantity — x (with our extended definition) is
equal to the ordinary algebraic logarithm of x added
on to iri.
86. Logarithm of a quantity which is wholly imagin

ary. In the result of Art. 83 put a = 0, and we have
Log (/Si) = 2nm + log, 0 + i ~
= log,£+tf2n + g) it,
so that the logarithm of any quantity which is wholly

imaginary consists of two parts, the first of which is real,
and the second of which is imaginary and many-valued
As a particular case, put /3 = 1, and we have
Log(V^l) = i(2n + i) 7T,
so that the principal value of Log (V— 1) is ^ i.
87. In the result of Art. 83 put

a = cos 6 and /3 = sin 6.
.'. Log (cos 0 + i sin 8)
- loge 1 + i (2nir + 6) = 6i + 2mri,
,\ Log eH = 6i + Iniri.
The principal value of Log eH, i.e. loge*4, is therefore
that value of (6 + 2mr) i which is such that 8 + 2nir lies
between — tt and + ir.
L. T. II. 7
98 TRIGONOMETRY.
«
88. Ex- !• Resolve into its real and imaginary parts the expression
Logsin(x
Let Log sin (x+yi) = u + vi, so that
, - ..,,
+ tcosx —— .................... (1).
As in Art. 18 let the right-hand side of this expression equal
r [cos (2mr + S) + i sin (2nir + 0)],
so that
= J V(e2» + e"2») - 2 coa 2г

Sh 2« - COS 2ж
^-•»
and 0=tan~4 cot x ——-^ \= tan"1 [cot x tanh y],
with the usual restriction of Art. 20.

We have then from (1)
e« (cos v + i sin ti) = r [cos (2nir + 9) + 1 sin (2ят + 0)].
Hence e"=r, so that u=log„r,
and v - 2nir + 0.
By putting n equal to zero, we have the principal value of
Ex. 2. Find the general value of Log ( — 3).

Let z+yt=Log(-3), so that
Put -3 = j-{cos(2n?
as in Art. 18.
Then we have r=3 and 0 = т.
LOGARITHMS OF COMPLEX QUANTITIES. 99
Hence 3 {cos (2nir + *-)+isin (2nr + ir)}
= e*+y<=e*. e»* = e* {cosy + isiny}.
Hence e*=3, bo that s=log, 3, and y = 2nir + ir.
:. Log ( - 3) = log. 3 + (2nir + ?r) t.
The principal value, obtained by putting n equal tq zero, is
log, 3 + irf.
EXAMPLES. XHL
Prove that
L Iog(cos0 + isin0)=t'0, if -t-zB^t. 2. log(-l) = irt.
3. log(-i)=-|i.
4. log (1 + cos 26 + i sin 29) = log, (2 cos 9) + i9, if -ir<0:j»jr.
5. log tan ^j + ^ = i tan-1 sinh x.
. logcos(x
6. , + 2/t)., = 2log,
1, (/cosh 2« + cos 2x\) -»tan-1(tana;tanhj/).
., ,,. , , ,
sin(a;-yi) v "
8. log 008 = 2i tan-i (tan I tanh y).
9. flog-—T=T-2tan-1s.
x+i
10. log (1 + i tan o) = log, sec a + ai, where a is a positive acute angle.
1L Iog (ir7i)=l0g' Sooseo0 + f (s - 1) •
12. log^ = 2iton-i^.

a — bi a
13. Log(-5) = log,5 + (2nir + ir)i.
14. Log<l + t)=ilog.2+i^2nx + j^.
15. Find the value of log log sin (x + yi).

7—2
■
100 TRIGONOMETRY.
89. Definition of ax when a and x are any

quantities, complex or real. When a and ж are real
quantities we know that
ax = e?log'a. (Art. 5.)
When a and x are complex the ordinary algebraic
definition of a* no longer holds.
Let us so define it that
for all values of x and a, whether real or complex.

Now, by Art. 83, Log a is many-valued and complex
when a is complex. Hence ax is many-valued and com
plex, so that
gX — gZl'Oxa _ gc (2niri+loga)
The value of a" obtained by putting n equal to zero is

called its principal value.
Hence the principal value of a"
д
= l + #loga + ]^-(loga)2+ ... (by Art. 56).
|f
From Art. 59 it follows that if principal values be considered we
have a" x a>=a**v, so that the principal value of cf satisfies the ordinary
algebraic law of indices.
90. It may now be shewn that, if у be complex,
The proof is similar to the proof when у is real.

(Art. 8.)
It is, in general, necessary that the modulus of у be < 1 ;
otherwise the Binomial Theorem does not hold for com
plex quantities. (Art. 26.)
COMPLEX INDICES. 101
If the modulus of y be equal to unity, so that y may be put equal to

cos ф +i sin ф, the expansion can be shewn to be still true, except in the
cases when ф is equal to an odd multiple of тт.
Since Log (1 + у) = 2птгг + log (1 + y),
we have
...... ad inf.
91. To separate into its real and imaginary parts the

expression (a. + ßi)x+yi.
Let a + ßi = r (cos в + i sin д),
so that, as in Art. 18,
r = Va2 + ß*, and в = tan"1 - .
Then, by definition,
(a + ßif+vi = e(x+yi> Log (a+|3i)
_ e{x+yi} {log(a+ßi)+2miri}
= g\x+yi\ jlogr+(9+2mir)i}
= gX log r g—у (в+ämir) gi {у log r+x (в+2ттт) J
_ ja _ g-!/(9+2mit) [cog |y log Г + Ж (о
+ ¿ sin {у log r + x (в + 2ттт)}].

If we put m equal to zero, we obtain the principal
value of the given quantity, viz.
rê"*9 [cos (y log r + хв) + i sin (y log r + хв)"\.
**92. Их. 1. find tue general value of
We have [V Л^^ =
102 TRIGONOMETRY.
But Log N/^î=L°g [eos f 2птг + | J + г sin (2птт + | У1
»Log Л*"*!)*
where n has any integral value.
The principal value of [>/-!]** -1 is e~2.
Ex, a. Find the general value of Log.2 ( - 3).
Let Logj (-3)=x+yi, so that 2*+*¡= -3,

i.e. e(J=+*i]b<«2=3{cos(2m7r + ir) + isJn (Зттг + тг)} (Art. 20).
But Log 2 = 2птг + log.2, and 3 = e ]as^,
Л (x + yi) (2iuri + Ioge2) = Ioge3 + (2тя- + тг) i.

Equating real and imaginary parts, we have
a; log. 2 - 2ii7Tj/ = loge 3,

and ae.2n7r + ylog<,2 = 2nnr+w.
Solving, we have
_ log« 3 log« 2 + (¿mir + ir) . 2пт
ХГ~
Hence Log2 ( - 3)
_
(log.2)a + 4naira
If m=n=0, the principal value is obtained, viz.
log.2 '
COMPLEX INDICES. 103
93. It could now be shewn that the general values

of the logarithms of complex quantities satisfy the
ordinary laws of logarithms, viz.
Log mn = Log m + Log n,
and Log — = Log m — Log n.
ib
It could also be shewn that Log mn = n Log т + 2ртгг,
where p is some integer or zero. The proof is left as an
exercise for the student.
EXAMPLES. XIV.
Prove that
1. а*=е-2пиг {cos (log a) + i sin (log a)}.
2. i«=cos jÍ2m + 2J7ra| +isin Н2т + ;Ля-а
3. ¿*'= cos в + i sin в, where
4. If ilt"*dlD''=4+Bi1 principal values only being considered, prove

that
tan ?£ = :?, and
a A.
5. If ta+^=o+/3i, prove that
6. If IT—^—^—a.+ßi, prove that one value of tan-1 5 is
7. If (а + Ы)р=т*+*', prove that one of the values of ^ is

x
,b
104 TRIGONOMETRT. [ElS. XTV.]
8. If ал+Р*=(х+уг) v+tf, principal valúas only being considered,
prove that
a=;j2> log« (z2+ya) - q tan-1 Ц 1
and that lo,

9. Prove that the real part of the principal value of (t) tafl+e Is
e~T cos ( j log 2 ) .
10. Prove that the principal value of (a + ib)a4't^ is wholly real or

wholly imaginary according as
îjSlogfa'+b^ + atan-1-
is an even or an odd multiple of ^ .
11. Prove that the general value of

(1+ i taño)-*
12. H At+a; + ty\vt-<4_

\a-x-tyj
prove that one of the values of
13. Prove that

where m and n are any integers.
14. Prove that the general value oí Log4 ( - 2) ¡8
(Iog2)'+ro.(2n + l)a-!l . (2n + l-m)?rlog2
2(log2)2 + 2»iV +t 2(log2)s + 2mV '
Explain the fallacies in the following arguments :

15. For all integral values of n we have
so that «2'"=e*'ri=e6'rt= ...... .

[Exs. XTV.] COMPLEX INDICES. 105
Raise all these quantities to the power sf^l ; thus
2ir=4ir = 6ir=
16. For all values of 0 we have
cos (0 - x) + i sin (0 -ir) = cos (B + tt) + i sin (0 + «•),
so that )=«<(•+').
Hence 0-ir=0 + ir, i.e. jt=0.
17. If 0 and 0 be the principal values of the amplitudes of two
complex numbers x and y, prove that
log xy = log x + log y + 2nri,
where n ia - 1, 0, or + 1 according as 0 + <p is >ir, greater than - t and
not greater than v, and not greater than - jr, respectively.
CHAPTER VII.
GREGORY'S SERIES. CALCULATION OF THE VALUE OF it.
94. Gregory's Series. To prove that, if 8 be not

less than — — and be not greater than + — , then
8 = tan 8 — \ tan3 8 + \ tan" 8 — ad inf.

6 o
We have
1 + i tan 8 = sec 8 (cos 8 + i sin 8)
= sec 8 . eei.
loge sec 8 + 8i = log (1 + i tan 8).
Therefore, by Art. 90, if tanfl be numerically not
greater than unity, we have
loge (sec 8) + 8i = log (1 + i tan 6)
= i tan 6 - \ tan2 8 + \ i8 tan8 8 -
= i tan 8 + i tan2 8 - \ i tan8 8-\ tan4 8+ ad inf.

gkegory's series. 107
Equating the imaginary parts on each 6ide of this

equation, we have
6 = tan 0 - 3tan80 + !tan»0-itanT0+ ... ad inf. ...
(1).
Since this series is true for acute angles such that the
tangent is not numerically greater than unity it is true
7T 77"
for all angles lying between the values — — and + -j and
also for the extreme values — -r and + -7 .

4 4
95. The series of the last article may be slightly

transformed by writing tan d = x, so that x must be not
less than — 1 and not greater than 1.
It then becomes
tan-1x^=x-|x8+lx5-lxT+ ad inf.,
where tan-1 x is that value which lies between
-4 and +i.
96. Gregory's Series is a particular case of a more

general theorem which may be enunciated as follows :
If 6 be an angle which lies between pir — j and pir + ,

both limits being admissible, then
6—p-7r = tanQ—^ tan" 0 + \ tan' 6 — .ad inf.

108 TRIGONOMETRY.
7T
For let 8 =p-rr + <£, where <f> is not greater than — and
7T
not less than — -7 .
4
Then 1 + i tan 8 = 1 + i tan <f> = sec ob (cos <p + i sin <f>)
= sec . e*\
Hence, by Arts. 83 and 90, we have, provided that
tan 8 be numerically not greater than unity,
log6 sec (j> + <pi= log (1 + i tan 6)
= i tan 8 - 5 i2 tan8 0 + î8 tan3 0 -

11 11
= i tan 0 + 5 tan8 0 - -r i tan8 0 +T tan4 0 + - 1 tan5 0 - ...
2 3 4 5
ad inf.
Equating the imaginary parts on both sides of this
equation we have
<f> = tan 6 — \ tan8 8 + ■= tan" 8 — ad inf.,
i.e. 6—pir = taxi 0-^tan8 8 + ^tan5 8 — ... ad inf. ... (1).
97. Examples of particular cases.

If $ lie between 4 and 4 , i.e. between ir-^4 and 7t + t,
4 we have
2> = 1 and equation (1) of the preceding article becomes
$ - ?r = tan 6 - 1o tan3 0 + \5 tan6 0 - ad inf.
If B lie between ^
4 and 4 i.e. between 2jt — t4 and 27T + T,
4 the equa-
tion becomes
S-2ir = tan«-5tan30 + 5tan50- ad inf.
CALCULATION OF ir. 109
Similarly, if 6 lie between - and - , i.e. between - 3r - ^ and

-3*- + ^, we have p = -3, and the equation becomes
0 + 3ir = tan 0-itan*9 + ^ tan»0- ad inf.
6 O
98. If 9 lie between ^ and > or between

4 4
5-7T , 77T
Tand T'
or, generally, between
7T , , 37T
and 7i7r+
tan 0 is numerically greater than unity; in these cases
the expansion of log (1 + i tan 6) does not hold, and there
is no such expansion as equation (1) of Art. 96.
99. Value of it. One of the chief uses of Gregory's
series is its application to find the value of ir.
In Art. 95 put x= 1, and we have
7T_ , 1 1_1 1_
4 3 + 5 7+9
= 1 " (3 ~ 5) " (7 ~ 9) ~ (tt~ 13)

= 1~2[315 + 7i9 + nI13 + I'
This series may be used to calculate ir; its defect

however is that the successive terms do not rapidly
become small, so that a very large number of terms would
have to be taken to obtain the value of ir correct to any
great degree of accuracy.
For this reason other series have been sought for.
110 TRIGONOMETRY.
100. Euler's Series. We can easily prove that

,1 ,1
tan-1 - + tan-1 — = — .
2 3 4
In Art. 95 put in succession x equal to
21 and
A 3'
1
and we have
J = tan-^ + tan-^
1_1 l_ 1 1_
2 3 ' 2s + 5 " 25 7 ' 27 + *
+ 11
3 3 ' J.
33 + 15 ' 3s
1_17 " _137
This series converges more quickly than the preceding

series; but more than eleven terms of the series for
tan_1l would have to be taken to give it correct to 7
places of decimals.
101. Machin's Series. A more convergent series

than the preceding is Machin's, which is derived from the
expression
4 tan-1 \ - tan"1 J^r = -A (Art. 240, Part I., Ex. 4).
5 239 4 '
By substituting in succession i and for x in Art.
95, we have
TT n liiiii i
CALCULATION OF 7T. Ill
7T
— |_10 3 103 + 5105 7l0' + J
[239 3 239' + 5 239" J*

Now 16x^ = 32
16 xj.
5 ~=
105 -001024
16xi.^9= -0000009102
4 x4-23^= '0000000977
32010250079
Also 16 xi.^ = -0426666666...
16 xi.^ = -0000292571 ...
16 x IT W1 = '°000000298 —
4 x5is= 0167364017...
0594323552
Hence 3-2010250079
- -0594323552
tt = 314159265/27
This is the value of it correct to 8 places of decimals.
By taking the first series to 21 terms and the second
series to three terms we should get it correct to sixteen
places.
112 TRIGONOMETRY.
102. Rutherford's Series. A further simplification

of Machin's formula is the expression
For we have
JL_ L
1 1 , ,1 . , 70 99 . . 29
70-tan 'ю-*"1 —T-T = tan 693Í
+ 70'99
-
EXAMPLES. XV.
Assuming that
0-nT = tan0-5tans0 + 5tan50-...,
О О
write down the value of n when в lies between

Ilrnd13r о IE a —
1Q- 01- . Зтг , 5т

4. —-г- and - -r- .
5. - 11т
-j- and, - -j-
13ir
.
6. Prove that
7. Prove that
т_2 1 1/2 IN l/S 1\
4 ~ 3 + 7 ~ 3 \33 7V 5 Ч»5 7V ~ "
8. H x be < ^2 - 1, prove that
вх'...... adinf.
» 1
+5
[EIS. XV.] CALCULATION OF 7Г. 113
Find the value of IT to three places of decimals

