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A 547137
1837
ARTES SCIENTIA
VERITAS
LIBRARY Y OF
MI CHTHEIGAN
RSIT
UNIVE OF
EPLURIBUSUNUM
TUEBOR
SI-QUAERISPENINSULAM AMOENAM
CIRCUMSPICE
i
QA
533
4847
1895
PLANE
TRIGONOMETRY .
dis
London : C. J. CLAY AND SONS ,
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS WAREHOUSE ,
AVE MARIA LANE .
Glasgow : 263, ARGYLE STREET.
Leipzig : F. A. BROCKHAUS.
New York: MACMILLAN AND CO.
PLANE
TRIGONOMETRY
5-8660
BY
r e y ton
v id ux
S. L. LONEY, M.A.
LATE FELLOW OF· SIDNEY SUSSEX COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE,
PROFESSOR AT THE ROYAL HOLLOWAY COLLEGE.
SECOND EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED.
CAMBRIDGE :
AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
1895
[All Rights reserved. ]

Cambridge :
PRINTED BY J. & C. F. CLAY,
AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
F
Reear
PREFACE .
THE following work will, I hope, be found to be a

fairly complete elementary text-book on Plane Trigo-
nometry, suitable for Schools and the Pass and Junior
Honour classes of Universities. In the higher portion of
the book I have endeavoured to present to the student,
as simply as possible, the modern treatment of complex
quantities, and I hope it will be found that he will have
little to unlearn when he commences to read treatises of
a more difficult character.
As Trigonometry consists largely of formulæ and the

applications thereof, I have prefixed a list of the principal
formulæ which the student should commit to memory.
These more important formulæ are distinguished in the

text by the use of thick type. Other formulæ are sub-
sidiary and of less importance.
The number of examples is very large. A selection
only should be solved by the student on a first reading.
vi PREFACE.
On a first reading also the articles marked with an

asterisk should be omitted .
Considerable attention has been paid to the printing
of the book and I am under great obligation to the
Syndics of the Press for their liberality in this matter,
and to the officers and workmen of the Press for the
trouble they have taken.

I am indebted to Mr W. J. Dobbs, B.A., late Scholar
of St John's College, for his kindness in reading and
correcting the proof-sheets and for many valuable sug-
gestions.
For any corrections and suggestions for improvement
I shall be thankful.
S. L. LONEY.
ROYAL HOLLOWAY COLLEGE,

EGHAM, SURREY.
September 12, 1893.
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.
The Second Edition has been carefully revised, and it

is hoped that few serious mistakes remain either in the
text or the answers.
Some changes have been made in the chapters on
logarithms and logarithmic tables, and an additional
chapter has been added on Projections.
April 25, 1895.

CONTENTS .
PART I.
CHAP . PAGE
I. Measurement of angles. Sexagesimal and Centesimal
Measure . 1
Circular, or Radian, Measure . 5
II. Trigonometrical Ratios for angles less than a right
22242
angle 19
Values for angles of 45°, 30°, 60°, 90°, and 0° 32
III. Simple problems in Heights and Distances 40
IV. Applications of algebraic signs to Trigonometry 47
Tracing the changes in the ratios 52
V. Trigonometrical ratios of angles of any size. Ratios
for 8, 90° - 0, 90° +0, ..... 64
VI. General expressions for all angles having a given
trigonometrical ratio 76
VII. Ratios of the sum and difference of two angles 87
Product Formulæ • 93
VIII. Ratios of multiple and submultiple angles 105
Explanation of ambiguities 114
Angles of 18°, 36°, and 9° 126
IX. Identities and trigonometrical equations 131
X. Logarithms 146
Tables of logarithms 152
viii CONTENTS.
CHAP . PAGE
XI. Principle of Proportional Parts 159
XII. Sides and Angles of a triangle . 174
XIII. Solution of triangles 189
Given two sides and the included angle 195
Ambiguous Case . 201
XIV. Heights and Distances 211
XV. Properties of a triangle . 228
The circles connected with a triangle 230
Orthocentre and Pedal triangle 238
Centroid and Medians 241
XVI. Quadrilaterals 251
Regular Polygons 257
XVII. Trigonometrical ratios of small angles.
sin <<tan 262
Area of a Circle 268
Dip of the horizon . 270
XVIII. Inverse circular functions . 273
XIX. Some simple trigonometrical Series 282
XX. Elimination 290
XXI. Projections · 295
PART II.
ANALYTICAL TRIGONOMETRY.
CHAP . PAGE
I. Exponential and Logarithmic Series 1
Logarithms to base e · 7
Two important limits 11
II. Complex quantities 17
De Moivre's Theorem 20
Binomial Theorem for complex quantities 30
CONTENTS. ix
CHAP . PAGE
III. Expansions of sin ne, cos ne, and tan no 32
Expansions of sin a and cos a in a series of ascending
powers of a • • 37
Sines and Cosines of small angles 40
Approximation to the root of an equation 41
Evaluation of indeterminate quantities 43
IV. Expansions of cos" and sin" in cosines or sines of
multiples of • 54
Expansions of sin ne and cos ne in series of descend-
ing and ascending powers of sin and cos 60
V. Exponential Series for Complex Quantities . 74
Circular functions of complex angles 77
Euler's exponential values 78
Hyperbolic Functions 80
Inverse Circular and Hyperbolic Functions . 88
VI. Logarithms of complex quantities 93
Value of a when a and x are complex . 100
VII. Gregory's Series 106
Calculation of the value of π 109
VIII. Summation of Series 114
Expansions in Series 126
IX. Factors of x2n - 2xn cos no +1 133
Factors of n - 1 and xn + 1 139
Resolution of sin and cos into factors . 147
sinh and cosh in products 152
X. Principle of Proportional Parts 162
XI. Errors of observation 171
XII. Miscellaneous Propositions 178
Solution of a Cubic Equation 178
Maximum and Minimum Values 180
Geometrical representation of complex quantities 182
Miscellaneous Examples 188
ANSWERS. Part I. i-xvi

99 Part II. i-x
THE PRINCIPAL FORMULE IN
TRIGONOMETRY .
PART I.
I. Circumference of a circle = 2π1. (Art. 12. )

22
T = 3.14159 ... Approximations are 355 ] . (Art. 13. )
7 and 113
A Radian = 57° 17′ 44.8 " nearly. (Art. 16. )
Two right angles = 180 ° = 200 = π radians. (Art. 19. )
arc
Angle = radius × Radian. (Art. 21.)
II. sin² + cos² 0 = 1 ;

'sec² 0 = 1 + tan² 0 ;
cosec² = 1 + cot² 0. (Art. 27. )
III. sin 0° = 0 ; cos 0° --- 1 . (Art. 36.)