9. By using Enler's Series.
10. By using Machin's Series.
11. By using Butherford's Series.
12. To the second order of small quantities, prove that
1 + siu0 log (1-0) + tan-1« sin
13. When both 0 and tan-1 (sec в) lie between 0 and 5 , prove that
L. T. II.
CHAPTER Vin.
SUMMATION OF SERIES. EXPANSIONS IN SERIES.
103. We shall now apply the results of the preceding

chapters to the summation of some trigonometrical series.
The chief series may be divided into four classes ;
(1) Those depending for their summation on a
Geometrical Progression ultimately,
(2) Those depending ultimately on the Binomial
Theorem,
(3) Those depending ultimately on the Exponential
Theorem, including, as sub-cases, the Sine and Cosine
Series,'
and (4) Those depending ultimately on the Logarithmic
Series and, as a sub-case, Gregory's Series.
104. In Arts. 105—108 we shall sum one example of
each of these classes. It will generally be found more
convenient in summing one of these series involving sines
of multiple angles (such as sin a, sin 2a, sin 3a . . .) to also
sum at the same time the companion series involving the
cosines of the same multiple angles
(i.e. cos a, cos 2a, cos 3a . . .).
The method will be best seen by a careful study of the
following four articles.
SUMMATION OF SERIES. 115
105. Ex. Sum to n terms, and to infinity, the series

1 + c cos a + c2 cos 2a + ,
where c is less than unity.
Let
C = 1 + c cos a + c2 cos 2a + ... + c"-1 cos (ra — 1) a (1),
and
S= c sin a + c2 sin 2a + + C-1 sin (n - 1) a (2).
Multiplying (2) by i and adding to (1), we have
C + Si = 1 + c (cos a + i sin a) + c2 (cos 2a + i sin 2a) +
= 1 + ce"' + c2 e2"* + . . . + c"-1 e^1' ai (Art. 62)
= 1 _ceai > by summing the G.P.,

_(1 -c"e"ai)(l-ce-ai)
~~ (1 - ce**) (1 - ce~ai)
1 — ce~°i — c" e""4 + cn+1 e(n-1)a<
_ 1 - c (e°*' + e~ai) + c2
-
1— c(cosa ■ • x c"(cos«a+tsinna)+cn+M
+ isina)— „/ • • \ -J., (cos
, . (n
. —
. 1) 1N
a
x 7 v ' (+isin(n — l)a
~ 1 - 2c cos 2a + c2
Hence, by equating real and imaginary parts, we have
1 — c cos a — cn cos ma + c"+1 cos (n — 1) a
1 — 2c cos a + c2
c sin a — cn sin ma + c"+1 sin (n — 1) a
and S =
1 — 2c cos a + c2
The sum to infinity is obtained by omitting the terms
containing c" and cn+1, which become indefinitely small
when n is very great.
8—2
7
116 TRIGONOMETRY.
тт „ l — С COS a
Hence CL = ,—
00 1 - 2c cos a + с3 '
, „ с sin a
and 800 = 1-
- 2c cos a + ca '
From the results for G and >S' it is now clear that the above series
might have been summed, without the use of imaginary quantities, by
multiplying both sides of (1) and (2) by the quantity l-2ccosa + ca.
The coefficients of c2, cs......c""1 would then be found to vanish and the
values of G and S be easily obtained.
106. Ex. Sum the series

ñ sin a + «—' sin 2ot + ' ' sin За + ... ad inf.
2 ¿t • 4) ¿t . 4 . о
тLet S=
о g! sm a + 1.3 .,2ot + о1.3.5
д~г sm ..,
л flSin3a+...,
¿t Zi , *f Z . 41 . 0
and, /Y !1 +н1 соза + ñ—rcos2a+

0= 1-3 0 1.3.5 cos3a+....
Hence, multiplying the first by i and adding to the

second, we have
by the Binomial Theorem. (Art. 26.)

Л 0+ Si = (1 — cos а — г sin а}~*
. а . а . о-*
~è
fo • а!~* Í /тг-а\ . . тг-а)

{2sm2j 1соЧ~4Г]+г81П О'
Hence, by equating real and imaginary parts, we have

C = -j 2 sin g ■ cos
4 '
and 8 = |2 sin ^1 sin —j— •
If a = 2nir, clearly S=0 and C = oo .
EXAMPLES. XVI.
Sam the series
1. sin o + ^sin2a + i sin8o+ ad inf.
2. cos a . cos a + cos3 a cos 2a + cos3 a cos 3a + ad inf.
3. sin a. sin a + sins a sin 2a + sin3 a sin 3a + ad inf., where a ^
4. sin a . cos a+sin2a . cos2a + sin3a . cos 3a + ad inf.,
where +^ .
5. sina + csin(a + /8) + c2sm(a + 20) + to n terms and ad inf.
6. 1 + c cosh a + <? cosh 2a + + cn_l cosh (n - 1) a.
7. c sinh a + c3 sinh 2a + + ad inf.
8. 1-2 cos a+ 3 cos 2a - 4 cos 3a + to n terms.
9. 3sina + 5sin2a + 7sin3a+ to n terms.
10. When a = 5m , find what are the values of the series in Exs. 3
and 4.
11. sina + nsin (a+|3) + n ^""^sin (a + 2ft) + to (n + 1) terms,
1.&
n being a positive integer.
12. sin a + 51 sin 3a + ~
13 sin 5a + ad inf.
2 2.4
13. cosn a - n cos"-1 a cos a + "^* ^cosn~3acos2a...to(n + l) terms,
n being a positive integer.
. + nln+1)
14. wsina \ . . n(n
'sin2a+ v ,+ l)(n+2)
'' . „ +
-sin3a ad, inf.
. .
118 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XVI.]
15. 1 + 12 cos 20- g—j

1 cos 40 + 2 13
j cos 69- ad inf.
16. sinh u + n sinh 2u + ^-^-g^sinh 3u + to n+ 1 terms, where n

is a positive integer.
107. Ex. Sum the series
c2 cos 20 c*cos 40 , . ,
1H 12 1 g 1- act in/
T ~ c2cos20 0*00340 . . .
Let C= 1 H js 1 rj 1- ad inf. . . .(1),
If C
, „ sin 20 , c4 sin 40 , . .,
and S= — —H ^— + ad inf. ...(2).
Hence
C + Si = 1 + + -TC- + ad inf.
I II n '
where y = ceH = c (cos 0 + i sin 0).
... fl+«-qj2
— i gccostf+wsinfl _ g—ccosfl—tcsintf
_ eecos9 [cos (c sin 0) + { sin (c sin 0)]
+ 1 e-ccosfl [cos (c sin 0) - i sin (c sin 0)]. (Art. 62.)
By equating real and imaginary parts we therefore

have
C = | cos (c sin 0) [eecoae + e""008 •]
= cos (c sin 0) cosh (c cos 0),

SUMMATION OF SEKIES. 119
and /S = |8in(csin^)[eC0O,"'-e-t;cO89]
= sin (c sin 8) sinh (c cos 0).

Aliter. From (3) we have
0 + Si = — e(csin *""*<' 008 *>* -4- — g-(csin*—<ccosS)<
2 2
= cos (c sin 5 — ic cos 8) (Art. 62)
=■ [cos (c sin #) cos (iccos0)+sin(csin<?) sin(iccos#)]
= [cos (csm0)cosh(ccos#)+i8in(csin#)sinh(c cos<?)]
(Art. 68).
Hence G and 8 as before.
108. Ex. Sum the two series
pa c3 .
c sin a + -= sin 2a + ■= sin 3o + ad inf.,
c3 c3
and c cos a + g cos 2a + ^ cos 3a + ad inf.,
where c is numerically not greater than unity.

Let S and 0 stand for these two series ; then, as
before, we have
c"
G+ Si=c (cos a + i sin a) + ^ (cos 2a + i sin 2a) +
= ceai + -ê'a{+ 3^+ (1)
= -log[l -ce""] (by Art. 90) (2)

= — log [1 — c cos a — ic sin a] (Art. 62).
Let 1 — c cos a = r cos 8, and — c sin a = r sin 8,
so that
—~ „ /, 1 — c cos a
r = + vl — 2c cos a + c2, cos 0 = ,
120 TRIGONOMETRY.
and
. . c sin a . a . — c sin a
sin 6 = , i.e. 0 = tan-1 .
1— ccosa'
with the convention of Art. 20.
C+Si = - log [Vl - 2c cosa + c2 (cos 0 + i sin 5)]
= — log [V1 — 2c cos a + c2 . ew]
= — log Vl — 2c cos a + c2 — #i.
.-. C = - log 7(1 - 2c cosa + c2) = -^log(l - 2c cosa + c2)

(3),
and gf^-g^z-tan-'f,-"0811101) (4).
\1 — c cos a/
Exceptional cases. When c = 1, the quantity (2)
= log [1 — cos a —i sin a] = log [1 +cos {a—if) +i sin (a — 7r)].
This, by Art. 90, is always equal to the series (1)
except when a — it is equal to (2n + 1) it, i.e. except when
a is a multiple of 2tt.
In this case 8 = 0,
and C=+i+_+_+_+ ,
which is known to be a divergent series.

When c = — 1, the quantity (2)
= log [1 + cos a + i sin a].
This by Art. 90 is always equal to the series (1)
except when a = (2» + 1) nr.
In this case S = 0, and
C=1+2+3+4+
The results (3) and (4) give then the sum of the two
series except when (1) c = 1 and a = 2wr, (2) c = — 1 and
o = (2n + 1) 7r, and (3) when c> 1.
In examples depending on the logarithm series it will
he often found that for some particular values of the angle
there is no sum.
Particular case. Let c = cos a, where a lies between
0 and so that
to
S = cos a . sin a + \ cosaa sin 2a + \ cos'a sin 3a +....
In this case
o . /- sin a cos a\ , ...
g = -taD'( sin'a J'byW»
= — tan-1 (— cot a)
-(-!)•
remembering the convention mentioned above,
= 2 -«■
EXAMPLES. XVII.
Sum tlie aeries
1. sin a + c sin(a + /3) + c275 sin (a + 2/3) + ad inf.
If
2. cos a + c cos (a+/S) + c2|5 oos(o + 2^) + ad inf.
[f
n ■ 1-cos
3. i a cos (3n + cos2 a cos2j3
_ „ cos3,3—a cos 3/3
„_ + ad, int.
. .
If If
4.. sin
. a sin(oIg+ 2/3) +. sin(a[4+ 48)— ....... ad, inf.
. ,
122 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XVII.]
_ cos o
5. eos(a + 2/3) + cos(o+4j3)
Lr3—— —\ — - ad, inf.
. .
If If
, cosh 2a + cosh
—15 3a h ad, inf.
. ,
6. 1 + coshaH jg—
E If
. , Binh2a
g + sinh3a ad. inf.
. ,
7. 8inha+ —jg— +
8. l + ecosaoos(sin a) + -i«2 008,1 cos (2 sin a) + ad inf.

If
g2sina e3sina
9. 1 + esin "cos (cos a) H r^- cos (2 cos a) -i =- cos (3 cos a) +
If If
ad inf.
5 cos 8 7 cos 30 9 cos 58 ,. _
10. —■t—
1 + —ia—
[8 + —is—
(6 + adlnf-
[In the following examples c may be assumed to be positive and not
greater than unity ; when c equals unity there will be, as in Art. 108,
exceptional cases for some values of the angle a.]
11. c sin a - c26 sin 2a + c3
-~A sin 3a - ad inf.
12. c sin a + i c'sin 3a + ic5sin5a + ad inf.

o 5
13. c cos a + \A c3 cos 3a + ^c5cos5a + ad inf.
o
14. ccos a - i c3cos 3a +^c6cos5a- ad inf.
A o
15. c sin a - \A c8 sin 3a + \o c" sin 5a - ad inf.
16. cos a - ; cos 3a + i cos 5a - ad inf.

o o
17. c cos a - 5 c6 cos (a + 2/3) + i c5 cos (a + 4/3) - ad inf.
A o
18. sin a sin (3 + \6 sin 2a sin 2/3 + 5A sin 3a sin 3/3 + ad inf.
19. c sin2 a-\ c2 sin2 2a + | c3 sin3 3a- ad inf.

20. sinh o.- \ sinh 2a + 3 sinh 3a - ad inf.
[Exs. XVII.] SUMMATION OF SERIES. 123
21. e" cos /3 - | e3" cos 3/3 + Ï г5" cos 50- ...... ad inf.
22. c08 т + 1 COS--

2я- + 1 COS 3ir + 1 COS 4ж ...... admf.
, . ,
23. If 0-a=tan2|sm20-tan4|sin40 + tane|sin60-... ad inf.

prove that tan a = tan в . cos и.
24. If 0 and ф be positive acute angles prove that the sum of the
series
sin 0 cos d> + - sin 30 cos 30 + 5 sin 50 cos 50 + ...... ad inf.
A o
is -т or 0, according as 0 > or < 0.
Prove that
25. 55
¿s O
= tan я - ¡г tan* z + - tan's - ...... , where ж lies between - 7 and + - .

35 44
. 2 Bin2 0+5. 4 sin« 0 + 5. 8 sin' 0+ ......
z (.*
= 2( tan" 0 + s tan6 0 + 5 tan10 0 + ...... ), where 0 lies between
\ a 5 J
27. sin 0 + 5 sin» 0+5 sin5 0+ ......

о о
= 2(sin0-5sin30 + -sin50- ...... ), where 0if(2n + l) ^.
Y '» О / л
109. We subjoin some examples of series which come

under neither of the foregoing heads nor under that of
Chapter XIX., Part I. In general they are to be summed
by the artifice of splitting each term into the difference of
two terms. Considerable ingenuity is often required. When
the answer is known the method of summation can usually
be easily seen; for the answer when n is put equal to
unity gives the form in which the first term of the series
has to be put.
124 TRIGONOMETRY.
Ex. 1. Sum to n terms the series

sin* | +.3 iin'l + 3» »in» p + ...
Since always sin 30 = 3 sin ф - 4 sin3 ф, we have
öl
-1 sin'A = 1 в- sin - 3»-' sin
Hence, by addition, the required sum
Also the sum to infinity

= i [Ö - sin 0]. (Art. 228, Part I.)
Ex. 2. Sum the series

tan a. + 2 tan 2o + 22 tan 2'2a + ...... + 2"-1 tan 2"-1 o.
We have easily
tan o = cot a - 2 cot 2a,
tan 2a=cot 2a - 2 cot 22a,
tan 22a=cot 22a - 2 cot Wa,
and tan 2"-] о = cot 2«-1 о - 2 cot 2no.
By multiplying these rows in succession by 1, 2, 22, ...... 2n-1 we have
tana + 2tan2a + 2atan22a + ...... + 21»-1 tan2»-1a=cota-2"oot 2»o,
the other terms all disappearing.
The required sum therefore = cot о - 2™ cot 2™o.
Ex. 3. Sum the series
tan atan (a + ß) + tan(a+ß)tan(a + 2ß) + tan (a + 2ß)tan(a + Sß) + ......
to n terms.
Let ur=the rth term, i.e.

tan{a + (r-l)/3}tan
tan {a + r/3}]x tan [a + r/3-(o + r- 1/3)]

= tan{o + r/S} -tan {o+F^l/S}. [Art. 98, Part I.]
Hence giving r in succession the values 1, 2, ......n, we have
(1 + «0 tan /3=tan (a + j8) - tan o,
(1 + и2) tan ß = tan (a + 2j3) - tan (a + ß),
Hence, by addition,
(n + Sn) tan ß = tan (o + n/3) - tan o,
..JIUM
EXAMPLES. XVIII.
Sum the series
1. cosec в + coseo 49 + cosec 49 + ...... to и terms.
2. cosec в ooseo 20 + cosec 29 coseo 39 + cosec 30 cosec 49 + ......
to n terms.
3. sec 9 sec 29 + sec 29 sec 39 + sec 39 sec 49+ ...... to n terms.
4. sec 9 sec (9 + 0) + sec (9 + ф) sec (в + 20) + sec (9 + 20) sec (9 + 30)
+ ...... to n terms.
S -=—I--:—I--=— + ...... to n terms.
cos a + cos За сова + созоа cos а + cos Та
1 и 1 fl 1 fi
6. tan 0 + -tan g + ^tan-, + j3 tan -3+ ...... ad inf.
1 и Л Й 1 в
7. tanh9 + tauh + 5tanh + tanh + ...... to n terms.
8. tan 9 sec 29 + tan 29 sec 49 + tan 49 sec 89 + ...... to n terms.
i -9 sec 9 + tan —г
9. tan
в в в в
seo = + tan ¡p sec —¿ + to n terms and to
infinity.
1 1 _1_
10> 2 cos в + W cos 9 cos 29 + 23 cos 9 cos 29 cos 22 9+ ...... »»»ям.
126 TRIGONOMETRY. [EXB. XVHL]
11. sin 29 cos2 9 - ^ sin 49 cos2 29 + j sin 89 cos2 49 - to n terms.

12. sin 29 sin2 9 + i sin 49 sin2 29 + j sin 89 sin2 49 + to n terms.
Oos9sin 9
+ cos29 + cos9sin 29 + cos9sin+ 39
+ cos49 cos69 ton* terms
erms.
14. tan2 o tan 2a + ^ tan2 2a tan 4a + i tan2 4a tan 8a + ad inf.
15. cos" 9 - ; cos3 39 + i cos8 329 - i cos» 389 + to n terms.
16. sin3 ^63 + 3 sin3 ^

6 6
6 + 32 sin3 oa + to n terms.
1 3 32
cot9-3tan9 cot39-3tan39 cot 329 - 3 tan 329
to n terms.
oos9-cos39 cos39-cos3«9 a2 cos 3*9 - cos 339
18, sln~39 +d iSl2^ + BtiM +
to n terms.
,4 , , 6 , , 8
19" tap"1 1T374 + tan-1 r^8T9 + tan"' 1 + 15 ■ 16 + to»terms-
20. tan-1 1 + tan-1 i + tan-1 + tan-1 i + to n terms.
21. tan~» g + tan-i ? + + tan-i + ad inf.
.. . , 1 . . J2-1 . ,JS-„/2
. , »/»-vn-l
+ sin-1 j —+ ad...
mf.
Vn (ra + 1)
Expansions.
110. In some branches of higher Mathematics it is
desirable to be able to expand certain quantities in a
series of ascending powers.
As an example we will expand
log (1 - 2a cos 6 + a")
in ascending powers of a.
EXPANSIONS. 127
Since 2 cos в = ен +
we have
log (1 - 2a cos в + a?) = log [1 - a (eei + e~w) + a2]
log (1 - aeei) + log (1 - ae-eO
—
JT t
о
= - a. 2 cos о - a2. 2 cos 20 - a8. 2 cos
=-2 Leos 0+ g a2 cos 20 + jr a» cos 30 + .

The expansion of log (1 — ae9*) is legitimate, by Art.
90, if the modulus of — ae9' be less than unity.
Now — oew = a{cos(7T + 0)+ isin(-n-+ 0)},
so that its modulus is equal to a. Hence the above
expansion is legitimate provided that a is less than unity.
The expansion is also legitimate if a be equal to unity,
provided that 0 do not equal an even multiple of тт.
It is also legitimate if a be equal to — 1 and 0 do not
equal an odd multiple of тт.
111. Ex. Expand
l-aa
1 - 2a cos в + a2
in a series of ascending powers of a.
128 TRIGONOMETRY.
We have
1 - a2 . 2 - 2a cos в
—1 +
l-2acosö + a2 l-2acos0
= -1+ =—
1 2 — a (ew + e~K)
= -!+(!- ae'O"1 + (1 - ae^)'1

= - 1 + 1 + aeei + a'e2* Ч-а3^ + ......
= +a
= 1 + 2a cos в + 2a? cos 20 + 2a3 cos 30 +... ad in£
The expansions of (1 — ae**)"1 and (1 — ae~ei)~^ by the
Binomial Theorem are legitimate if the modulus of <zew be
less than unity, i.e. if a be numerically < 1, but not
otherwise. (Art. 26.)
The above series is the one assumed in Art. 49.
Similarly we can deduce the series of Art. 48. For
we have
2asin(?
l -2acos0 + a2~ t 1 - a (eei + «r") + a"
1 aeM-ae-M 1Г _1_ 1 1
% (1 - ae»*) (1 - ae~ei) ~ 7 [l - aeP1 1 - ae-eij
= {(1+ aeeí
= 2a sin o + 2a2 sin 20 + 2a3 sin 30 + ...... ad inf.

As before this expansion is legitimate only if a < 1.
EXPANSIONS. 129
112. Ex. If sin x = nsin(a + x), expand x in a

series of ascending powers of n, where n is less than unity.
Since
sin x = n sin (o + x) = n (sin a cos x + cos a sin x),
n sin a
.*. tan x = = ,
1 — n cos a
e™ — e_iri ni sin a
e** + e-*' 1 — n cos a '
e*1 _ 1 — m cos a + m sin a _ 1 — ne-"
e_xi 1 — n cos a — ni sin a 1 — neai '
.'. 2xi = log (1 — ne~ai) — log (1 — neai)
= - ne-"* - \ n%er** - i têr"1 -
+ neai + 1 nVai + | «"e3"' +
= n(e"i- e~ai) + \ri> (e2"' - e~Mi)
+ i íJs (e3"' - e"5"') ad inf.
= n . 2i sin a + ^ ras . 2t sin 2a + ns . 2i sin 3a + . . .
.'. x = n sin a + i ns sin 2a + i n* sin 3a + (1).
In this equation we have assumed x to lie between

7T 7T
- 5 and + ^ ; if it do not, then, instead of 2#i, we should
read 2&7rt + 2¡ct ; the left hand of equation (1) would then
be x + kir, and we must choose k so that x + kir shall lie
between — jr and + ^ .
As before the expansions are legitimate if n be < unity.
L. T. II. 9
r
130 TRIGONOMETRY.
113. Ex. Expand e** cos bx in a series of ascending

powers of x.
We have
eaxcosbx = eP*. =
25
— — Ma+bi)x i J p(0,—bi)X
~2 +2
--^+(a + h)«+V—^— + v ^ + J
+ g [1 + (o - K) * + i—^— + J.
The coefficient of #n
_(g + fa')"+(a-fa')n
2 (n
If a + fa = r (cos a + i sin a), so that
r = + Vaa + 6s and tan a = - ,
a
with the convention of Art. 20, then the coefficient of xn
_ [r (cos a + i sin a)}" + \r (cos a — i sin a)}"
2~jn
_ cos net
fc '
by De Moivre's Theorem.
Hence we have
7 j-2 cos 2a , i* cos 3a , ,
e"* cos ox = 1 + r cos a . x H ^— H jg— ^ + »
where
r = + Va3 + 62 and tan a = - .
a
This expansion is legitimate for all values of a, b, and
x. (Art. 57.)
EXPANSIONS. 131
EXAMPLES. XIX.
Expand in an infinite series
l + acos0 „ cos0-acos(0-#)
l + 2acos0-t a'* l-2acos^ + a1
. sin 8- a sin [8 ~d>) . . .
5. ea9sin&0.
Prove that
6" l0« aW sin^=4 [' ™' ' - g »h' 2g + * c» rin» 30- ...] ,
.
where c = a-b
—
a+b
7. tan-1, a8m<> —a sin 8 + \ a1 sin 29 + ^ a* sin 30 + ad inf.
1 - a cos 6 2 3
8. ^ tan-1 (sin a tan 2/3) = sin a tan /3 + * sin 3a tan3 0
+ | sin 5a tan'|8+ ad inf.

9. If sin 8 = x cos (8 + a), expand 8 in a series of ascending powers
of x.
10. Expand y in terms of cos a, where
o2 *tan i/ = sin x cosec ;r—
r +-a eosec -z ——a .
11. If tan x = n tan y, and m= 1-n

j-^y4 . prove that
z + nr=y sin 2y + sin 4y - — sin 6i/ + ad inf.,

2 o
where r is to be so chosen that x + rr-y lies between - g and + 3 .
12. What does the series of the preceding question become when
<1) n = cos a. and (2) n= * ?
' cos 2a
13. Expand log cos + 0^ in a series of sines and cosines of
ascending multiples of 6.
9—2
132 ÏKIGONOMETRY. [EXS. XIX.]
14. Expand log tan l - + - \ in a series of sines of ascending multiples

of Л
15. Prove that
(1 + eel tan a) (1 + e~H tan o) (1 + ew cot a) (1 + e~w cot a)
= 4 (sec ß + cos 0)*,
where /3=5~2o.
Hence expand log (1 + cos /Seos в) in a series of cosines of multiples
ote.
16. Prove that
2a cos n
= 2a cos в + 2a2 sin 26 - 2a3 cos 36 - 2a4 sin 40 + ad inf.
1 -2a sin 0 + a2
17. Prove that
log cos 0= - log 2 + cos 20 -- cos 40 + - cos 60- ad inf.,
¿ il
if 0 be an angle whose cosine is positive.

18. In any triangle where a > 6, prove that
log с = log a — cos C-- -jeos2C--^TCOs3C- ad inf.
a ¿a o a3
[~We have c2=a* + b2 - 2ab cos C=a2 ( 1 - -eic\ ( 1 - - e-'c\
19. Prove that the coefficient of x" in the expansion of

ef1 sin bx + ebx sin ал
in powers of x is
>i„a_LM\5' nr „(-„. j-i
sin — cos ¿l ö - 2 tan"1 - .
|n— — 4 — 2L2
20. Prove that the coefficient of cn in the expansion of
1 Г( - 1)*"1 _ 2 cos «0
* a a~b
where tan0= —-т«
a+o
CHAPTER IX.
RESOLUTION INTO FACTORS. INFINITE PRODUCTS FOR

SIN 6 AND COS 6.
114. We know from Algebra that, if P be any

expression containing x and if the value x = a would
make P vanish, then x — a is a factor of P.
Hence to find the factors of any expression P we first
solve the equation P = 0. Also if P be of the nth degree
we know that there are only n solutions of the equation
P = 0. If the roots thus found are a, /3, 7 k, we know
that x — a,x — fi x — k are factors of the expression P
and that there are no other factors which contain x.
We shall apply this method in the following articles.
115. To resolve into factors the expression

xm-2xncosnd+\.
We have first to solve the equation
as8* - 2xn cos nd + 1 = 0,
i. e. x"1— 2xn cos n0 + cos2 nd=— sin2 nd,
so that xn — cos n6 = ± V — 1 sin nd,
and therefore
1
x = [cos nd ± V— 1 sin nd]n.
134 TRIGONOMETRY.
As in Art. 24 the values of this expression are the 2n

quantities
cos 0 ± i sin 0, cos (0 + ± i sin {() + ,
«(#+fc)±<*(,+3
m.{>+i<";1)'}1.-ria{l) + i<";'"}.
Taking the first pair of these quantities we have the

corresponding factors
x — cos 0 — i sin 0 and a; — cos 0 + i sin 0,
or, in one factor,
(x - cos 0)a + sin2 0,
i.e. the quadratic factor
a? — 2a:cos0 + 1.
Similarly the second, third, ... pairs of the above
quantities give as factors respectively
a? - 2x cos (0 + ^ + 1,
a2 - 2<c cos (tf + ^) + 1,
and a? - 2x cos j<? + —^— tt| + 1.
Also on multiplying together these n factors we see

that the coefficient of of"1 in their product is unity, which
is also the coefficient of a?" in the original expression. No
other numerical factor is therefore required.
FACTORS OF l"1- 2xn COS n6 + 1. 135
Hence
x2n - flx" cos n6+l
= {x" - 2x cos 6 + 1 } |xa - 2x cos (fl + ^ + 1 J
jx»-2xcos(0 + ^)+l}
...jx»-2xcos ^+2^2-7r) + lJ....(l).
By dividing by xn we have
xn + ^ - 2 cosn0= ja; + ^ - 2 cos #j ja: + ^ - 2 cos ^ +
... ja: + \ - 2 cos (<? + tt)J (2).
The relation (2) may be written

xn + 4; - 2 cos n9 = * II -Le + i - 2 cos f0 + H
r=n—1
where II stands for the product for all integral values
r=0
of r from r = 0tor=n — lof the expression following it.
Similarly we may shew that
xm-2anxncosn0 + am
= [a? - lax cos 6 + a1} jar" - 2aa; cos + ^ +a2|
|a;2-2oa;cos ^+^ + a2j... j^- 2aa;cos^+^^7r^+a3|

(3).
116. The proposition of the last article may also be proved by
induction.
136 TRIGONOMETRY.
We shall first shew that z" + — - 2 cos no is divisible by

X
x-\--- 2oos
x
Let я" H—-¡-2 cos no be denoted by ф (n), and x -\--- 2 cos о by \, so
X X
that we have to shew that ф (n) is divisible by \ for all positive integral
values of n.
Assume that this is true for ф (n - 1) and ф (n - 2).
We have then, by ordinary multiplication,
= -¡ж" + — - 2 cos naj-
5=-, -2 cos (n- 2) oí -2cos(n-l)a JSH--- 2cosa( ,
2 cos no + 2 cos (re -2)»= 4 cos a cos (n-1) a.
Hence ж + - x0(n-l) = 0(n) + 0(»-2)-2Xcos(n-l)a.
...... (1).
Now . 0(l)=xH--- 2cosa = X,
and 0(2) = ^ + -2 -2 cos 2o= Í œ + --2cosa j ( x + - +2cosoJ
= X (a; H---h2coso) ,
so that ф (1) and ф (2) are divisible by X.

Hence, putting m=3 in (1), we see that ф (3) is divisible by X.
Similarly putting, in (1), я = 4, 5, 6 ...... in succession we see that,
by induction, ф (я) is divisible by X for all values of n.
.'. xn H—- - 2 cos no is divisible by x -i--- 2 cos a.
X X
PROPERTIES OF THE CIRCLE. 137
Again x"+-i--2 cos na=x* + ^-- 2 cosn (•♦?)■

and is similarly divisible by
H x 2 cos (\ oh nj1 .
Proceeding in this way we can shew that it is divisible by
xH x 2 cos (on
\ n J) xh x 2 cos (\ aH n 2t J) ,
and hence obtain equation (2) of Art. 115.
117. De Moivre's Property of the Circle.
A geometrical meaning may be given to the equation
(3) of Art. 115.
Let ABCD ... be the angular
points of a polygon of n sides
which is inscribed in a circle of
radius a, so that, 0 being the
centre, we have
ÂOB=zBOC=zCOD=... = — .
n
Let P be a point within, or
without, the circle such that
OP = x, and zPOA = d.
Then
/.P0B = 6 + tPOC=d+^,...
n n
and we have
PA1 = 0P>+0A*-20P . OA cos POA
= a?— 2ox cos 6 + a3,
PB1 = OP2 + OB1 - 20P . OB cos POB
= o?- 2ox cos (d + + a3,
PC3 = a? - 2ax cos (d + ^) + <*'>

138 TRIGONOMETRY.
Hence PA3 . PB> . PC2 ... to n factors

= ja?— 2aa;cos0+aaj ■ a?-2axcos (0 + ^^ + a2j
ja* - 2ax cos (o + + a3j . . . to n factors

- a?" - 2anxn cos n6 + a™.
118. Cotes' Property of the Circle.
In the preceding article let the point P lie on OA, i.e.
let it be on the line joining the
centre to one of the angular points
of the polygon.
In this case 0 = 0, and we have
PA* . PB* . PC ...ton factors
= xm- 2anxn + am
= (xn-any.
.'. PA. PB. PC. ..ton factors
= xn — an or else an — xn.
The first of these values must be taken when P is
outside the circle, on OA produced, so that x > a.
The second must be taken when P is within the
circle.
We therefore have
PA. PB. PC. PI). ..ton factors = xn ~ an. . .(1).
Again let a, /3, y, 8 ... be the middle points of the arcs
AB, BG, CD,... so that AaB/3Cy ... is a polygon of 2n
sides inscribed in the circle.
By (1) we have
PA . Pa . PB . P/3 . PC . Py ... to 2n factors = x™ ~ a™
(2).
Dividing (1) by (2), we get
Pa . P/3 . Py . . . to n factors =xn + an (3).
FACTORS OF Xn — 1. 139
The equation (3) may also be deduced directly from equation (3) of
Art. 115 by putting 9 = ^ . We then have
(x1 - lax cos + a2^ (i* - 2nj; cos ^ + aa^x» - 2ax cos ^ + a2)
to n factors = x** - 2anj" cos 7r + a-n
= xtu + 2a*xn + a2" = [xa + a")2,
i.e. Pos . P/S2 . P72 to n factors = (xn + a")2.
This is relation (3).
119. To resolve into factors the expression xn — 1.
We have first to solve the equation
a" - 1 = 0,
i.e. xn = 1 = cos 2m- ± i sin 2rir,
where r is any integer,
l
so that x = [cos 2rir ± i sin 2nr]B (1)
.JYrsi, Zer; n be even.
As in Art. 24 the values of the expression (1) are
.... 27T.. 2tt 4tt . . 4tt
cos 0 + i sin 0, cos — + 1 sin — , cos — + 1 sin — .
n w « - n
7i — 2 . . w— 2 7i7r . . iwr
...cos Tr + ism 7T, cos — +isin — .
n n n ~ n
But cosO0 + isinO° = l,
. rnr . . nir -
and cos — + i sin — = — 1.
n n
Hence in this case the roots are the n quantities
. , 2-7T , . . 27T 47T , . . 47T
+ 1. cos — + i sin — , cos — + % sin — ,
n ~ n n n
n-2 , . . n-2
... COS 7T + 18U1 7T.
n n
-
140 TRIGONOMETRY.
The factors corresponding to the first of these pairs are

x — 1 and x + 1, i.e. the quadratic factor a? — 1.
Those corresponding to the second pair are
x — cos 2tt %. sin
. 2?r
■— and, x — cos 2?r (- 1. sin
. 2tt
—,
n n n n
2ir
a? — 2x cos f-1.
n
Hence we get „ pairs of quadratic factors.
When multiplied together they give the correct
coefficient for xn, so that no numerical quantity need be
prefixed to their product.
Hence, finally, when n is even,
xn-l=(x2- 1) (a? - 2x cos ^ + l) (a* - 2x cos ~ +
... (x2 - 2x cos ir+lj (2).