1 √3
sin 30° = cos 30° =
2; 2 (Art. 34. )
1
sin 45° = cos 45° = (Art. 33. )
√2.
√3 1
sin 60° = ; cos 60° = (Art. 35. )
2 2་
sin 90° == 1 ; cos 90° = 0. (Art. 37. )
- /3 + 1
sin 15° = √3. ; cos 15° = • (Art. 106. )
2/2 2/2
-1
sin 18° = √√√5 ; cos 36° = √5 + 1 (Arts. 120, 121. )
4 4
THE PRINCIPAL FORMULE IN TRIGONOMETRY. xi
IV. - 0) = cos 0.
sin (− 0) = − sin 0 ; cos (— (Art. 68. )
sin (90° - 0) = cos 0 ; cos (90° - 0) = sin 0. (Art. 69. )
sin (90° + 0) = cos 0 ; cos (90° + 0) = − sin 0. (Art. 70. )
sin ( 180° - 0) = sin 0 ; cos (180° -

— 0) == cos 0. (Art. 72. )
sin (180° + 0) = sin ; cos ( 180 ° + 0) = — cos 0. ( Art. 73. )
V. If sin = sin a, then 0 = nπ + (− 1)"α. (Art. 82. )

If cos 0 = cos a, then 0 = 2nπ ± a. (Art. 83. )
If tan 6 ==
= tan a, then = n + a. (Art. 84.)
VI. sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B.
cos (A + B) = cos A cos B - sin A sin B. (Art. 88. )

sin (A – B) = sin A cos B – cos A sin B.
-
cos (A – B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B. (Art. 90.)
C+D C-D
sin C + sin D = 2 sin COS
2 2
C+D C- D
sin C sin D = 2 cos sin
2 2
C+D C- D
cos C + cos D = 2 cos COS
2 2
C+D C-D
cos Dcos C = 2 sin sin (Art. 94. )
2 2
2 sin A cos B = sin (A + B) + sin (A – B).

2 cos A sin B =sin (A + B) -− sin (À – B).
2 cos A cos B = cos (A + B) + cos (A – B).

2 sin A sin B = cos (AB) -cos (A + B). (Art. 97.)
xii THE PRINCIPAL FORMULE IN TRIGONOMETRY .
tan Atan B
tan (A + B) -
1 - tan A tan B'
tan Atan B
tan (A - B) = (Art. 98. )
1 + tan A tan B*
sin 24 -= 2 sin A cos A.
cos 24 = cos² A - sin² A = 1 − 2 sin² A = 2 cos² A -

− 1. (Art. 105) .
2 tan A 1 - tan² A
sin 24 = ; cos 2A =
1 + tan² A 1 + tan² A ' (Art. 109. )
2 tan A
tan 24 =
1- tan² A (Art. 105. )
sin 34 = 3 sin A - 4 sin³ A.

cos 34 = 4 cos³ A - 3 cos A.
3 tan Atan³ A
tan 34 = (Art. 107.)
1 - 3 tan² A
42
cos A A 1 + cos A
sin 4-== ; cos == • (Art. 110. )
2 2
A
2 sin
2 = ± √√1 + sin A ± √1 − sin A.
A
2 cos √1 + sin A = √ 1 − sin A.
2= (Art. 113.)
$1 83 +85
tan (4₁ + A₂ + An) = 1 - (Art. 125. )
82 +84
VII. loga mn = logam + loga n.

m
loga - = logam - loga n.
n
loga m² = n loga m. (Art. 136. )

logam = log, m x log, b. (Art. 147.)
THE PRINCIPAL FORMULE IN TRIGONOMETRY. xiii
sin A sin B sin C

VIII . = (Art. 163.)
a b с
b²+ c² - a²
cos A (Art. 164. )
2bc
a 42 ༢ ཁ 42
A S -b) (s - c)
sin = ....... (Art. 165. )
bc
Ꭺ 8 (8 - a)
COS ....... (Art. 166. )
bc
-
a tan
A
= (s -
− b) (s − c)
....... (Art. 167.)
s (s - a)
2
sin A = -c),... (Art. 169. )
·a) (8 — b) (8 —
bc
a = b cos C + c cos B,...... (Art. 170. )
B - C b -c A
tan = cot , (Art. 171.)
2 b+c 2
1 1
A:= ca sin B:= ab sin C.
- a) (s − b) (s − c) = ½ be sin 4
S = √s (s − 2
(Art. 198. )
a b с abc
IX . R=- = = (Arts. 200, 201. )
2 sin A 2 sin B 2 sin C 4S
S A
r = - = (8 - a) tan142= = ... (Arts. 202, 203. )
8
S A
= s tan (Arts. 205, 206. )
8- a 2
Area of a quadrilateral inscribable in a circle

- - (Art. 219. )
= √ (8 − a) (8 − b) (8 — c) (8 — d).
sin
0 1 , when is very small. (Art. 228. )
Area of a circle = Tr². (Art. 233. )

xiv THE PRINCIPAL FORMULE IN TRIGONOMETRY .
X. sin a + sin (a + ß) + sin (a + 2ß) + to n terms
.N 1
sina + Bs in ηβ
2 B} 2
(Art. 241. )
sin
2
cos a + cos (a + B) + cos (a + 2ẞ) + ... to n terms
n 1 ηβ
COS a + B sin
{a 2 B} 2
1312
(Art. 242. )
sin22
PART II.
n
XI. Lt ( 1 + 1) == e = 2·71828 ...... (Arts. 2 , 3. )
n =∞
x²
ex = 1 + x + + + ...... ad inf.
a² = 1 + x log, ɑ + (loge a)² + ... ad inf. (Art. 5.)

12
1 1 1
204 + ...... ad inf.
loge (1 + x) = x - + X3
4
when X--1 and 1. (Art. 8. )

n
sin
Lt = 1 = Lt (Arts. 14, 15. )
n= ∞ (cosa)" n=∞
(
XII. (cos Ө + i sin 0)" = cos n✪ + i sin 0. (Art. 21. )

THE PRINCIPAL FORMULE IN TRIGONOMETRY. XV
XIII. sin no = n cos"-10 sin
n (n -
− 1 ) (n − 2 ) cos"-30 sin³0 + ......
1.2.3
n (n - 1 ) Cosn-2
n-20 sin² 0
cos no = cos²0. -
1. 2
n (n - 1 ) (n - 2) (n - 3) Cosnn -40 sin¹ 0 -

+ ... (Art. 27. )
1.2.3.4
81-83 + 85-87 +
tan no = (Art. 30. )
1. 82 + 84-86 +
XIV . sin a = a ad inf. (Art. 33.)

35
cos a = 1 - ad inf. (Art. 32. )
exi - e -xi exi + -xi

sin x = ; cos x = (Art. 62.)
2i 2
XV. Log (a + Bi) = log. √a² + ẞ² + i (2nπ + 0),

a B
where cos = and sin =
+ √ a² + B² + √a² + B²
(Art. 82. )
15
113
1
XVI. tan XX - 20³ + - 27 + ...... ad inf. ,
5
where x is numerically not greater than unity. (Art. 95. )

1 1
0 - pπ = tan tan³ 0 + tan5 0 ...... ad inf. ,
3 5
π π
where lies between pπ - and рп + •
4
(Art. 96.)
xvi THE PRINCIPAL FORMULE IN TRIGONOMETRY.
XVII. -
x2n2an.xn cos no + a²n
r= n- 1
= II - 2αx cos ( 0+
r=0 { (0 + 2 ) + a² ( Art . 115. )
r=2-1 21π
2-1 = (x² - 1 ) II x² - 2x cos +
r=1 n 1) , (n even)
T= n-1
2 21π
and = (x- 1 ) II -2x cos +
r= 1 12 -1) , (n odd).
(Art. 119. )
r=22-1
2r + 1
xn + 1 == II x²- 2x cos π+
r=0 n 1 ) , (n even)
T= n-2 3
2r + 1 + 1
and = (x + 1 ) II x² - 2x cos
r=0 (20° n 1) , (n odd).
(Art. 120. )
02 02
ad inf. (Art. 122.)
222) (1-3
sin 0 = 0 (1 - 4) ( 1-6 322)
402 402 402

= ad inf. (Art. 123. )
cos 6 - (1-10) (1-3 ) (1-1 )
CHAPTER I.
MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES , SEXAGESIMAL, CENTESIMAL ,
AND CIRCULAR MEASURE.
1. IN geometry angles are measured in terms of a

right angle. This, however, is an inconvenient unit of
measurement on account of its size .
2. In the Sexagesimal system of measurement a

right angle is divided into 90 equal parts called Degrees .
Each degree is divided into 60 equal parts called
Minutes, and each minute into 60 equal parts called
Seconds.
The symbols 1 °, 1 ', and 1 ″ are used to denote a degree ;

a min ute , and a second respectively .
Thus 60 Seconds ( 60″ ) make One Minute ( 1 ') ,
60 Minutes (60')
‫ دو‬Degree (1 °),
and
90 Degrees (90°) "" "" Right Angle.
This system is well established and is always used in
the practical applications of Trigonometry . It is not
however very convenient on account of the multipliers 60
and 90.
L. T.
1
2 TRIGONOMETRY .
3. On this account another system of measurement

called the Centesimal, or French, system has been
proposed. In this system the right angle is divided into
100 equal parts, called Grades ; each grade is subdivided
into 100 Minutes, and each minute into 100 Seconds.
The symbols 18, 1`, and 1" are used to denote a Grade,
a Minute, and a Second respectively.
Thus 100 Seconds ( 100" ) make One Minute ( 1`),
100 Minutes ( 100`) "" "" Grade, (18),
100 Grades (1008) "9 "" Right angle.
4. This system would be much more convenient to

use than the ordinary Sexagesimal System.
As a preliminary, however, to its practical adoption, a
large number of tables would have to be recalculated.
For this reason the system has in practice never been used.
5. To convert Sexagesimal into Centesimal Measure,

and vice versa.
Since a right angle is equal to 90° and also to 100%, we
have
90° = 100%.
10º 9°
.. 1° = 2 and 18 =
9 10 '
Hence, to change degrees into grades, add on one-

ninth ; to change grades into degrees, subtract one-tenth.
g
4
Ex. 36° == ( 36 + 913 × 36 ) * = 0%,
and 648 =
10 1 ) ˚ = ( 64 – 6 ·4 )° = 57 ·6 ° .
(641x64)
If the angle do not contain an integral number of

degrees, we may reduce it to a fraction of a degree and
then change to grades.
MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES. 3
In practice it is generally found more convenient to

reduce any angle to a fraction of a right angle. The
method will be seen in the following examples ;
Ex. 1. Reduce 63° 14' 51" to Centesimal Measure.
17'
We have 51"= = '85',
20
and 14.85°
14′ 51″ 14.85' =
60 - = •2475°,
63.2475
.. 63° 14′51″ = 63· 2475° = rt. angle
90
= '70275 rt. angle
= 70-275% = 70% 27 · 5' = 70% 27' 50' .
Ex. 2. Reduce 94º 23' 87" to Sexagesimal Measure.
948 23' 87942387 right angle
90
84-81483 degrees
60
48.8898 minutes
60
53.3880 seconds.
.. 948 23' 87" = 84° 48′ 53.388".
6. Angles of any size.

Suppose AOA' and BOB' to be two fixed lines meeting
at right angles in O, and suppose
B
a revolving line OP (turning about P2 P1
a fixed point at 0) to start from
OA and revolve in a direction P
opposite to that of the hands of a A'
watch.
P3 P4
For any position of the re-
volving line between OA and OB, B'
such as OP , it will have turned
through an angle AOP₁ , which is less than a right angle.
1-2
TRIGONOMETRY.
For any position between OB and OA' , such as OP₂,

the angle AOP, through which it has turned is greater
than a right angle.
For any position OP , between OA' and OB' , the
angle traced out is AOP,, i.e. AOB + BOA' + A'OP3, i.e.
2 right angles + A'OP,, so that the angle described is
greater than two right angles.
For any position OP , between OB′ and OA , the angle
turned through is similarly greater than three right angles.
When the revolving line has made a complete revo-
lution, so that it coincides once more with OA , the angle
through which it has turned is 4 right angles.
If the line OP still continue to revolve, the angle
through which it has turned, when it is for the second
time in the position OP₁ , is not AOP but 4 right angles
+ AOP₁ .
Similarly, when the revolving line, having made two
complete revolutions, is once more in the position OP₂,
the angle it has traced out is 8 right angles + AOP,.
7. If the revolving line OP be between OA and OB,