Secondly, let n be odd.
As in Art. 24 the values of the expression (1)
are now
„ , . . n 2tt . . 2ir 47r , . . 47r
cos 0 + i sin 0, cos — + i sin — , cos — + i sin — , . . .
n ~ n n n
n — 3 , . . Ti — 3 n — 1 , . . n—1
...cos 7r + isin 7r, cos 7r+tsin ir.
n n n n
The first pair reduces to the single root + 1.
Taking the other pairs together, as before, we obtain,
when n is odd,
xn- 1 =(«-!) 1^-20 cos ja:2- 2«cos^"+l| ...
n—1 )
2x cos ir+ 1 \ (3).
FACTOHS OF Zn + 1. 141
Hence we have
xn-\=(a?-\) n (a? -2* cos— + 1J,

when n is even, and
r=_n-l
2 / 9r7r \
xn-l=(x- 1) n (a^-2a;cos^ + lJ,
when m is odd.
These formulae can also be deduced from the funda
mental one of Art. 115 by putting m#=27r.
120. To resolve x" + 1 into factors.

We must solve the equation
xn+l=0,
i.e. xn — — 1 = cos (2nr + ir)±i sin (2r7r + tt),
where r is any integer,
l
so that x = (cos (2?-7r + it) ± i sin (2nr + 7r)}"
2r7T + 7T . . 2r7T + 7T ,
= cos n -+ ~ i sin n (1).
x
First, let n be even.
As in Art. 24, the values of the expression (1) are
7T . . 7T 377 . . 37T 07T . . 57T
cos — + i sin - , cos \-i sm — , cos — + i sm —- ,
n n n n n ~ n
(n-lW , . . (n — 1W
... cos £— + t sin —.
n n
The factors corresponding to the first of these pairs are
7T . . 7
x — cos ism-
1 sin - and x — cos —|- % sin — ,
n j
n n n
7T
a? — 2x cos — + 1.
142 TRIGONOMETRY.
The quadratic factor corresponding to the second

pair is
x" — 2x cos --hi,
71
and so on.
Hence, as in the last article, when n is even, we have
xn + 1 = (a? - 2x cos - + l) (x* - 2ж cos — +
Secondly, let n be odd.

The values of the expression (1) are in this case
cos 7Г
- + г. sin
. -,
TT cos —•
Зтг + г. sin
. —Зтг , ...
n~ n n ~ n
(n — 2) TT . . (n — 2) 7Г птт . . ntr
cos--'— + гвт---— . cos — +ism — .
n " n n " n
The last pair of roots reduces to the single root — 1, so
that x + 1 is one of the required factors.
The quadratic factors corresponding to the successive
pairs of roots are
a? — 2x cos - + 1, a? — 2x cos ---1- 1, ...
n n
n— 2
o? —Ix cos - тг + 1.
n
Hence finally, when n is odd, we have
xn + 1 = (x + 1) (я? - Чх cos - +l) (a? - 2x cos — +1\...
'V n i\ n J
EXAMPLES. 143
We have then
-•=!
2 / 2r 4- 1
xn + l= П o?-
r=o \
when и is even, and
n-3
(ж + 1) П (я? -
r=0 V П
when и is odd.
These formulae can be deduced from the fundamental
one of Art. 115 by putting nQ — tr.
121. Eat. 1. Express as a product of n factors the qiiantities
cos пф - cos пв and согЪпф — согпв.
In equation (2) of Art. 362 put 1=6*', so that ar1 = «-*', and hence
and
We then have
U2oos A-2cos (0+ — ) | ...... to n factors,

Ч ™/J
Í.S. COS 710 - COS »9 = 2ll~1{ COS 0-0080} <СОаф- COS | OH-- H ......
Similarly by putting х = е^ we have

cosh n0- cos «9
= a1^1 [cosh ^ - cos 0] cosh^)-cos Í 9 + — J ......
Гcosh, <4 - cos /„ 2я-2 тг\П
I 9 и-- I .
u \ n JJ
144 TRIGONOMETRY.
Es. Я. If n be even, prove that

„^ . —-
2s »гя 2ir «гя
. —4тг >гп
. -тт-
бтг .n-2
»гп -=— v=Jn.,
2n 2n 2« 2к ч
In equation (2) of Art. 119 put n equal to unity.
Then, since —=—=-= —
therefore, when x is unity, —r,—т- = ~ •

X — 1 a
Hence we have
--
2n
there being 5 - 1 factors,
Я
._ . . „ 2т . . 4ir , „n-2
= 2"~1. sin* ¡г- sin' — ...... sm2—-— т.
2n -J» 2n
, „^Ç- . 2тг . 4тг .n-2 „,
Hence *V" = 22 Bln2^siu'2ll ...... Sm^TT ................( )-
Each of the angles —, — , ...... —— ir is less than a right angle, so

'2.11. ¿11 ¿II
that each of the sines on the right-hand side of (1) is positive.
On the left-hand side we therefore replace the ambiguity by the
positive sign and have the required result.
EXAMPLES. XX.
Factorize the following quantities.
2. x8
3. xi»-2x'cos + l. 4.
8. *7-l. 9. a* + l. 10. x10-!.

11. *1S+1. 12. *14-1. 13.
[EXS. XX.] EXAMPLES.
14. If n be even, prove that
2 s siii — sin jr- sin — sin s— r=l
'in 2n 2n 2n
5=?
= 2 2 COS 2n ir
— COS— 3tt n-1
COS-r—
2/t 2n T.
15. If n be odd, prove that
2*T . tt—
2 sin 2t sin
. 4t
^ ... am .«-l . - r = .'n, = 2 cos --- ir cos =-
fcr ... cos -s-
n-
2» 2n 2n 2« 2n 2n
and that
„5=3 sin
2* . — x . 3t ... sm . n-2 , 2x cos tt—
4r n-1 r
2n sin ^
2n 2n— x = l=2' cob — 2n 2n ... cos -— 2a
_ . . w
16. Prove that sin - sin — . 3» .n-1
sin f=r—r-n
n n n 2" 1
17. If n be odd, prove that
♦ '« 2** 3* t ^(""1)T ,
tan - tan — tan — tan =v «•
n n n n
18. Shew that cos nff
= 2"-1 ^cos 6 - cos ^cos 6 - cos |^ ^cos 9 - cos -n
Prove that
19. sin n<t>= 2"_1 sin 0 sin ^0 + ^ sin + ^—^ irj
r=n-l / rv\
= 2»-1 sin U> + —J.
[Put x = l, and 9 = 20, in the equation of Art. 115.]
20. cos n<t> = 2»-i sin ^0 + ~j sin ^ + sin ^ + 1
[Change <j> into tp + £- in the formula of the preceding question.]

in
21. 2"-1 cos <f> cos f0 + cos + cos ^0 + ir^j
= ( - 1)2 sin rup, when n is even,

and = (-1) 2 cosn0, when n is odd.
j^CAanoe 0 into <t>+în the result of Ex. 19.J
L. T. II. 10
146 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XX.]
_„ „_
22. 2"-1, COS —T 3ir
it— COS 5ir 008 2n—
—2n 1-7T = C0S hjt
"in COS 2n —
2it —-.
ii
, t . 8t .
23. 2*-1 sin =- sin ;r- sin — Sir .2/i-l
sin —-— *•= 1.,
2n 2n 2« 2«
24. cos x-n cos 2tt
—n cos (2h-1)»
^ n — = (-1)"-1
.' — .
2s*-1
25. Prove that
xn - an cos n<? 1 r_"_1
2! ,
a8" - 2anxn cos + a2" nxn_1 r-o /„ 2rr\ .'
x1- lax cos I 8 + ~)+a
[In the expression (3) of Art. 115 change x into x + h, expand and
equate coefficients of K]
26. The circumference of a circle of radius r is divided into 2n equal
parts at points P1 , Pa , PM ; if chords be drawn from P1 to the other
points, prove that
PiPfPiP, P1P„=r»-V".
Also, if 0 be the middle point of the arc PA* , prove that
OP,.OP2 0P„=v/2rn.
27. H -<î^2 -^2n+i 08 a regular polygon of 2« + l sides, inscribed
in a circle of radius a, and 0An+l be a diameter, prove that
0^.0^2 OAn=an.
28. -^1^2 is a regular polygon of n sides. From 0 the centre
of the polygon a line is drawn meeting the incircle in P, and the circum-
circle in P2.
Prove that the product of the perpendiculars on the sides drawn from
Pj is to the product of the perpendiculars from P2 as
cosn - cot2 ^ to 1.
n 2
8 being the angle between OPP1 and 0AV
29. ABCD is a regular polygon, of n sides, which is inscribed in
a circle of radius a and centre 0 ; prove that
PA2 . PP2 . PC3 = r2» - 20*1* cos n8 + a2",
where OP is r and the angle AOP is 8.
Prove also that the sum of the angles that AP, BP, CP, make
, r"sin n8
with OP is tan-1 r" cos n8-.—-.
-an
SIN в IN FACTORS. 147
Resolution of sin в and cos в into factors.

122. To express sin в as a product of an infinite series
offactors.
û û
We have sin в = 2 sin - cos ^
„ - в .
n a
Similarly in (1) changing в into ^ and 5- + - succes-
¿i & &
sively, we have
. в . в . ¡тт в\ . в . ßir в\
sm = 2 sm sin + = 2 sin sm + ,
, . 0 . в\ . (ТГ ТГ 0V
and sm + =2 sm + . sin + +
Substituting these values in the right-hand side of (1)

we have, after rearranging,
. ,, _. . в . . . ...
sin в = 23 sin ^sm -^- sin 2a sin —^— . . .(2).
Applying once more the formula (1) to each of the
terms on the right hand of (2) and arranging, we have
. , , . в . ir + в . 2тг+0 . Зтг+0 . 4тг + (?
sm в = 27 sin sm —- sin ~- sm sm
. отг + в . бтг + в . Чтг + в
sm sm sm — -
Continuing this process we have finally
• a o» i • • • . -
sin о = 2*-1 sin - sin - sm - ... sin ^--'-
p p p p
............(4),
where p is a power of 2.
10—2
148 TRIGONOMETRY.
The last factor in (4)

. T 7T-01 . 7T-0
= sin 7r = sin .
L P J J»
The last factor but one
. (p-2)7r + 0 . T 2tt-0~[ . 2tt-
= sin — = sin pr = sin
P I P J 2>
and so on.
Hence, taking together the second and last factors,
the third and next to last, and so on, the equation (4)
becomes
IT- 0
sin 0 = 2p_1 sin - J sin -sin- }{sin. sin
Pi P P P .
•(5).
The last factor is
sin
P
e
which = sin^+|)I = cos - .
P
Hence (5) is
sin1 0( = sin - [sin2 - - sin2 -1 [sin2 — 4-
PL P PJ-L P
.,(f-1) • - sin2 - , cos -

sin2 (6).
P P
Divide both sides of (6) by sin -e and make 0 zero.
0 '
sin 0 B1TL0 p
Since . 0 p-0- 'TV
sin- sin-
. PJ 0=0 PJ »m0
SIN 6 IN FACTORS. 149
we have
p = 2r-i . sin3 ,2tt . „3tt

. sin2 sin-* ...(7).
i> 2> p
Dividing (6) by (7), we have
r • r ■ • , e^
sin2 - sin2 - sin2 -
e £
sin 8 — p sin - i £ i £ 1-
P • ,3tt
sin2 — sin2 — sin2 —
L pj i> J 2> J
sin''
1 - cos .(8).
■Ki-1)?.
Now make p indefinitely great.

Since
6
sin
' ■ #1
p sin - = i 0 (Art. 228, Part L),
P p= X
L i> .
r • 0 7T3
sin2 - sin-1 -
P p. p' 0* = —.■ (Art. 228, Part L),
7T 7T2 7T
sin3 - sm' -
L J»J P = 70 LI Pa p J
and so on, we have
This theorem may be written in the form
sin i
150 TRIGONOMETRY.
123. To express cos 6 as a product of an infinite series

offactors.
In equation (4) of Art. 122 write for 6 the quantity
2 + 6, and the equation becomes
cos 0 = 2*~l sin —x— sin —s sin —= ...
2p 2p 2p
(2p-l)Tr + 2e
sin .(1).
2p
The last factor
. r 7T- 261 . ir-2d
= ssin^—2—j=sin-¥->
the last but one
3tt-26I
and so on.
Hence taking the factors in pairs, as before, we have
20 . it -26 r • 3tt + 26> . 3tt-26>
cos 6 -2.-.[si»=±
2p-Sm^- sin —;2p sin m 2p
"3ir . 220
= 2*-1 1 sin2 £ - sin2 ^ sm o Sin2 jr-]...(2>
2p 2p
In (2) make 6 zero and we have
1 = 2P~1. sin2^ . sin2 ~ . sin2 ^ . ...(3).
2p
Dividing (2) by (3), we have
220 .20 .26
sm2 sm2
cos 0 = [ 1- 1- 2p
77
sin2 sin2^- sm2 —
2pJ L 2p.
20
sin2
1 2L ..(4).
2 (j? - 1) 7T
sin
2j> J
COS 8 IN FACTORS. 151
In (4) make p infinite ; then, as in the last article, we

have
This theorem may be written in the form
Since cos 0 = > product of cos 9 may be

derived from the products for sin 26 and sin 8.
124. The equation (4) of Art. 122 may, by means of Art. 115, be
shewn to be true for all integral values of p. For we have
a;S(p_2zi>cosjp0 + l
= {a;a-2a!oos0+l}|a;!1-2xoos +
i*' - 2x oos + ~^ + 1J- . . . ...to p factors.

Put x=l, and we have
2(l-cosytf>)={2-2cos0} |2 - 2 cos (j> + y topfactors.
i.e. 4 sin* ^= 4 sin* | . 4 sin3 (f + ^) • * s™2 (f + ^)-tol> factors.

Put ^p
a = 0, and extract the square root of both sides. We have then
+ sin 0 = 2?-* em- . sin . sin — sm^- ....(1).
p p p p
If 0 lie between 0 and ir all the factors on the right-hand side of (1)
are positive and so also is sin 0. Hence the ambiguity should be
replaced by the positive sign.
If 0 lie between it and 2ir, all the factors on the right-hand side are
positive except the last, which is negative.
Hence the product is negative and so also is sin 0, so that in this case
also the positive sign is to be taken.
Similarly in any other case it may be shewn that the positive sign
must be taken,' and we have, for all integral values oip,
sin 9=2P 1 sin - . sin sin sin — '—— ,
P P P P
152 TBIGONOMETRY.
125. Sink в and cosh в in products.