it is said to be in the first quadrant ; if it be between OB
and OA ' , it is in the second quadrant ; if between OA′ and
OB' , it is in the third quadrant ; if it is between OB' and
OA, it is in the fourth quadrant.
8. Ex. What is the position of the revolving line when it has turned
through (1 ) 225°, (2) 480°, and (3) 1050° ?
(1) Since 225° = 180° + 45°, the revolving line has turned through
45° more than two right angles, and it is therefore in the third quadrant
and halfway between OA' and OB'.
(2) Since 480° = 360° + 120°, the revolving line has turned through
120° more than one complete revolution, and is therefore in the second
quadrant, i.e. between OB and OA' , and makes an angle of 30° with OB.
CIRCULAR MEASURE. 5
(3) Since 1050° 11 × 90° + 60°, the revolving line has turned through
60° more than eleven right angles, and is therefore in the fourth
quadrant, i.e. between OB' and OA, and makes 60° with OB'.
EXAMPLES. I.
Express in terms of a right angle the angles
1. 60°. 2. 75° 15'. 3. 63° 17' 25".
4. 130° 30'. 5. 210° 30' 30". 6. 370° 20′ 48″.
Express in grades, minutes, and seconds the angles
7. 30°. 8. 81°. 9. 138° 30'. 10. 35° 47′15″.
11. 235° 12'′ 36″. 12. 475° 13′ 48″.
Express in terms of right angles, and also in degrees, minutes, and
seconds the angles
13. 1208. 14. 458 35' 24" . 15. 398 45' 36".
16. 255° 8' 9". 17. 7598 0' 5".
Mark the position of the revolving line when it has traced out the
following angles :
4
18. right angle. 19. 3 right angles. 20. 13 right angles.
21. 120°. 22. 315°. 23. 745°. 24. 1185°. 25. 1508.
26. 4208. 27. 8758.
28. How many degrees, minutes and seconds are respectively passed
over in 11 minutes by the hour and minute hands of a watch ?
29. The number of degrees in one acute angle of a right-angled
triangle is equal to the number of grades in the other ; express both the
angles in degrees.
30. Prove that the number of Sexagesimal minutes in any angle is
to the number of Centesimal minutes in the same angle as 27 : 50.
31. Divide 44° 8' into two parts such that the number of Sexagesimal
seconds in one part may be equal to the number of Centesimal seconds in
the other part.
Circular Measure .
9. A third system of measurement of angles has

been devised, and it is this system which is used in all
the higher branches of Mathematics.
6 TRIGONOMETRY.
The unit used is obtained thus ;

Take any circle APBB', whose centre is 0, and from
any point A measure off an arc
AP whose length is equal to the B
rad
a
radius of the circle. Join OA and
ius
OP.
The angle AOP is the angle radian
A
which is taken as the unit of cir-
cular measurement, i.e. it is the
angle in terms of which in this B'
system we measure all others.
This angle is called A Radian and is often denoted
by 1º.
10. It is clearly essential to the proper choice of a

unit that it should be a constant quantity ; hence we must
shew that the Radian is a constant angle. This we shall
do in the following articles.
11. Theorem. The length of the circumference of a

circle always bears a constant ratio to its diameter.
Take any two circles whose common centre is 0. In

the large circle inscribe a regular
E
polygon of n sides, ABCD.... D
Let OA, OB, OC,... meet the e C
d
smaller circle in the points a, b, B
b
c, d... and join ab, bc, cd,……
... a A
Then, by Euc. VI. 2, abcd... is
a regular polygon of n sides in-
scribed in the smaller circle.
Since Oa = Ob, and OA = OB,
THE RADIAN. 7
the lines ab and AB must be parallel, and hence

AB OA
== (Euc. VI. 4).
ab Οα
Also the polygon ABCD... being regular, its perimeter,
i.e. the sum of its sides, is equal to n . AB. Similarly for
the inner polygon.
Hence we have
Perimeter of the outer polygon_n.AB = AB = OA
Perimeter of the inner polygon n . ab ab Oa
. (1 ).
This relation exists whatever be the number of sides
in the polygons.
Let then the number of sides be indefinitely increased
(i.e. let n become inconceivably great) so that finally the
perimeter of the outer polygon will be the same as the
circumference of the outer circle, and the perimeter of the
inner polygon the same as the circumference of the inner
circle.
The relation ( 1 ) will then become
Circumference of outer circle OA
=
Circumference of inner circle Oa
Radius of outer circle
=
Radius of inner circle
Circumference of outer circle
Hence
Radius of outer circle
Circumference of inner circle
Radius of inner circle
Since there was no restriction whatever as to the sizes
of the two circles, it follows that the quantity
Circumference of a circle
Radius of the circle
is the same for all circles.
8 TRIGONOMETRY .
Hence the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its

radius, and therefore also to its diameter, is a constant
quantity.
12. In the previous article we have shewn that the

Circumference
ratio is the same for all circles. The value
Diameter
of this constant ratio is always denoted by the Greek
letter (pronounced Pi), so that π is a number.
Circumference
Hence = the constant number π
Diameter
We have therefore the following theorem ; The cir-
cumference of a circle is always equal to π times
its diameter or 27 times its radius.
13. Unfortunately the value of T is not a whole

number, nor can it be expressed in the form of a vulgar
fraction, and hence not in the form of a decimal fraction,
terminating or recurring.
The number π is an incommensurable magnitude, i.e. a
magnitude whose value cannot be exactly expressed as the
ratio of two whole numbers.
Its value, correct to 8 places of decimals, is
3.14159265 ....
22
The fraction gives the value of π correctly for the
7
22
first two decimal places ; for = 3.14285 ....
7
355
The fraction is a more accurate value of π, being
113
355
correct to 6 places of decimals ; for 113 = 3.14159203....
THE RADIAN. 9
355
[N.B. The fraction may be remembered thus ; write down the
113
first three odd numbers repeating each twice, thus 113355 ; divide the
number thus obtained into portions and let the first part be divided into
the second, thus 113) 355(.
The quotient is the value of π to 6 places of decimals.]
To sum up. An approximate value of π, correct

22
to 2 places of decimals, is the fraction
7 ; a more
accurate value is 3.14159 ....
By division, we can shew that
1
= 3183098862....
π
14. Ex. 1. The diameter of a tricycle wheel is 28 inches ; through

what distance does its centre move during one revolution of the wheel?
The radius r is here 14 inches.
The circumference therefore = 2.π. 14 = 28π inches.
22 22
If we take π = the circumference = 28 x inches 7 ft. 4 inches
7' 7
approximately.
If we give the more accurate value 3.14159265..., the circumference
= 28 × 3.14159265 ... inches = 7 ft. 3 ·96459... inches.
Ex. 2. What must be the radius of a circular running path, round

which an athlete must run 5 times in order to describe one mile ?
1
The circumference must be × 1760 , i.e. 352, yards.
5
Hence, if r be the radius of the path in yards, we have 2πr = 352,
176
i.e. ↑= — yards.
π
22 176 x 7
Taking T = 9 we have r= 22 = 56 yards nearly.
7
Taking the more accurate value π = 31831 , we have
r = 176 × 31831 = 56·02256 yards.

10 TRIGONOMETRY.
EXAMPLES. II.
1. If the radius of the earth be 4000 miles, what is the length of its
circumference?
2. The wheel of a railway carriage is 3 feet in diameter and makes
3 revolutions in a second ; how fast is the train going?
3. A mill sail whose length is 18 feet makes 10 revolutions per
minute. What distance does its end travel in an hour?
4. The diameter of a halfpenny is an inch ; what is the length of a
piece of string which would just surround its curved edge?
5. Assuming that the earth describes in one year a circle, of
92500000 miles radius, whose centre is the sun, how many miles does the
earth travel in a year?
6. The radius of a carriage wheel is 1 ft. 9 ins. , and in 9th of a

second it turns through 80° about its centre, which is fixed ; how many
miles does a point on the rim of the wheel travel in one hour ?
15. Theorem. The radian is a constant angle.

Take the figure of Art. 9. Let the arc AB be a
quadrant of the circle, i.e. one quarter of the circum-
ference.
πη
By Art. 12, the length of AB is therefore where r
2
is the radius of the circle.
By Euc. vi. 33, we know that angles at the centre of
any circle are to one another as the arcs on which they
stand.
LAOP arc AP K 2
Hence 3
= = ==
ZAOB arc AB π π
2
i.e. ZAOP =- . ZAOB.
π
But we defined the angle AOP to be a Radian.
THE RADIAN. 11
2
Hence a Radian - - • ZAOB
π
-=2
of a right angle.
π
Since a right angle is a constant angle, and since we

have shewn (Art. 12) that π is a constant quantity, it
follows that a Radian is a constant angle, and is therefore
the same whatever be the circle from which it is derived.
16. Magnitude of a Radian .
By the previous article, a Radian

2 180°
= =
π × a right angle π
180° x 3183098862 ... == 57.2957795°
= 57° 17′ 44.8" nearly.

2
17. Since a Radian =- of a right angle,
π
π
therefore a right angle = • radians ,
2
so that 180° = 2 right angles = π radians ,

and 360° = 4 right angles = 2π radians.
Hence, when the revolving line (Art. 6) has made a
complete revolution , it has described an angle equal to
2π radians ; when it has made three complete revolutions,
it has described an angle of 67 radians ; when it has made
n revolutions, it has described an angle of 2nπ radians.
18. In practice the symbol " c " is generally omitted,

and instead of " an angle " we find written r an
angle π."
12 TRIGONOMETRY .
The student must notice this point carefully. If the

unit, in terms of which the angle is measured, be not
mentioned, he must mentally supply the word " radians."
Otherwise he will easily fall into the mistake of supposing
that stands for 180°. It is true that π radians (7 ) is
the same as 180°, but π itself is a number, and a number
only.
19. To convert circular measure into sexagesimal

measure or centesimal measure and vice versa.
The student should remember the relations
Two right angles = 180° = 200 = π radians.
The conversion is then merely Arithmetic.
Ex. (1) 45π = '45 × 180° = 81° = 90%.
3 3 3
(2) 3c=- XTC .
x 180° == × 2008.
π π π
(3) 40° 15′ 36″ =40° 15%' =40.26°
пс
=40.26 × =
– ·2236π radians .
180
π
(4) 408 15' 36" = 40 · 15368 = 40.1536 x radians
200
= 200768π radians.
20. Ex. 1. The angles of a triangle are in A. P. and the number of
grades in the least is to the number of radians in the greatest as 40 : π ;
find the angles in degrees.
Let the angles be (x -
− y) °, x°, and (x + y)°.
Since the sum of the three angles of a triangle is 180°, we have
180 = x - y + x + x + y = 3x,
so that x == 60.
The required angles are therefore
(60 - y)°, 60°, and (60 + y)°.
10
Now (60- y)° = 9 x (60 - y) ,
π
and (60 + y)° = 180 × (60 + y) radians.
THE RADIAN. 13
10 π
Hence
9 (60 - y) : 180 ·(60 + y) :: 40 : π,
200 60 - y =
3 40
..
π 60 + y π "
i.e. 5 (60 - y) = 60 +y,
i.e. y =40.
The angles are therefore 20°, 60°, and 100°.
Ex. 2. Express in the 3 systems of angular measurement the magni-

tude ofthe angle of a regular decagon.
The corollary to Euc. I. 32 states that all the interior angles of any
rectilinear figure together with four right angles are equal to twice as
many right angles as the figure has sides.
Let the angle of a regular decagon contain x right angles, so that
all the angles are together equal to 10x right angles.
The corollary therefore states that
10x +4 = 20,
8
so that x=5 right angles.
But one right angle
π
= 90° 100% == radians.
2
Hence the required angle
4π
= 144° 160g := radians.
5
EXAMPLES . III.
Express in degrees, minutes, and seconds the angles,
4πc
2. 3 3. 10 . 4. 1c. 5. 8c.
1. .3
Express in grades , minutes, and seconds the angles,
4πc 7πc
6. 5 7. 6 • 8. 10πc.
Express in radians the following angles :