By Art. 68 we have
sinh в = — i sin (вг) and cosh в = cos (di).
Also the series of Arts. 122 and 123, being formed on
the Addition Theorem are, by Art. 64, true when for в
we read вг.
The products (1) and (2) are convergent. For we know (C. Smith's
Algebra, Art. 337) that the infinite product П(1 + и„) is convergent if the
series 2и„ be convergent.
In the case of (1), 2м„
1 1 1
and the latter series is known to be convergent.
126. Sums of powers of the reciprocals of all

natural numbers.
From the results of Arts. 122 and 123 we can deduce
the sums of some interesting series.
From Arts. 122 and 33 we have
sin в . о3 в*
SUM OF NEGATIVE POWERS OF INTEGERS. 153
Taking the logarithms of both sides, we have
-i«fr[i-?+H5--] (1>
Now, by Art. 8, we have
/ _r i ^ ij* -
so that (1) gives
7ra[12 + 2>+ 3a J 2 7T4|_14 2« + 3* J
1 1 1
3tt« Ll6 + 2« + 3«+- J
= l041_(?~i^ + -)]
U 120 + "') 2\Q 120 + '
.(2).
' 6 180
Since equation (2) is true for all values of 6 the
coefficients of O2 on both sides must be the same, and
similarly those of 6*, and so on.
154 TRIGONOMETRY.
Hence we have
11/1 1 1
11] 7Г2
Hence p + 25 + ^ + ... ad inf. = j (3),
+ + +-adinf.= (4),
127. By proceeding in a similar manner with the

result of Art. 123 we have
so that
+._-„[.-$+£-_]
Hence as before
_ ^ EL _ I ^ _ 4\_ _^!_^1_
"" 2 + 24 + "' 2U '"/ 2 12
SUM OF NEGATIVE POWERS OF INTEGERS. 155
Hence, equating coefficients of 0* and 91, we have

_±(l 1 1 \ 1
ir*\l* 3> + o* + "' J ~ 2'
_ 8 (1 1 1 >__J_
and hence 1 + 1 + 1 + ... = ^ (1),
and -+-+1 + =^ r-9\
128. WallW Formula.

In the expression of Art. 122 pnt 0=^ , and we have
-K-HD-at-i] —
_irl_L3 3^5 5^ (2n-3) (2n-l) (2n-l)(2n+l)
"2 2« " 4! 1 6' (2n-2)» ' (2n)3
where n is infinite,
2 _ 1» . 3» . S2 . 7' (2n - 1)* . (2n + 1)
x~ 2*.4*.«« (2n)* *
. 2.4.6 2n /»■ 77 , . . . ,.
t. e. 1.3.5... .(2B -1) = V 2 ( + 6 " 13 lnfimte-
It follows that when n is very great (bat not necessarily infinite) then
2.4.6 2n nrz. ~ ,
1.3.5 (2.-1) = V 2 <2n + v ™y neariy
= Vnir, ultimately.
This is called Wallis' Formula, and gives in a simple form a very near
approach to the product of the first n even numbers divided by the first n
odd numbers when n is very great.
156 TRIGONOMETKY.
129. Ex. Prove that
From Art. 123 we have

+log(l-^)+log(l-^)+ ...... (1).
In this equation substituting 0 + h for в we have
goos(ö + ft) = log[l-^(i + A)!!] + log[l-^lrj(e + Ä)2] + ......... (2).
Now log cos (9 + ft) = log [cos в (cos ft - tan в sin /»)]
=logcos0 + log["l-^ + ...... -tan0(ft-^- + ...... Vj (Art. 33)
= log cos в + log [1 — h tan в + higher powers of ft]

= log cos в - h tan в + powers of h. (Art. 8.)
Also l
, Г, 40--1 80Л
=log LI - —J - _^ + powers of h,
and l
8ЙЛ
of, *•
,
Substituting these values in (2) and equating on each side the coeffi
cients of - ft we have
80 80 80 „.
=
The series (3) may also be written
222 2
[The student who is acquainted with the Differential Calculus will

observe that equation (3) is obtained by differentiating (1) with respect
to 0.]
EXAMPLES. 157
130. Ex. Prove that

cosh 2a - cos 20
KiAere r ¿i zero or any positive or any negative integer.

We have
ooah 2a - cos 20 = cos 2ai - cos 20= 2 sin (0 + ai) sin (0 - ai)
. . . . . <«•
+ 9 + tti) (т -g-ai)-|
~ Г(7г + 0- ai)) (я-
(я- -- 00 +
+ ai)-]
ai
? J
Hence (1) gives

cosh 2a - COS 20 = 2 (0= + a«)
In (2) put a = 0 and we have
Dividing (2) by (3) we have

cosh 2a - cos 20
...... -"•'•
The factors of cosh 2o + cos 20 may now be obtained by changing 0
into 0 + 5 and they are found to be 2 cos2 0П -Í1+ f—^— VI where r is
« I \0 + nrJ \
any odd integer, positive or negative.
158 TRIGONOMETRY.
EXAMPLES. XXI.
Prove that
2. + ......
l l E. *°_ d' -^(i- —

5. Prove that the sum of the products, taken two and two together,
of the reciprocals of the squares of all odd numbers is -^g •
6. Prove that the sum of the products, taken two and two together,
7Г4
of the reciprocals of the squares of all numbers is ^Q •
Prove that
7. cotx в, = 1- - -j-^
20 - 25-5-^
20
L 1 . 1 . 1 . 1 <...„... ad inf.
1 1 1_ ,1.1 1 1
8. cosec 0 = - - — - — +—- + -в-^- _ ___ - ^-^ +...
-я-" 6 + K
and hence that

1 + ÖcosecÖ := —11 1 , . f
292 —
p p-** 4- e*-2W
•—- —
"" RU in I.
Use the relation cosec о = к ( *апо +C0t2/ '
|tTíe íAe relation 2 >ec e = tan (т + g) + cot (f + 2) 'J

[Eis. XXL] INFINITE PRODUCTS. EXAMPLES. 159
[Apply the process of Art. 129 to the result obtained in that article.]
11. cosec* e= I + (^+ (T1_ + _i_ + _2_ + ... ad inf.
Prove that
sin(g-<»=/1_gW M/_^4
ema \ a/ \ ir-aj\ r + a/
= П f 1 -- J , where r is any positive or negative integer or
13. -r^—- = П f IH-- J , where r is any positive or negative

integer, including zero.
[па ~п
1+ñ 7- , where r is any odd integer positive or negative.
15. —- — —П 1 - x , where r is any odd integer, positive

cos a L *a + 74r_|
or negative.
coso + coso_r. о2 ~\Г, б2 "I Г. Й2 "j
1 + cosa ~L (lr + ")2JL ("•-aJ'JL (3?r + a)2J
where r is any odd integer positive or negative.

[Multiply together the results of Ext. 14 and 15 and then change 29
and 2a into в and a.]
cos в -cos a __ ( g) f o^_i
i/- 1-cosa t o2J f (2ir + o)2J
where r is any even positive or negative integer, including zero.

Hence deduce the factors of coeh x - cos a.
160 TRIGONOMETRY. [EXS. XXI.]
gin a - sin 0
18. sin a
!-)
r + a/
19. 2cosh0 + 2cosa
= 4 cos'
where r is any odd integer positive or negative.

20. Prove that
r=n-l Binh»|"
sinh nu = n sinh u II 1 +
r=l sm225j
and deduce the expression for sinh u in the form of an infinite product of
quadratic factors in u.
[Start with the result, when 6 is zero, of Ex. 1, Art. 121. In this
result put $ equal to zero and divide.]
21. Prove that the value of the infinite product
(i+p) (x4) adinf-
is - sinh ir.
22. A semicircle is divided into m equal parts and a concentric and
similarly situated semicircle is divided into n equal parts. Every point
of section of one semicircle is joined to every point of section of the
other. Find the arithmetic mean of the squares of the joining lines and
prove that when m and n are indefinitely increased the result is
a?+b* Sabf , where a and b are the radii of the semicircles.
23. The radii of an infinite series of concentric circles are a, ^ , -
From a point at a distance c (>a) from their common centre a tangent
is drawn to each circle. Prove that
sin 81 sin 0a sin 0, = îra c sin ira
— —c ,
where 8lt B2, 03 are the angles that the tangents subtend at the
common centre.
[EXS. XXI.] INFINITE PRODUCTS. EXAMPLES. 161
24. An infinite straight line is divided by an infinite number of points
into portions each of length a. If any point P be taken so that y is its
distance from the straight line and x is its distance measured along the
straight line from one of the points of division, prove that the sum of the
squares of the reciprocals of the distances of the point P from all the
points of division is
"» cosh^- a a
[Use the remit of Ex. 7.]
25. If o, 6, c denote all the prime numbers 2, 3, 5 prove that
15
and
26. Prove that
c sin
~Jc2 + x Bia «
L. T. II. 11
CHAPTER X.
PRINCIPLE OF PROPORTIONAL PARTS.
131. IN the present chapter we shall consider the

Principle of Proportional Parts, the truth of which we
assumed in Chapter XI., Part I.
We then assumed that if n be any number and n + 1
the next number, whose logarithms were given in our
tables, and if h be any fraction, then, to 7 places of
decimals, it is true that
log (n + h) — log n _,
log(n + 1) - log и
The truth of this statement we shall now consider.
132. Common Logarithms. We have, by Art.

12,
bg10 (П + h) - Iog10 П = Iog10 '—- = p. loge Í1 + д) «
where /¿ = '43429448...
i /¿h ß A.2 u, h3 ,, .
logI0n = --- + -- (1).
PRINCIPLE OF PROPORTIONAL PARTS. 163
Now in our ordinary logarithm tables n contains

5 digits, i.e. n is not less than 10000. Hence, if A be less
a h3
than unity, we have ^ — less than
\ (-43429448...) x — ,
•oi 71 4724
i.e. less than 1Q8 , i-e. < -0000000021... .
ah3.
Also £ — is less than one-ten thousandth part of this.
6 n3
Hence in (1) the omission of all the terms on the right-
hand side after the first will make no difference at least as
far as the seventh place of decimals. To seven places we
therefore have
logw (n + h)- log10 n = ^ .
So log10 (n + 1) - log10« = .
ft
Hence, by division,
logio(w + A.)-log10ra
log,o(w+l)-log10n
The principle assumed is therefore always true for the
logarithms of ordinary numbers as given in our tables.
133. We may enquire what is the smallest number in the tables to
which we can safely apply the principle of proportional parts. We must
find that value of n which makes < ji= , so that n2 > £ . 107 . ft1.
In? 107 2
The greatest value of h being unity, we then have
»a>5.107, i.e. > 2171472 -4
a
:. n>1473.
The number 1473 is therefore the required least number.
11-
164 TRIGONOMETRY.
134. Natural Sines. Suppose we have a table

calculated for successive differences of angles, such that
the number of radians in these successive differences is h.
[In the case of our ordinary tables h = number of
radians in 1'
= g0^8o = -000290888..., i.e. A<-0003.]
Also let k be less than h. Then our principle was that

sin (9 + k) — sin 9 _ k
sin (9 + h) — sin 8 h'
We shall examine this assumption.
We have
sin (8 + k) — sin 8 = sin 6 cos k + cos 0 sin k — sin 6
= sin 6 \l — ^ + ^ — ... 1 + cos 6 \k — ... 1 — sin 9
(Arts. 32 and 33)

= k cos 9 — sin 6 — S cos 0 . ..
The ratio of the third term to the first = \ k* and this
is always less than | (-0003)2, i.e. always less than -00000002.

The third and higher terms may therefore be safely neg
lected, and we have
sin (8 + k) — sin 0 = k cos 9 - t= sin 9 (1).
E
The numerical ratio of the second term to the first
term
= 5&tan0 (2).
PRINCIPLE OF PROPORTIONAL PARTS. 165
This ratio is small, except when 8 is nearly equal to ~ .

Hence, except when the angle is nearly a right angle, the
second term in (1) may be neglected, and we have
sin (8 + k) — sin 8 = k cos 8.
So sin(0 + A) — sin0 = Acos0,
, , sin (8 + k) — sin 8 k
and hence ■ (8
sin ,a +, h) — sin
=—s8 = th (3).
v '
When 8 is very nearly a right angle we cannot say

that
sin (8 + k) — sin 8 = k cos 8,
and hence in this case the relation (3) does not hold and
the difference in the sine is not proportional to the
difference in the angle. In this case then the differences
are irregular. At the same time the differences are
insensible ; for, when 8 is nearly , k cos 8 is very small.
In fact &cos# has nothing but ciphers as far as the
seventh place of decimals, so long as 8 is within a few
minutes of a right angle. Also
j| sin 8 is always < t00®3? , {.e. < -00000005...
Hence when the angle is nearly a right angle a com

paratively small change in the sine will correspond to a
comparatively large change in the angle ; also at the same
time these changes are irregular.
135. Natural Cosines. Since the cosine of an angle

is equal to the sine of its complement this case reduces to
■
166 TRIGONOMETRY.
that of the sine. The principle is therefore true except

when the angle is nearly zero, in which case the differences
are insensible and irregular.
136. Natural Tangents. With the same notation

as before we have
tan ,n
(в +. k)
74 - tan
, вл = -—-—
tan в +.. tan k.• - tan
¡ в, =-—-—j-—г
tan&sec20
1 -taño tan« l— tan в tan л;
= tan k sec2 в (l + tan в tan k + tan2 в tan2 k. . .)
+ tan*
+ tan2 в (fc3 +...)! (Art. 34)
...... (1).
The third and higher terms may be omitted as before,
except when в is nearly a right angle.
Unless the quantity &3 --¡-¿ be large we shall then
have
tan(0 + ifc)-tan0 = A;sec20............(2),
and the rule is approximately true.
When в is > -т the second term of the equation (1) is
4*
> 2&3, so that taking the greatest value of k, viz. about
'0003, this would give a significant figure in the seventh
place. The principle is therefore not true for angles
greater than — , when the differences of the tabulated
TÍ
angles are 1'.

PRINCIPLE OF PROPORTIONAL PAKTS. 167
137. Natural Cotangents. As in the last article it

can be shewn that the principle must not be relied upon
for angles between 0 and 45°.
138. Natural Secant. We have sec (в + k) — sec в
cos в cos k — sin в sin k cos в

«•
l
sec в l
l -k tan в- i A2...
= sec в k tan в + k1 + tan2 6 \ + ... 1
......... (1).
The ratio of the second to the first term
= ¿r|cot0 + tan01.
tan в
This is small except when в is nearly zero or ~ . Hence,
¿t
except in these two cases, we have
sec (в + k) - sec в = k tan в sec в
and the rule is proved.
When в is small the term k sec в tan в is very small,
so that the differences are insensible besides being
irregular.
When в is nearly ^ this term is great, so that the
differences are not insensible.
168 TRIGONOMETRY.
139. Natural Cosecant. Just as in the case of the

secant it may be shewn that the differences are insensible
and irregular when 0 is nearly 90°, and irregular when 6
is nearly zero. Otherwise the principle holds.
140. Tabular Logarithmic Sine. We have
Lw sin (0 + k) - Lw sin 0 = log10
= logio [cos k + cot 0 sin k] = log10 £l + k cot 0 — ~ ...J

(Arts. 32 and 33)
= /t ^k cot 0 - ^ - 1 k* cot2 0 + ... J (Arts. 8 and 12)
= fik cot 0 — ^-cosec2 0 ....

1, 1 k
:k .
2 ' sin 0 cos 0 sin 20 '
This is small except when 0 is near zero or a right angle.
Hence, with the exception of these two cases, we have
L sin (0 + k) — L sin 0 = fi cot 0 x k,
so that the rule holds in general.
If 0 be small the term fik cot 0 is large, so that the
differences are large as well as irregular. We cannot
therefore apply the principle to small angles in the case
of tables constructed with difference of 1'.
Even if the tables were constructed for differences of
10" we are not sure of being free from error in the 7th
place of decimals unless 0 be > 5°.
PBINCIPLE OP PROPORTIONAL PARTS. 169
If в be nearly ^ the terms /ik cot в and ^- cosec2 в are

¿t ¿i
both small, so that if the angle be nearly a right angle the

differences are insensible as well as irregular.
141. Tabular Logarithmic Cosine. The rule
holds approximately, since the cosine is the complement
of the sine, except when the angle is small, in which case
the differences are insensible as well as irregular, and
except when the angle is nearly a right angle, in which
case the differences are large.
142. Tabular Logarithmic Tangent. Here
L tan (в + k) - L tan в = logM tan, "
t ." U I U
1 + cot в tan k _. Г1 + k cot в

- » l -tau otan A -
= log„ [(l + k cot 0) (l + k tan в + ¿Han2 в + ...)]
r * , fr i *• , i
[sin в cos в cos2 в2 sin8 в cos2ö J
(Arts. 8 and 12)
M _в„ь. cos 26» ,
sin 0 cos 0 sin2 20
= k cot 20. This is small except when в is near zero or a
right angle.
Hence, with the exception of these two cases, we have
SlU
00 that the principle is in general true.
170 TRIGONOMETRY.
k
In each of the exceptional
r cases ——^
sin 20 is not small, so
that the differences are then irregular but not insensible.
The same statements are true for the tabular loga
rithmic cotangent.
143. Tabular Logarithmic Secant and Cose

cant. We have
L sec (0 + k) — L sec 0 = L cos 0 — L cos (0 + k)
and L cosec (6 + k) — L cosec 0 = L sin 6 — L sin (0 + k).
Hence the results for the L sin and L cos are also true
for the L cosec and L sec.
■
CHAPTER XI.
ERRORS OF OBSERVATION.
144. We have up to the present assumed that it is

possible to observe any angles perfectly accurately. In
practice this is by no means the case. Our observations
are liable to two classes of errors, one due to the instru
ments themselves, which are hardly ever in perfect adjust
ment, and the other class due to mistakes on the part of
the observer.
145. An error in any of our observations will clearly,

in general, cause an error in the value of any quantity
calculated from that observation. For example, if in Art.
192, Part L, there be a small error in the value of a, there
will be a consequent error in the value of x which, as
we see from the result of that article, depends on a.
. 146. The importance of an error in a length depends,

in general, upon its ratio to that length. For example in
measuring a piece of wood, about six feet long, a mistake
of one inch would be a very serious error ; in measuring a
mile racecourse a mistake of one inch would be not worth
172 TEIGONOMETRY.
considering; whilst in measuring the distance from the
Earth to the Moon an error of one inch would be abso
lutely inappreciable.
147. We shall assume that the errors we have to
consider are so small that their squares (when measured
in radians if they be angles) may be neglected and we
shall give some examples of finding the errors in derived
quantities.
We shall assume that our tables and calculations are
correct, so that we have not to deal with mistakes in
calculation but only with errors in the original observa
tion.
148. Ex. 1. MP (Fig. Art. 42, Part I.) is a vertical pole; at a
point 0 distant a from its foot its angular elevation is found to be 0 and
its height then calculated ; if there be an error S in the observation of 8,
find the consequent error in the height.
The calculated height ft = a tan 0, clearly.
If the error 5 be in excess, the real elevation is 0 - 5, and hence the
real height ft' = a tan (0 - S).
Hence the error ft - A' = a tan 0 - a tan (0 - S)
sin 5——rr=asec20.5,
=a eos0cos(0-a) ■
if we neglect squares and higher powers of S.
The ratio of the error to the calculated height
= 8 sec2 0+ tan 0= 2(5;
sin 20
Except when sin 26 is small this ratio is small since 5 is small. It is
least when sin 20 is greatest, i.e. when 0 is - .
The ratio is large when 0 is near zero and when it is near ^ .
Hence a small mistake in the angle makes a relatively large mistake
in the calculated result when the angle subtended is very small or when
it is very nearly ^ .
ERRORS OF OBSERVATION. 173
When в is email, both the calculated height and the absolute error,
viz. a tanff and о sec2 0.6, are small, but the latter is great compared
with the former.
When в is nearly 90°, both these quantities are great.
Ex. 2. The height of a tower il found as in Art. 192, Part I.; if

there be an error в in excess in the angle a, find the corresponding correc
tion to be made in the height.
The real value of о is a- 9; hence the real value of the height is
found by substituting о - в for a in the obtained answer, and therefore
sin (а -в) sin ß _ . sin a cos в - cos a sin в
~a sin(/3-a + 0) = a sm P sin(/3-a)cos0 + cos(j3-a)sin0
adn.Bing l-0c°t« (Artg_ 32 and 33)

sm(/3-a) l + 0cot(,8-a) l
_ a sin a sin ß a sin2 ß

= sin(jS-o) sin2 03 - a) *
The error in the calculated height is therefore в. . ,., . , and is
8Ш2 (ß-a)
one of excess.
Also the ratio of the error to the calculated height
flsinff
~ sin a sin (ß - a) '
Ex. 3. The angles of a triangle are calculated from the sides a=2,
6=3, and с = 4, but it is found that the side с is overestimated by a ¡mall
quantity S ; find the consequent errors in the angles.
From the given values of the sides we easily have
7
cosJ=5, 11
cosB=T£, t
cosC=-7,
о ID 4
. . 2./15 .
sm "Ж '
174 TRIGONOMETRY.
Corresponding to the value -l-S, let the values of the angles be A - 6V
В -ft,, and С-в3.
m.
Then , , a\ 32 + (4-i)»-2» 21-85/, SX-1
[Arts. 32 and 33]

. 78 + 2^15 7 11
'•«• T6~öl-8-96ä>
so that "1= -ТЖГ* ....................................... (1)-

... (4-5)2 + 2a-3a 11-85/ i\-i
Also еов(В-Ц = * 2(^_8) 2 ,—-(1--) ,
21
that ea=-a ................................. (2).
Abo „(C.y.'lV.
0 1 25
г.*. - + 9а=- + -'
so that
The errors in the angles are therefore
-таи-*
-1V15. -ï8¥-s>and
-2V15.
so that the smallest angle has the least error.

We note, as might have been assumed a priori, that the sum of the
errors in the three angles is zero. This is necessarily so, since the sum
of the angles of any triangle is always two right angles.
ERRORS OF OBSERVATION. 175
EXAMPLES. XXII.
1. The height of a hill is found by measuring the angles of elevation
o and j8 of the top and bottom of a tower of height 6 on the top of the
hill. Prove that the error in the height h caused by an error 6 in the
measurement of the angle a is 9 . cos B sec a cosec (a - (S) times the cal
culated height of the hill.
2. At a distance of 100 feet from the foot of a tower the elevation of
its top is found to be 30°; find the greatest and least errors in its
calculated height due to errors of 1' and 6 inches in the elevation and
distance respectively.
3. In the example of Art. 196 find the errors in the calculated values
of the flagstaff and tower due to an error S in the observed value of a.
If o=1000 feet, a = 30°, 8 = 15°, and there be an error of 1' in the
value of a, calculate the numerical value of these errors.
4. AB is a vertical pole, and CD a horizontal line which when
produced passes through B the foot of the pole. The tangents of the
angles of elevation at C and D of the top of the pole are found to be
4g and 3j respectively. Find the height of the pole having given that
CD = 35 feet.
Prove that an error of 1' in the determination of the elevation at D
will cause an error of approximately 1 inch in the calculated height of
the pole.
5. The elevation of the summit of a tower is observed to be a at a
station A and 8 at a station B, which is at a distance c from A in the direct
horizontal line from the foot of the tower, and its height is thus found to
beCsin,asi°f feet,
sin (a - 8)
If AB be measured not directly from the tower but horizontally and
in a direction inclined at a small angle 6 to the direct line shew that, to
correct the height of the tower to the second order of small quantities, the
... c cos
quantity o sin2 8 6- ,, ,. . ,
* cos 8—.—;—
sin (a - B) —2 must be subtracted.
6. A, B, and C are three given points on a straight line; D is
another point whose distance from B is found by observing that the
176 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XXII.]
angles ADB and CDB are equal and of an observed magnitude 8 ; prove
that the error in the calculated length of DB consequent on a small
error S in the observed magnitude of 8, is
2a6(a+6)2sin 8
(a2 + fc2_2a^0os 26)i
approximately, where AB = a and 5(7=6.
7. In measuring the three sides of a triangle small errors x and y
are made in two of them, a and 6 ; prove that the error in the angle C
will be - % cot A - - cot B, and find the errors in the other angles.
b a
8. In a triangle ABC we have given that approximately a =36 feet,
6=60 feet, and C=tan_1j; g find what error in the given value of a will
cause an error in the calculated value of c equal to that caused by an
error of 5" in the measurement of C.
9. A triangle is solved from the parts C = 15°, 0=^6, and 6 = 2;
prove that an error of 10" in the value of C would cause an error of about
13-66" in the calculated value of B.
10. Two sides 6 and c and the included angle A of a given triangle
are supposed to be known ; if there be a small error 8 in the value of the
angle A, prove that
(1) the consequent error in the calculated value of B is
- 8 sin B cos C cosec A radians,
(2) the consequent error in the calculated value of a is c sin B . 8,
and (3) the consequent error in the calculated area of the triangle is
8 cot A times that area.
11. There are errors in the sides a, b, and c of a triangle equal to
x, y, and z respectively; prove that the consequent error in the calculated
value of the circum-radius is
i cot A cot B cot C [x seo A + y sec B + z sec C],
12. The area of a triangle is found by measuring the lengths of the
sides and the limit of error possible, either in excess or defect, in
measuring any length is n times that length, where n is small. Prove that
in the case of the triangle whose sides are measured as 110, 81, and
59 yards, the limit to the error in the deduced area of the triangle is
about 3 '1433n times that area.
[Exs. XXII.] ERRORS OF OBSERVATION. 177
13. The three sides of a triangle are measured and fonnd to be
nearly equal. If the measurements can be wrong one per cent, in excess
or defect, prove that the greatest error that can arise in calculating one
of the angles is 8C nearly.
14. It is observed that the elevation of the summit of a mountain at
each corner of a plane horizontal equilateral triangle is a ; prove that the
height of the mountain is
1 a tan a,
78
where a is the side of the triangle. If there be a small error n" in the
elevation at C, shew that the true height is
T,. T. II. 12
CHAPTER XII.
MISCELLANEOUS PROPOSITIONS.
Solution of a Cubic Equation.

149. The standard form of a cubic equation is
Put y = x — a, and this equation becomes

я»-3(а2-Ь)я
i.e. it becomes of the form
0 .................. (1).
Hence any cubic equation can be reduced to the form
(1), which has no term containing a?.
150. To solve the equation я? — Зрх + q = 0.
л;
Put x = - , and we have

я
n!> = Q ............... (2).
Now, by Art. 107, we always have
cos 30 = 4 cos3 в - 3 cos в,
so that cos30-f cos0-icos30 = 0........ ,...(3).
44
SOLUTION OF A CUBIC EQUATION. 179
Now (2) and (3) are the same equation if

3 1
z = cos0, Spn" = -, and — -jcos 30 = qn*
Hence n = (4)*
and therefore cos 30 = — 4q W-
The equation (4) can always be solved (by means of

the tables if necessary) if
p be positive, and Aq (J^j < 1>
i.e. if q* < 4p3.

[The student who is acquainted with the Theory of Equations will
notice that is the case which cannot be solved by Cardan's Method. It
is the case when the roots of the original cubic are all real. ]
If 0 be the smallest angle satisfying equation (4), then
the values 0 + ^ and 0 + ^~

o o
also satisfy it, so that the roots of the equation
Xs — 3px + q = 0
1 ,1 t a 2tt\ ,1 (. 4tt\
are - cos 0, -cos S + v > and - cos 0+ ,
n n \ S I n \ 3 /
i. e. 2 *Jp cos 0, 2 *Jp cos ^0 + , and 2 »Jp cos (0 + ~j .
151. Ex. Solve the equation

xs + 6xs + 9x+S=0.
Put x=y — 2, and the equation becomes
^_3j/ + l=0.
12—2
180 TRIGONOMETRY.
Put y=- , and the equation is

=0 ................................. (1).
Now cos» 0-| cos 0-j cos 30 = 0 ........................ (2).
Equations (1) and (2) are the same if

«=cos0, ns=, and -2
i.e. if
and oos30= -i=cosl20° ........................ (3).

The roots of (3) are clearly
40°, 40° + 120°, and 40° + 240°,
so that z = cos 40°, or cos 160°, or cos 280°.
Л у = 2 cos 40°, or 2 cos 160°, or 2 cos 280°.
Л х=у- 2= -2 + 2 cos 40°, or -2-2cos20°, or -2 + 2cos80°.
On referring to the tables we then have the values of x.
EXAMPLES.
Solve the equations
1. 2^-31-1=0. 2. х3 + 3а?-1=0. 3. ¡rä-24*-32=0.
4.
6.
Maximum and Minimum Values.

152. In Art. 133, Part I., we have given one example
of the maximum value of a trigonometrical expression.
We add another example.
If x and у be two positive angles whose sum is a constant
angle а(ф-тг), find when sin x sin y is a maximum, and
extend the theorem to more than two angles.
MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM VALUES. 181
We have 2 sin x sin y = 2 sin x sin (a — #)

= cos (a — 2#) — cos a.
Hence 2 sin x sin y is greatest when cos (a — 2x) is
greatest, i.e. when a=2x, and therefore
a
The product is therefore greatest when the angles x

and y are equal.
Let there be three angles x, y, and z whose sum is
equal to a constant angle j3 (^» ir). If, in the product
sin x sin y sin z,
any two of the angles x and y be unequal, we can, by the
preceding part of the article, increase the product by
substituting for both x and y half their sum without
increasing or diminishing the sum of the angles.
Hence so long as the angles x, y, and z are unequal,
we can increase the given product by thus making the
angles approach to equality.
The maximum value will therefore be obtained when
the angles x, y, and z are equal.
This argument can clearly be applied whatever be the
number of the angles x, y, z....
153. We can now shew that the maximum triangle
that can be inscribed in a given circle is equilateral.
For, if R be the radius of the circle, we have (as in
Ex. xxxvi. 10, Part I.) the area of the triangle
= 2B? sin A sin B sin G,
where A + B + C = 27r, a constant angle. By the preced
ing article it follows that the triangle is greatest when
A = B = C.
182 TRIGONOMETRY.
154. Ex. Find the minimum positive value of the

quantity a2 tan x + b2 cot x.
Let a2 tan x + 62 cot x = y,
so that a2 tan2 x - y . tan x + 6s = 0.
Solving this quadratic equation, we have
Since tan ж is real the quantity under the radical sign

must be positive, so that y* must be > 4a262.
Hence the least value of у is 2ab, and the corresponding
value of tan x is - .
a
EXAMPLES. XXIV.
1. If x + у be a given angle, less than я-, prove that
(1) sinx + siny, and (2) cos x cos j/
both have their greatest values when x=y.
2. If а; + г/ Ъе a given angle, < 5 , prove that both cos x + cos у and
¿
cos2 ж + cos2 у have their greatest values when x=y.

Find the greatest, or least, values of
3-„
5ul
7.
If x + y be equal to a given angle '¿a, which is less than *-, find the
minimum value of
8. tan x + tan y.
9. sec x + sec y.
[We can easily prove that
sec x + seo y= 5 cos a -;---¡— + -----:—Tj.
2 LCOS (a - x) - sin a cos (a - x) + Bin ojJ
10. It x+y=a, where o is :)» = , find when tan x tan y is a maximum.

rVrr , . , . 2 cos a H
LWe have 1 - tan x tan « = cos a + cos ;(o - 2s)
=—, . J
11. Prove that the maximum triangle having a given perimeter is

equilateral.
The area of a triangle can be proved to equal s2 tan — tan -= tan — .
12. If x, y, z... be angles whose sum is equal to a given angle, and if

each of the angles be positive and less than a right angle, prove that the
product cos x cos y cos z is greatest when the angles are equal.
13. If ABC be a triangle, prove that the quantities sin A + sinS+ sin C
and sin A sin B sin C have their greatest values when the triangle is
equilateral.
14. Prove that the area of the pedal triangle of an acute-angled
triangle is never greater than one quarter of the area of the latter.
15. If ABC be a triangle, prove that the least value of
cos 2A + cos IB + cos 1C is - 5 .
Prove also that cos A + cos B + cos C is always >1 and not greater
than | .
16. If ABC be a triangle, prove that the quantities

cot A + cot B + cotC and cot2^ + cot2B + cot!C
both have their least value when the triangle is equilateral.
On the geometrical representation of complex

quantities.
155. In Chap. IV., Part I., we pointed out that if a
distance in any direction (say, horizontally towards the
right) be represented by a, then — a represents the same
distance drawn in an opposite direction, i.e. horizontally
towards the left.
184 TBIGONOMETßY.
The effect of prefixing — to a is therefore (Fig.