9. 60°. 10. 110° 30'. 11. 175° 45'. 12. 47° 25' 36".
13. 395°. 14. 60%. 15. 1108 30'. 16. 345 25' 36" .
17. The difference between the two acute angles of a right-angled
2
triangle is 5ππ radians ; express the angles in degrees.
14 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. III.]
2 3
18. One angle of a triangle is grades and another is degrees,
πX
whilst the third is radians ; express them all in degrees.
75
19. The circular measure of two angles of a triangle are respectively
1
and ; what is the number of degrees in the third angle ?
20. The angles of a triangle are in A. P. and the number of degrees

in the least is to the number of radians in the greatest as 60 to ; find
the angles in degrees.
21. The angles of a triangle are in A. P. and the number of radians
in the least angle is to the number of degrees in the mean angle as 1 : 120.
Find the angles in radians.
22. Find the magnitude, in radians and degrees , of the interior
angle of (1 ) a regular pentagon, (2) a regular heptagon , (3) a regular
octagon, (4) a regular duodecagon, and (5) a regular polygon of 17 sides.
23. The angle in one regular polygon is to that in another as 3 : 2 ;
also the number of sides in the first is twice that in the second ; how
many sides have the polygons?
24. The number of sides in two regular polygons are as 5 : 4, and
the difference between their angles is 9° ; find the number of sides in
the polygons .
25. Find two regular polygons such that the number of their sides
may be as 3 to 4 and the number of degrees in an angle of the first to the
number of grades in an angle of the second as 4 to 5.
26. The angles of a quadrilateral are in a. P. and the greatest is
double the least ; express the least angle in radians.
27. Find in radians, degrees, and grades the angle between the
hour-hand and the minute-hand of a clock at (1) half-past three,
(2) twenty minutes to six, (3) a quarter past eleven.
28. Find the times (1) between four and five o'clock when the angle
between the minute-hand and the hour-hand is 78°, (2) between seven and
eight o'clock when this angle is 54°.
21. Theorem . The number of radians in any angle

whatever is equal to a fraction, whose numerator is the arc
which the angle subtends at the centre of any circle, and
whose denominator is the radius of that circle.
MEASUREMENT OF ANY ANGLE IN RADIANS. 15
Let AOP be the angle which has been described by a

line starting from OA and revolv-
ing into the position OP.
With centre O and any radius
describe a circle cutting OA and
OP in the points A and P.
Let the angle AOB be a radian,
so that the arc AB is equal to the
radius OA.
By Euc. VI. 33, we have
ZAOP LAOP arc AP arc AP
= = =
A Radian LAOB arc AB Radius
arc AP
so that LA0P =• of a Radian.
Radius
Hence the theorem is proved.
22. Ex. 1. Find the angle subtended at the centre of a circle of

radius 3 feet by an arc of length 1 foot.
arc 1
The number of radians in the angle:- =
radius 3
Hence the angle
= 1 radian - 1 2 right angle = 2 × 90° = 60° = 19,1 °,
3 3π 3п π
22
taking equal to 7
Ex. 2. In a circle of 5 feet radius what is the length of the arc which
subtends an angle of 33° 15′ at the centre ?
If x feet be the required length, we have
X
=number of radians in 33° 15′
331
180 π (Art. 19).
133
= π.
720
133 133 22
.. x = 144 π feet = X feet nearly
144 7
=295 feet nearly.
16 TRIGONOMETRY.
Ex. 3. Assuming the average distance of the earth from the sun to be
92500000 miles, and the angle subtended by the sun at the eye of a person
on the earth to be 32', find the sun's diameter.
Let D be the diameter of the sun in miles.
The angle subtended by the sun being very small, its diameter is very
approximately equal to a small arc of a circle whose centre is the eye of
the observer. Also the sun subtends an angle of 32′ at the centre of this
circle.
Hence, by Art. 21, we have
D
= the number of radians in 32'
92500000
8°
=the number of radians in
15
8 π 2π
= X =
15 180 675
185000000
. D= π miles
675
185000000 22
X miles approximately
675 7
= about 862000 miles.
Ex. 4. Assuming that a person of normal sight can read print at such
a distance that the letters subtend an angle of 5' at his eye, find what is
the height of the letters that he can read at a distance ( 1 ) of 12 feet, and
(2) of a quarter of a mile.
Let x be the required height in feet.
In the first case, x is very nearly equal to the arc of a circle, of radius
12 feet, which subtends an angle of 5' at its centre.
x
Hence 12 = number of radians in 5'
1 π
= 12 X 180 .
π 1 22
.. x= feet = X feet nearly
180 180 7
22 1
= X inches = about inch.
15 7
MEASUREMENT OF ANY ANGLE IN RADIANS. 17
In the second case, the height y is given by

y = number of radians in 5′
440 x 3
1 Π
= X
12 180 '
11 11 22
so that y =18 T= 18 X 7 feet nearly
= about 23 inches.
EXAMPLES. IV.
1. Find the number of degrees subtended at the centre of a circle by
== •3183.
an arc whose length is ·357 times the radius, taking π -31
2. Express in radians and degrees the angle subtended at the centre
of a circle by an arc whose length is 15 feet, the radius of the circle
being 25 feet.
3. The value of the divisions on the outer rim of a graduated circle
is 5' and the distance between successive graduations is 1 inch. Find
the radius of the circle.
4. The diameter of a graduated circle is 6 feet and the graduations
on its rim are 5' apart ; find the distance from one graduation to
another.
5. Find the radius of a globe which is such that the distance between
two places on the same meridian whose latitude differs by 1° 10' may be
half-an-inch.
6. Taking the radius of the earth as 4000 miles, find the difference
in latitude of two places, one of which is 100 miles north of the other.
7. Assuming the earth to be a sphere and the distance between
two parallels of latitude, which subtends an angle of 1° at the earth's
centre, to be 693 miles, find the radius of the earth.
8. The radius of a certain circle is 3 feet ; find approximately the
length of an arc of this circle, if the length of the chord of the arc be
3 feet also.
9. What is the ratio of the radii of two circles at the centre of which
two arcs of the same length subtend angles of 60° and 75°?
10. If an arc, of length 10 feet, on a circle of 8 feet diameter
subtend at the centre an angle of 143° 14′22″ ; find the value of T
to 4 places of decimals.
L. T. 2
18 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. IV.]
11. If the circumference of a circle be divided into 5 parts which are

in A. P., and if the greatest part be 6 times the least, find in radians
the magnitudes of the angles that the parts subtend at the centre of the
circle.
12. The perimeter of a certain sector of a circle is equal to the length
of the arc of a semicircle having the same radius ; express the angle of
the sector in degrees, minutes, and seconds.
13. At what distance does a man, whose height is 6 feet, subtend an
angle of 10'?
14. Find the length which at a distance of one mile will subtend
an angle of 1' at the eye.
15. Find approximately the distance at which a globe, 5½ inches in
diameter, will subtend an angle of 6'.
16. Find approximately the distance of a tower whose height is
51 feet and which subtends at the eye an angle of 5 .
17. A church spire, whose height is known to be 100 feet, subtends
an angle of 9′ at the eye ; find approximately its distance.
18. Find approximately in minutes the inclination to the horizon of
an incline which rises 3 feet in 210 yards.
19. The radius of the earth being taken to be 3960 miles, and the
distance of the moon from the earth being 60 times the radius of the
earth, find approximately the radius of the moon which subtends at the
earth an angle of 16'.
20. When the moon is setting at any given place, the angle that is
subtended at its centre by the radius of the earth passing through the given
place is 57'. If the earth's radius be 3960 miles, find approximately the
distance of the moon.
21. Prove that the distance of the sun is about 81 million geo-
graphical miles, assuming that the angle which the earth's radius
subtends at the distance of the sun is 8.76" , and that a geographical
mile subtends 1' at the earth's centre. Find also the circumference and
diameter of the earth in geographical miles .
22. The radius of the earth's orbit, which is about 92700000 miles,
subtends at the star Sirius an angle of about 4" ; find roughly the
distance of Sirius.
CHAPTER II.
TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS FOR ANGLES LESS THAN