Art. 48, Part I.) to rotate OA in the positive direction
through two right angles. The operation —1 performed
on a therefore means turning a through two right angles.
156. Now V— 1 x V— 1 = — 1 ; hence whatever mean

ing we give to the operation V— 1 it must be such that
performing that operation twice shall be the same thing as
performing the operation — 1.
Let us therefore assign to the operation V— 1 the
turning any length through one right angle in the
positive direction. Performing the operation V— 1 on a
twice will therefore, as it should do, turn a through two
right angles.
Hence, with this interpretation, V— 1 a means a line
drawn at right angles to the line denoted by a.
167. We can now shew what is denoted by
Draw OX and ОТ two lines at right angles. Measure

along OX a distance OM equal to ж and Y
then draw MP parallel to O Y and equal
to y, so that MP represents V— 1 y.
Then P is the point that represents the
quantity x + V— 1 y, or, again, we may о
say that OP is the line representing this quantity.
We have OP = VOM2 + MP1 = A/a;2 + y\
and ¿ I/OP = tan-1 = tan-1 .

OM x
Hence the length of OP represents the modulus and

MOP the principal value of the Amplitude of x + iy.
(Art. 18.)
158. Addition of two complex quantities.
Let OP represent the complex quantity x + iy and
OQ represent u + iv, so that Y
ON = x,NP = y, OM = u,
and MQ = 13.
Complete the parallelogram
OPRQ, and draw RL perpendicu- ом N L
lar to OX and PS perpendicular to RL.
Since PR is equal and parallel to OQ, we have
NL = PS= OM, and SR = MQ.
Hence
and
Therefore OR represents the complex quantity
so that the sum of two complex quantities is repre

sented by the diagonal of the parallelogram whose two
adjacent sides represent the two given complex quantities.
169. Let
x + iy = r (cos в + i sin в),
as in Art. 18.
Then
(cos a + 1 sin a) (x + iy) = r (cos a + г sin a) (cos в + i sin в)
= r [cos (a + в) + i sin (a + в)] ......... (1).
Now r [cos в + i sin о]
means, with our interpretation, a line of length r drawn at
an angle в with OX.
186 TRIGONOMETRY.
Also r [cos (o + 6) + i sin (a + 6)]

means a line of the same length r drawn at an angle a + 9
with OX (Art. 157).
Hence, by (1), the effect of multiplying x + iy by
cos a + i sin a is to turn through an angle a the line that
represents « + iy.
160. Geometrical meaning of Be Moivre's Theorem.

The quantity
(cos a+ i sin a) (cos ft + i sin ft) (cos y + i sin 7) (cos S + i sin 8)
means the line represented by cos B + i sin S turned first
through an angle 7, then through ft, and finally through
a, i.e. altogether turned through a+ft + y.
But this total operation gives the same line as
[cos (a + ft + 7) + 1 sin (a + ft + 7)] [cos 8 + i sin S\.
Similarly for any number of factors.
Hence De Moivre's Theorem expresses algebraically
the geometrical fact that to turn a line through a number
of angles successively has the same effect as turning the
line through an angle equal to the sum of the angles.
Ex. The three cube roots of unity are easily found to be
cosO + tsinO, cos — o + isin—
o ,
and 4ir + tsmy,
cos— . . 2ir
so that we have
(cos 0 + i sin 0) (cos0+» sin 0) (cosO + f sin 0) = 1,
/ fcr
(ow j + .. am
. fcr\
T j /(^cos -
2x + 1. son
. 2t\ I 2r.
-j ^cos . 2x\
T + x sin ,
-j = i,
and (oos^+isin^) (cos^+isin^) (cos^+isin^) = l.

GEOMETRICAL REPRESENTATION. 187
The first of these equations states that turning a line three times in
succession through a zero angle gives the original line.
The second states that turning it three times in succession through
2ir
an angle — , (i.e. altogether through 2ir) gives the original line.
The third states that turning it three times in succession through an
4ir
angle — , (i.e. altogether through 4ir) gives the original line.
о •
These statements are all clearly true.
161. Multiplication of two complex quantities.

If x + iy=r (cos в + i sin в),
and и + iv = p (cos ф + i sin ф),
we have
(и + iv) (x + iy) = rp [cos (в + ф) + i sin (в + фХ|.
The effect of multiplying a complex quantity x + iy
by another u + iv is therefore to turn the line repre
senting x + iy through an angle
and to alter its length in the ratio

1 : p, i. e. 1 : Vw2 + г)2.
Hence the multiplying of one complex quantity by
another is represented by " a turning and a stretching."
188 TRIGONOMETRY.
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES. XXV.

1. Prove that the equation tan x=kx has an infinite number of real
roots.
2. It А, В and С be the angles of a triangle, prove that
1-8 cos A cos В cos С
is always positive.
3. If a and ß be the imaginary cube roots of unity prove that
+ cos
4. If x be less than a radian prove that x = 2\/ -=- very

1 V 6 + coss
nearly, the error in the left-hand member being nearly ': - radians.
5. If cos (в + i<j>) = sec (a + iß), where o, ß, в, and ф are all real, prove
that
tanh20cosh2/S=sin2a and tanh2 /3 cosh2 ф= sin2 0.
6. If ж =2 cos a cosh /3 and j/ = 2 sin o sinh /3,
prove that
sec (a +iß) + sec (a - iß) =^p ,
and s
7. Prove that
sin" ф cos пв + n sin"-1 ф cos (n - 1) в sin (в - ф)
+ "1" I»1* sin»-2 ф cos (n - 2) в sin2 (в - ф) + ...... + sin» (в - ф)
1.£
=В
xn sin пв - na;»-1 sin (пв + ф) + "("~^ a:"-2 sin (n0 + 20)
1*т
— ...... to (n + 1) terms=0,
are given by z=sin( 0+ й-fc- jcosecf 0-fc- ),
\ n/ \ n/
where n is an integer and ft has any integral value from 0 to n - 1.
[Misc. Ess. XXV.] EXAMPLES. 189
9. Prove that the sum to infinity of the series
l ain3 в 1.3 sin5 в
is в, if в be acute, and, generally, is mr + ( - 1)" в, where n is so chosen

that mr + ( - 1)" в lies between - ^ and + J •
¿ ¿
10. If the arc of a circle of radius unity be divided into n equal arcs,
and right-angled isosceles triangles be described on the chords of these arcs
as hypothennses and have their vertices outwards, prove that when n is
indefinitely increased the limit of the product of the distances of the
a
vertices from the centre is <:", where a is the angle subtended by the aro
at the centre.
11. The sides of a regular polygon of n sides, which is inscribed in a
circle, meet the tangent at any point P of the circle in A, B, G, D......
Prove that the product PA. PB. PC. PD ...... = a" tan пв or antan8n0,
according as n is odd or even, where a is the radius of the circle and в is
the angle which the line joining P to an angular point subtends at the
circumference.
12. A regular polygon of n sides is inscribed in a circle and from any
point in the circumference chords are drawn .to the angular points; if
these chords be denoted bye,, c2, ... en, beginning with the chord drawn
to the nearest angular point and taking the rest in order, prove that the
quantity
C, C2 + C2Cj + . . . + C^C,, - CnCl
is independent of the position of the point from which the chords are
drawn.
13. A series of radii divide the circumference of a circle into 2n equal
parts; prove that the product of the perpendiculars let fall from any
point of the circumference upon n successive radii is
where r ig the radius of the circle and в is the angle between one of the
extreme of these radii and the radius to the given point.
14. If a regular polygon of n sides be inscribed in a circle, and I be
the length of the chord joining any fixed point on the circle to one of the
angular points of the polygon, prove that •
190 TRIGONOMETRY. [MlSC. ElS. XXV.]
1
15. ÀBCD... is a regular polygon of n sides which is inscribed in a
circle, whose radius is a and whose centre is 0 ; prove that the product of
the distances of its angular points from a straight line at right angles to
UA and at a distance b(:-a) from the centre is
16. Prove that there is one, and only one, solution of the equation
0-:cos0 and that it is less than - .
4
17. Prove that the general value of в which satisfies the equation
(cos0 + isin0)(coa20 + ism20) ...... to n factors=l
ш —--j , where m is any integer.
18. Prove that

...... ad inf.
19. Prove that
20. Shew that

X* X¡ Xv
1 . 1 _*
21. Shew that the sum of the series

ТГ. 1 i . l lio^-i.
l (Зт — 1) (3ï* ~h 1} J 7й9
Í* — 1
22. Prove that

2тг 4т 6т 14т 16т
COS j= + COSy= + COS Y»+...+COS Y=-+COS -jy =
and 2т -f sec 4т
sec •=-= 7= + . . . + sec 14т
-^=- + sec 16т ü
^-=- — 0.
[Misc. Exs. XXV.] EXAMPLES. 191
23. If o = 27r , prove that the values of

cos a + cos 5o + cos 17a
and cos 11a + cos 13a + cos 19a
are respectively ^2^-1 and ~ ^jj ~ 1 .
24. Prove that

tana + tan (â + ~^ + tanâ + ^?^
+ tan â + ^g*^ +tan â+ =5tan5a.
25. Shew that the equation whose roots are tan ^ lo , where r is any
number including unity less than and prime to 15, is
Xs - 92x6 + 134x* - 28x» + 1=0.
26. From the sum of the series
sin 20 gin 49 + 5 sin 69 - ... ad inf.,
or otherwise, shew that
rJ2 ,11111
-r =1+3-s-7+9+n--adinf- ,. .
27. Assuming equation (4) of Art. 53, shew that

„. . , „ 2 sin4 0 1 2.4 sin6 9 1-
92=sina9+T7
0111 2 T3.5 3
28. Prove that
1 sinhx 1 T fl(2njr - 1a)a + Xs 1 (2nir + 1a)J +-x1]I '
2x cosh 1 - cos a a" + xs ~ n-i
29. Prove that the general value of sinh_1x is
ilcrr + ( - 1)* log [x + */l+x*l,
where k is any integer.
30. The side BC of a square ABCD is produced indefinitely, and
along it are measured CClt C±Ct, C2C3, ... each equal to BC.
If 9j, 9a, 98, ... be the angles B^Cj, B4C2, B4C3, prove that
sin9,sin92sin93... adinf. = 2 . / *£ ,
192 TRIGONOMETRY. [Misc. Exs. XXV.]
31. If Pi, p2, p„ be the distances of the vertices of a regular
polygon of n sides from any point P in its plane, prove that
1 n r2n _ a5"
2 ra-a2r2n-2a»rBcosne + a2»'
where a is the radius of the circumcircle of the polygon, r is the distance
of P from its centre 0, and B is the angle that OP makes with the radius
to any angular point of the polygon.
32. If 8+tj>+f=2ir, prove that
cos2 6 + cos2 0 + oos* ip - 2 coi 8 cos <p cos ^=1.
Hence deduce the relation between the six straight lines joining
4 points which are in one plane.
ANSWERS TO PART II.
I. (Pages 9—11.)
8. loge2. 9. loge3-loge2.
H. (Pages 24-26.)
1. ^(cos^ + ismjj.
2. ^[cos^-^ + isin^-^)].
3. 2[cosT + tsinTJ. 4. 5|_g + *.-J.

, r +1 . l -i
6. (^-^[cos^ + isin^].
7. cos (106» + 12a) -i sin (105 + 12a).
8. cos(a+y3— ■y-8) + isin(a + /J-y-S).
9. cos 1070 -i sin 1076. 10. -1.
11. sin (4a + 5/3) - i cos (4a + 5)8).
12. 2->sin»^coS»,^!±l
„„
23. cos ir■= + %. sin
. -=•
ir : cos -=-
3w + t. sin
. 3ir
—.
5_ 5 5 - 5
m. (Page 30.)
*■ *' 2 ' a ±r' "~2~~' 2~~'
3. + ^cosy^ + tsin , where r = 3, 7, or 11.
4, ±i, and + ^cos ~ + i sin , where r = 1 or 3.

L. T. 13
ii TRIGONOMETRY. (PART II.)
5. + 1^2 ^cos ^ + i sin , where r = 1, 9, or 17.
6. $164:8 ^cos ^ + i sin , where r = 5, 11, or 17.
7. + j^cos ^ - i sin , where r = 1 or 7.
cos ^ + i sin , where r = 1, 13, or 25.
cos + 1 sin , where r = - 1, 5, 1 1, 17, or 23.

10. + 2 and + 2i.
cos + t sm -g- , where r = 2 or 4.
12. -1024. 13. ±i±fiand±i^^. 14. 1.
16. + 1, + i, ± (cos ^ + i sin 0 , and + ^cos g + i sin ^ .

The last four values.
17. - 1 and cos y + i sin y , where r = 1, 3, or 5.
18. -1, cosg + isuig, + ( cos - + i sm ^ ) ,

. / 3tt . . 3w\
and + (cos -j- + » sin —J .
19. 2 %/2 cos -g- , where r = 1, 7, or 13.
IV. (Pages 36, 37.)

5 tan 0 - 10 tan3 0 + tan" 0
l-lOtan20 + 5tan40 "
7 tan 6 - 35 tan3 0 + 21 tan" 0 - tan7 fl
1 - 21 tan2 0 + 35 tan4 0 - 7 tan6:<(T '
9 tan 0- 84 tan8 0 + 126 tan5 0-36 tan7 0 + tan9 0
"1 - 36 tan2 0 + 1 26 tenr0 - 84 tan6 0 + 9 tan^T '
ANSWERS. Ill
V. (Pages 46-48.)
6. 3°48'51". 7. L 8. —.. 9. 10. L

b m' b 2,
11. 3. 12. «J. 13. 0. 14.

1 1 "2 5
15. -J. 16. 2. 17. -J. 18. -n.
19. -oo. 20. 2^.
^>2 21. 001.
22. f6 ("*-*>'.
mn 23! 24. 24. 0.
25. log?. 26. e. 27. es. 28. -9.
29. 1. 30. 0. 31. 1. 32. e~2.
33. 0. 37. §;-*.

VI. (Pages 52, 53.)
8. a? - 55a;4 + 330a;3 - 462a;2+ 165x - 11 = 0.
IX. (Page 73.)

1 1 -
2- (-l)Ûsinn0,(wodd); (-lf^l-cosnfyêven).
3. n.2 cosec2 w0, (ra odd) ; ^w2cosec2^f, (neven).
4. »i2sec2n0 - w, (n odd) ; w3 -=- [1 - (- 1 )2 cos w0] -n,(u even).

5. - «• cot + nd^ . 6. n cot
7. (- 1) 1 tan n6, (n odd) ; (- l)2, (n even).

8. «2 cot2 + «^ + n (» - 1).
ÍV TRIGONOMETRY. (PART II.)
10. 0 or 1-• n" , according as n is odd or even.

(- If cos wo - 1
XL (Pages 86-88.)
17. cos a cosh ß — i sin a sinh ß.
1„ sin 2a - г sinh 2/3
cosh 2ß - cos 2a '
1. „ sin a cosh ß — i cos a sinh ß
cosh 2/3 - cos 2a
„- _ cos a cosh ß + i sin a sinh ß
cos 2a + cosh 2ß
21. sinh a cos ß + i cosh a sin ß.
„„ sinh 2a + г sin 2ß
cosh 2a + cos 2ß
„„ - cosh a cos ß — i sinh a sin ß
cosh 2a + cos 2ß
XII. (Page 92.)
, ir i . l + sin в ,. „ . ...
1.+ -r + т los . :—-¡r , according as cos 0 is positive or
- 4 4 ° 1 - sm в
negative.
2. sin"1 („/sin 0) 4 г log [^/1 + sin б — ,/sin 0].
ХШ. (Page 99.)
15. TT1 log (ма + if) + i tan"1 -г; , where
¿ и
I cosh 2y- cos 2x . ,
M = ñ log £= > anc> " = *аг1 (cot ж tanh у).
XV. (Pages 112, 113.)