A RIGHT ANGLE.
23. IN the present chapter we shall only consider

angles which are less than a right angle.
Let a revolving line OP start from OA and revolve
into the position OP, thus tracing out
the angle AOP. P
In the revolving line take any
point P and draw PM perpendicular
to the initial line OA. M
In the triangle MOP, OP is the
hypothenuse, PM is the perpendicular, and OM is the base.
The trigonometrical ratios, or functions, of the angle
AOP are defined as follows :
MP Perp.
i.e.
OP Hyp . " is called the Sine of the angle AOP ;
OM Base
i.e. "" "" Cosine "" ""
OP' Hyp. '
MP Perp.
i.e. "" "" Tangent "9 ‫دو‬
OM ' Base '
OM Base
" i.e. Perp. "" "" Cotangent ""
66
MP '
OP Hyp.
i.e. "" "" Cosecant "" ""
MP ' Perp.
OP Нур .
i.e. "" "" Secant "" ""
OM ' Base
2-2
20 TRIGONOMETRY.
The quantity by which the cosine falls short of unity,

i.e. 1 - cos AOP, is called the Versed Sine of AOP ; also
the quantity 1 - sin AOP, by which the sine falls short of
unity, is called the Coversed Sine of AOP.
24. It will be noted that the trigonometrical ratios

are all numbers.
The names of these eight ratios are written, for
brevity,
sin AOP, cos AOP, tan AOP, cot AOP, cosec AOP,
sec AOP, vers AOP, and covers AOP respectively.
The two latter ratios are seldom used .
25. It will be noticed, from the definitions, that the

cosecant is the reciprocal of the sine, so that
1
cosec AOP :=
sin AOP '
So the secant is the reciprocal of the cosine, i.e.

1
sec AOP =
COS A OP '
and the cotangent is the reciprocal of the tangent, i.e.

1
cot AOP ==
tan AOP
26. To shew that the trigonometrical ratios are always

the same for the same angle.
We have to shew that, if in
the revolving line OP any other P
point P' be taken and P'M be M
drawn perpendicular to OA , the
M M'
ratios derived from the triangle P"
TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS. 21
OP'M
' are the same as those derived from the triangle
ОРМ.
In the two triangles, the angle at O is common, and
the angles at M and M
' are both right angles and there-
fore equal .
Hence the two triangles are equiangular and therefore,
MP M'P'
by Euc. VI. 4, we have = > i.e. the sine of the angle
OP OP
AOP is the same whatever point we take on the revolving
line.
Since, by the same proposition, we have
OM OM' MP M'P'
= and =
OP OP' OM OM ''
it follows that the cosine and tangent are the same
whatever point be taken on the revolving line. Similarly
for the other ratios.
If OA be considered as the revolving line, and in it be taken any

point P" and P" M" be drawn perpendicular to OP, the functions as
derived from the triangle OP" M" will have the same values as before.
For, since in the two triangles OPM and OP"M", the two angles
P"OM" and OM" P" are respectively equal to POM and OMP, these
two triangles are equiangular and therefore similar, and we have
M"P" MP OM" OM
= and =
OP" OP OP" OP
27. Fundamental relations between the trigonometrical

ratios of an angle.
We shall find that if one of the trigonometrical ratios
of an angle be known, the numerical magnitude of each of
the others is known also.
Let the angle AOP (Fig. , Art. 23) be denoted by 0.
In the triangle AOP we have, by Euc. 1. 47,
MP² +0M² = OP ..(1).
22 TRIGONOMETRY.
Hence, dividing by OP², we have

2
= 1,
(MP)²+(OM OP)²
i.e. (sin 0)² + (cos )² = 1 .
The quantity (sin )2 is always written sin² 0, and so for

the other ratios.
Hence this relation is
sin20 + cos20 = 1 ....... ..(2).
Again, dividing both sides of equation (1) by OM², we

have
MP\2 OP\2
+1 = >
OM (OM)
i.e. (tan 0)² + 1 = (sec 0)³,
so that sec²0 = 1 + tan² 0 ............. (3).
Again, dividing equations (1 ) by MP2, we have

2
1+
MP)*= (OP
(OP MP)"
i.e. 1+ (cot 0) = (cosec )²,

so that cosec² = 1 + cot20. . (4).
MP OM
Also, since sin 0 = and cos 0 =
OP OP '
sin 0 MP OM MP
we have == = = = tan 0.
cos e OP OP OM
sin
Hence tan 0 = (5).
сово
cos в
Similarly cot 0 = ...... (6).
sin
28. Ex. 1. Prove that 1 - cos A =cosec A - cot A.

√
cos A (1 - cos 4)²

We have =
1 + cosBA 1 - cos² A
1- cos A 1- cos A
= =
sin A
√1- cos² A
by relation (2) of the last article,
1 cos A
= = cosec A - cot A.
sin A sin A
Ex. 2. Prove that
√sec² A +cosec² A = tan A + cot A.

We have seen that sec² 4 = 1 +tan² A,
and cosec² 4 = 1 + cot² 4.

.. sec² A + cosec² A = tan2 A + 2+ cot² A
- tan2 A +2 tan A cot A + cot² A
==(tan A + cot 4)²,
so that √sec²4 + cosec² A = tan A + cot A.
Ex. 3. Prove that

(cosec A − sin A) (sec A −- cos A) ( tan A + cot A ) = 1.
The given expression

1 - 1 sin A COS
= sin cos A +
sin A 1) cos A :) ( cos A sin
4)
1 - sin2 A 1 - cos² A sin2 A + cos2 A

sin A cos A sin A cos A
cos2 A sin2 A 1
= •
sin A cos A sin A cos A
= 1.
24 TRIGONOMETRY .
EXAMPLES . V.
Prove the following statements.