1. 3. 2. 2. 3. 5. 4. -1. 5. -3.
XVI. (Pages 117, 118.)
4 sin o
5 — 4 cos a '
2. 0, provided a does not equal a multiple of тт.
ANSWERS. V
sin' a sin a (cos a — sin a)

1 - sin 2a + sin' a ' 1 - sin 2a + sin2 a
sin a — c sin (a- /3) - c"sin (a + n/3) + cn+1sin {a+ (re- 1 )/?}
1 - 2c cos j3 + c1 '
sin a — c sin (a — /3)
1 — 2c cos ft +c*
1 — c cosh a - c" cosh na + cn+1 cosh (re — 1) a
1 — 2c cosh a + c2
c sinh a
1 — 2c cosh a + c* '
cos a+ (— l)*"1 {(re + 1) cos (re — 1) a+ n cos na}
2(1+ cos a)
sin a+ (2re + 3) sin rea- (2re + 1) sin (re + 1) a
2(1— cos a)
0, if re = 4m or Am — 1, and 1, if re = 4m- 2 or 4m- 3 ;
0, if re = 4wi or 4m - 3, and - 1, if re = 4m - 1 or 4m — 2.
(2 sin a) 2 sin fj + * J , except when a =
0, if re be odd ; (- l)2sin"a, if re be even.

(2sini) -8in(ir ~t)' if Mbe<L
,/cos 5 (1 + cos 6), if 6 be between — ^ and + ^.
XVII. (Pages 121-123.)

✓°"'Bin(a + csin/B). 2. e^5* cos (a + c sin /?).
e-008"0083 cos (cos a sin /3).
vi TRIGONOMETRY. (PART И.)
4. sin a cos (cos ß) cosh (sin ß)

- cos a sin (cos ß) sinh (sin ß).
5. sin (cos ß) cosh (sin ß) cos (a - ß)
- cos (cos ß) sinh (sin ß) sin (a - /3).
6. e0081101 cosh (sinh a). 7. ecoshasinh(sinha).
8. e*008 (8ina) cos {y sin (sin a)}, where у = e003".
9. e»«08^9') . cos {у sin (cos a)}, where у = esina.
10. I eeos * {cos (0 + sin в) + 4 cos (sin 6)}
+ I e"oose {cos (в - sin 0) - 4 cos (sinö)}.
с sin a
11. tan ' ^-
1 + с cos а . except
' when с = 1 and а = (2n.
x + 1 ') rr.
1 . 2e sin а i,,
12. jr tan"1 —=—-Д- , except when с = 1 and а = nir.
т А ~" С
,0 1 -, 1 + 2c cos а + с2
., . l , 2c cos а -_ l . l + 2с sin а + (?
14. ^ tan'1 -.- - . 15 -т log - --. --- .
2 1-е2 4 ° l - 2c sin а + с2
16. + -j , - -, or 0 according as cos a is positive, negative,
or zero.
in 1 / m j. -i 2ccos/8 1 . _. , ScsinjS
17. 2 cos (a - /8) tan ^T^r - 2sm(a-0) tanh TT^ '
18. - log ( sin а cosec —0 - ) , except when а + ß is a
¿ \ ¿ ¿ /
multiple of 2тг.
19. к 1о8 [(1 + c) -^ ^1 + 2c cos 2a + ca].
20. ^. 21. - jr tan-1 (cos ß cosech a).
22.
answers. vii
XVIII. (Pages 125, 126.)
a
L cot k- cot 2"-1ft 2. cosec 0 {cot 5- cot In + 1)6}.
3. cosec 6 {tan (n + 1 ) 6 - tan 6}.
4. cosec tf> {tan (6 + n<f>) — tan 6\.
5. \ cosec 0 {tan (n + 1 ) 0 — tan 6}.
6. Sn = gL cot ~-2cot20; Sm=~2 cot 2ft
7. 2coth2fl--~coth^|r1. 8. tan 2" 0- tan ft
9. tan 0 - tan - - ; tan 0.

10. sin 0 (cot 0- cot 2" 0).
11. iirin20 + (-l)"+1 Jririn2»+10.
12. ^sin20--J- sin2"+1ft

„
lo. -r1 cosec 0/ 2» + l.0 — sec 0\
- I sec —-— -).
4 2\ 2 2/
14. 5B = -^ritan2Ba-2tano; = 2a - 2 tan a.
15. i |3 cos 0 + cos 3" flj .
16. i {3- sin 1- sin^.
17. g[3Btan3n0-tan0].
18. i [cot 0 - 3B cot 3B fll

19. tan-1{(n+ 1) 2)}-tan-1 2.
20. tan-1 (ra + 1) - tan-1 1, i.e. tan 1 ^.
21. Sn = tan"1 2" - tan"1 1 ; 8K = * .

VÜi TRIGONOMETRY. (PART II.)
22. Sn = sin"1 1 - sin"1 — ; «S'«, = £ .

Jn+ 1 ¿
XIX. (Pages 131, 132.)

1. 1 — a cos 6 + a2 cos 26 — a3 cos 36 + ... ad inf.
2. cos 6 + a cos (6 + tf>) + a3 cos (6 + 2$) + . . . ad inf.
3. sin 6 + a sin (6 + <f>) + a2 sin (6 + 2<f>) + ... ad inf.
a2 a3
4. cos 0 + a cos (0 + <£) + |- cos (6 + 2<f>) + -p¡ cos (6 + 3<£)
If If
+ ... ad inf.
5. r6 sin <f> + -r-- sin 2<j> + -r=- sin 3<£ + . . . ad inf.,
If ll
where " r = + ,7a2 + 62 and <A = tan-1 - .
a
9. a; cos a — \u? sin 2a — \ a? cos 3a + \ x* sin 4a
2 3 4
+ \ x* cos 5a — . . . ad inf.
0
10. x + y — rir = — cos a sin x - i cos2 a sin 2a; — ^ cos3 a sin 3a;
2 o
— ... ad inf.
12. (1) m = tan2£; (2) i» = -tan8o.
13. - log 2 - sin 26 + \ cos 46 + \ sin 66- j cos 86

¿ o 4
-isin 106+ ... ad inf.
5
14. 2 [jsin 6 - 1 sin 36 + g sin 56 - ... ad inf.J .
15. log cos /J^ + (tan a + cot a) cos 6
- i (tan2 a + cot2 a) cos 26 + Í (tan3 a + cot3 a) cos 36 — ... ad inf.

ANSWERS. ix
XX. (Pages 144—146.)
1. nj^x3 + 2xcos (3r + 1) y + lj , where r = 0, 1, or 2.
2. n|^xJ-2a;cos(6r+ 1) ^ + 1J , where r-0, 1, 2, or 3.
3. Il|jir-2xcos(6r + 1)^ + lj ,
where r=0, 1, 2, 3, or 4.
4. n^tri-2xcos(3r + + 1J ,
where r=0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5.
5. Il|jE8-2xcos(6r + 2)|j- + 1J ,
where . r = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6.
6. (x - 1) II a? - 2x cos + 1 , where r = 1 or 2.
7. n |V - 2* cos (2r + 1) g + 1J , where r = 0, 1, or 2.
8. (x- 1) II jjr1- 2xcos + lj , where r = 1, 2, or 3.
9. (x+l)n[x3-2xcos(2r+l)^ 4- 1J ,
where r = 0, 1, 2, or 3.
10. (x2 — 1) II £ar - 2x cos ^ + lj , where r = 1, 2, 3, or 4.
11. (x+l)n [x2-2xcos(2r+l) ^ + 1 J ,

where r = 0, 1, ...5.
12. (x2-l)n^x2-2xcoSy + lj, where r= 1, 2, ...6.
13. n^x2-2xcos(2r+l)^ + lj, where r = 0, 1, 2, ...9.

29. Take the logarithm of both sides of the expression of
Art. 115 reading r instead of x ; differentiate with respect to r
and then integrate with respect to 6.
TRIGONOMETRY. (PART II.)
XXTT. (Pages 175, 177.)

2. + -32746... ft., and + -24989... ft.
_ a cos 2/3 . , a sin2 ß
' COS2 (a + Щ аП COS2 (a + 2ß) '
Ш-г /Ч f\ Ie)
тг tJO j Uta —,
—=-~ — and —
7.
с sin В " с sin A
7Г .
ХХШ. (Page 180.)

1. -1, and -==
2 "
2. - 1 + 2 cos 40°, - 1 + 2 cos 160°, and -1+2 cos 280°.
3. -4, and 2+273. 4. 4, and 1 + ^/3.
5. 2^/7 coso, where 0 = 33° 37' 52", 153° 37' 52", and
273° 37' 52".
6. -+ coso, where 0 = 39° 5' 51", 159° 5' 51", and
О О
7. |V21cosél, where в = 44° 50' 49", 164° 50' 49", and

284° 50' 49".
XXIV. (Page 182.)
3. The least value is - 2.
4. The least value is Jo? — b'.
5. The greatest and least values are 3 and ^ respectively.
à
6. The least value is 2ab.
7. The least value is (a - 6)2.
, 8. 2 tan o. 9. 2 sec a.
CAMBRIDGE: PRINTED BY c. j. CLAY, M.A. AND SUNS, AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
SOME PUBLICATIONS OF
Cfte Cambridge 2ämberöttp
PITT PRESS MATHEMATICAL SERIES.
Arithmetic for Schools. By C. SMITH, M.A., Master of
' Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge. With or without Answers.
Second Edition. 3s. ва. Or in Two Parts. 2s. each.
" The explanations of the fundamental principles and processes are
treated with a clearness, conciseness and completeness that make the
book a delight to read."—Nature.
Key to Smith's Arithmetic for Schools. Crown 8vo.
7«. 6d.
Elementary Algebra (with Answers to the Examples).
By W. W. ROUSE BALL, M.A., Fellow and Mathematical Lec
turer of Trinity College, Cambridge. 4«. 6d.
Euclid's Elements of Geometry. BOOKS I.—VI. By
H. M. TAYLOR, M.A., Fellow and formerly Tutor of Trinity
College, Cambridge. 4s.
BOOKS I. and II. li. 6d. BOOKS III. and IV. 1*. 6d. BOOKS
V. and VI. 1«. 6d. BOOKS I.—IV. 3s.
Solutions to the Exercises in Taylor's Euclid. BOOKS
I. -IV. By W. W. TAYLOR, M.A. 6«.
Elements of Statics and Dynamics. By S. L. LONEY,
M.A., late Fellow of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge. Third
Edition. 7s. 6d. Or in Two Parts.
PART I. ELEMENTS OF STATICS. 4s. 6d.
PART II. ELEMENTS OF DYNAMICS. 3s. 6d.
Mechanics and Hydrostatics for Beginners. By
S. L. LONEY, M.A. Third Edition. 4s. 6d.
An Elementary Treatise on Plane Trigonometry.
By E. W. HOBSON, Sc.D., Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge,
and University Lecturer in Mathematics, and C. M. JESSOP,
M.A., Fellow of Clare College, and Assistant Master at Beading
Suhool. 4s. Qd.
Stonfcon: C. J. CLAY AND SONS,

CAMBBIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS WAREHOUSE,
AVE MARIA LANE.
An Elementary Treatise on Geometrical Conies.
By F. S. Macaulay, M.A. Crown 8vo. [In the Press.
A Treatise on Elementary Hydrostatics. Ey J.
Greaves, M.A., Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge. Crown
8vo. 6s.
A Treatise on Analytical Statics. By E. J. Routh,
Sc.D., F.R.S., Fellow of the University of London, Honorary
Fellow of Peterhouse, Cambridge. Vol. I. Demy 8vo. 14s.
Vol. II. 10s.
A Treatise on Geometrical Optics. Ey R. S. Heath,
M.A., Professor of Mathematics in Mason Science College,
Birmingham. Demy 8vo. 12s. 6d.
An Elementary Treatise on Geometrical Optics.
By R. S. Heath, M.A. Crown 8vo. 5s.
A Treatise on Plane Trigonometry. By E. W.
Hobson, Sc.D., Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge, and
University Lecturer in Mathematics. Demy 8vo. 12s.
A Treatise on Natural Philosophy. By Lord Kelvin
(Sir W. Thomson), LL.D, D.C.L., F.R.S., and P. G. Tait, M.A.
Part L Demy 8vo. 16s. Part II. Demy 8vo. 18s.
Elements of Natural Philosophy. Bv Lord Kelvin
(Sir W. Thomson) and P. G. Tait. Demy 8vo. 9s.
COLLEGE EXAMINATION PAPERS.
Examination Papers for Entrance and Minor
Scholarships and Exhibitions in the Colleges of the University
of Cambridge.
Part I. Mathematics and Science. 2s.
Part II. Classics, Mediaeval and Modern Languages and History
(Michaelmas Term, 1890). 2s.
Part III. Mathematics and Science. 2s.
Part IV. Classics, Law and History (Lent Term, 1891). 2s.
Part V. Mathematics and Science (June, 1891—June, 1892). 2s.
Part VI. Classics, Mediaeval and Modern Languages and History
(June, 1891—June, 1892). 2s.
Parts VII. Mathematics. Is. 6d. VIII. Natural Sciences. Is. 6c?.
IX. Classics, Law and History. (September, 1892—April,
1893.) 2s.
Parts X. Mathematics. Is. 6d. XL Natural Sciences. Is. 6d.
XII. Classics, Hebrew, Modern Languages, and Political
Economy and History. (October, 1893—April, 1894.) 2s.
Eontion: C. J. CLAY and SONS,
CAMBBIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS WAREHOUSE,
AVE MARIA LANE.
9j
'*:
V--v

Plane Trigonometry

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Plane Trigonometry

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Plane Trigonometry

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

This is a reproduction of a library book that was digitized

by Google as part of an ongoing effort to preserve the

SECOND EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED.

[All Rights reserved.]

nnHE following work will, I hope, be found to be a

On a first reading also the articles marked with an

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

The Second Edition has been carefully revised, and it

I. Circumference of a circle = 2jit. (Art. 12.)

Angle = x Radian. (Art. 21.)

II. vsin'tf + cos!tf = l;

III. sinO° = 0; cosO" = l. (Art. 36.)

sin 45° = cos 45° = \- . (Art. 33. )

sin 60° = Y~ ; cos 60° = \ . (Art. 35.)

sin 18° = "^-^j cos 36° = (Arts. 120, 121.)

V- If sin 0 = sin a, then $ = nir + (- l)"a. (Art. 82.)

VI. sin (.4 + B) = sin A cos B + cos .4 sin B.

sin C + sin Z> = 2 sin —5— cos —¡.— .

sin (7 — sin ü - i cos —-— sin —^— .

2 sin .4 cos .5 = sin (A + B) + sin (.4 - B).

sin 2.4 = 2 sin .4 eos 4.

2 sin - = ± Vi + sin A * s/l - sin Л.

VII. log„ mn = loga m + log„ и.

loga mn = и loga m. (Art. 136.)

VIII. sm^ = sin£ = sinC

S = Js (s - a) (s - b) (8 — c) = \ be sin .4 =\ ca sin ab sin C.

r = - = (s-a) tan ^ = ... = ... (Arts. 202, 203.)

r, = = s tan ^ . (Arts. 205, 206. )

Area of a quadrilateral inscribable in a circle

X. sin a + sin (a + ß) + sin (a + 2/î) + . . . to n terras

cos о + cos (a + ß) + cos (a + 2/î) + ... to n terms

XI. Lt (l + iy = e= 2-71828 (Arts. 2, 3.)

e?= 1 + x + jn +Т5 + ad inf.

3? (loge «)2 + • . • ad inf.

when ж> — 1 and ;j>l. (Art. 8.)

XIII. . sin nO = n cos'1-1 в sin в

cos пв = cos" о - — -S~~ cos""2 в sin1 в

XIV. 8та = а--к+ш- ad inf. (Art. 33.)

^ _ e-art e1»* + «-^

XV. Log (a + ßi) = loge JaP + ß1 + i (2rw + в),

where cos в = +-, ____

where x is numerically not greater than unity. (Art. 95.)

where в lies between ртг — -¡ and ртг + -r . (Art. 96.) .

XVII. x™ - 2aV cos n6 + a2'1

= ~U 1 {a:2 - 2aa; cos ($ + + a2j (Art. 115.)

8in* = *(l-5)(l-^) (l-£) ad inf. (Art. 122.)

MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES, SEXAGESIMAL, CENTESIMAL,

, 1. In geometry angles are measured in terms of a

2. In the Sexagesimal system of measurement a

3. On this account another system of measurement

Hence, to change degrees into grades, add on one-

If the angle do not contain an integral number of

and 14' 51"= 14-85'= ^^=-2475°,

л 63°14'51" = 63-2475°=63'^- rt. angle

Reduce 94» 23" 87" to Sexagesimal Measure.

6. Angles of any size.

For any position between OB and OA', such as ОРг,

The unit used is obtained thus ;

10. It is clearly essential to the proper choice of a

11. Theorem. The length of the circumference of a