1. cos¹ A - sin¹ 4 + 1 = 2 cos² A.
2. (sin A + cos A) (1 − sin A cos A) = sin³ A + cos³ A.

sin A 1+ cos A
3. 1+ cos A + sin A =2 cosec A.
4. cos6 A + sin6 A = 1-3 sin² A cos² A.
5. 1- sin A
sec A - tan A.
√ 1+sin A
cosec A cosec A
6. =2 sec² A.
cosec A - 1 cosec A + 1
cosec A
7. = cos A.
cot A + tan
8. (sec A + cos A) (sec A - cos A) = tan² A + sin² A.
1
9. = sin A cos A.
cot A +tan A
1
10. sec A +tan A.
sec Atan A
1 - tan A - cot A - 1
11.
1 +tan A cot 4 + 1 °
1 + tan² A = sin² A
12. 1+
cot² A cos2 A
sec Atan A
13.
sec A +tan A = 1-2 sec A tan A + 2 tan² A.
tan A cot A
14. sec A cosec A + 1.
1 - cot A 1 - tan A
cos A sin A
15. = sin A + cos A.
1 - tan A + 1 - cot A
16. (sin A +cos A) (cot A + tan A) =sec A + cosec A.

17. sec¹ A - sec² A = tan¹ A + tan² A.
[Exs. V.]
18. cot A + cot2 A = cosec¹A - cosec² A.
19. cosec² 4-1 = cos A cosec A.

20. sec² A cosec² A =tan² A + cot² A +2.
21. tan² A - sin² A = sin¹ A sec² A.
22. (1 + cot A - cosec A ) (1 + tan A +sec A ) = 2.
1 1 1 1
23. cosec A - cot A =
sin A sin A cosec A + cot A
cot A cos A = cot A - cos A

24. cot A + cos A cot A cos A
cot A +tan B
25. cot B +tan A = cot A tan B.
1 1 1- cos² a sin² a
26. + cos² a sin² a =
sec² a - cos² a cosec² a - sin" a)c 2+ cos² a sin² a
27. sin³ A - cos8 A = (sin² A - cos² A) (1 - 2 sin? A cos² 4).

cos A cosec A - sin A sec A
28. cosec A - sec A.
cos A + sin A
tan A +sec A - 1 = 1 +sin A
29. tan A - cos A
sec A + 1
30. (tan a + cosec B)2- (cot B - sec a)2 = 2 tan a cot B (cosec a +sec B).
31. 2 sec² a - seca - 2 cosec² a + cosec¹ a = cot¹a - tan¹ a.
32. (sin a + cosec a)² + (cos a + sec a)² = tan² a + cot² a +7.
33. (cosec A + cot A) covers A - (sec A +tan A) vers A

== (cosec A —- sec A) (2 -
– vers A covers 4).
sec A cosec A
34. (1 +cot A + tan A) (sin A –- cos A ) : cosec² A sec² A
35. 2 versin A + cos² A = 1 + versin² 4.
29. Limits to the values of the trigonometrical ratios.

From equation ( 2) of Art. 27, we have
sin20 + cos20 = 1.
26 TRIGONOMETRY .
Now sin' and cos20, being both squares, are both

necessarily positive . Hence, since their sum is unity,
neither of them can be greater than unity.
[ For if one of them, say sin2 0, were greater than unity, the other,
cos20, would have to be negative, which is impossible. ]
Hence neither the sine nor the cosine can be numeri-

cally greater than unity.
Since sin cannot be greater than unity, therefore
1
cosec e, which equals sin cannot be numerically less
Ꮎ?
than unity.
1
So sec 0, which equals cannot be numerically
cos Ꮎ
less than unity.
30. The foregoing results follow easily from the figure

of Art. 23.
For, whatever be the value of the angle AOP,
neither the side OM nor the side MP is ever greater
than OP.
MP
Since MP is never greater than OP, the ratio is
OP
never greater than unity, so that the sine of an angle is
never greater than unity.
OM
Also, since OM is never greater than OP, the ratio
OP
is never greater than unity, i.e. the cosine is never greater
than unity.
31. We can express the trigonometrical ratios of an

angle in terms of any one of them.
27
The simplest method of procedure is best shewn by

examples.
Ex. 1. To express all the trigono-

metrical ratios in terms of the sine.
θ
Let AOP be any angle 0. 1-S M
Let the length OP be unity and let
the corresponding length of MP be s.
By Euc. I. 47, OM√OP - MP² = √1-82.
MP S
Hence sin = = = 8,
OP 1
OM
cos = − s² = √√1 -
= √√1 - — sin² 0 ,
OP.
MP sin
tan = =
OM √1-82 √1 − sin³0 '
OM √1-82 √1 - sin20
cot =
MP S sin
OP 1 1
cosec 0:= = -
MP S sin Ꮎ '
OP 1 1
and sec == =
OM √1-82 √1 - sin'0'
The last five equations give what is required.
Ex. 2. To express all the trigonometrical relations in

terms of the cotangent.
Taking the usual figure, let the
length MP be unity, and let the corre-
sponding value of ÒM be a. √1+
By Euc. I. 47, AM
OP = NOM² + MP2 = √1 + x².
28 TRIGONOMETRY.
OM XC
Hence cot = = = x,
MP 1
MP 1 1
sin = =
OP √1 + 2 √1 + cot'0 '
OM cot
cos e = -
OP √1 +00² √1 + cot20 '
MP 1 1
tan 0 = = ==
OM cot Ꮎ '
OP √1 +00² √1 + cot20
sec = -
OM cot
OP √1 + x²
and cosec 0 = = = √1 + cot20.
MP
The last five equations give what is required.

It will be noticed that , in each case, the denominator
of the fraction which defines the trigonometrical ratio was
MP
taken equal to unity. For example, the sine is OP' and
hence in Ex. 1 the denominator OP is taken equal to

unity.
OM
The cotangent is and hence in Ex. 2 the side MP
MP'
is taken equal to unity.
Similarly suppose we had to express the other ratios
in terms of the cosine, we should, since the cosine is equal
OM
to put OP equal to unity and OM equal to c. The
OP'
working would then be similar to that of Exs. 1 and 2.
In the following examples the sides have numerical
values.
3
Ex. 3. If cos 0 equal 5, find the values of the other ratios.
Along the initial line OA take OM equal to 3, and erect a perpen-
dicular MP.
Let a line OP, of length 5 , revolve round O until its other end meets
this perpendicular in the point P. Then AOP is the angle .
By Euc. 1. 47, MP= √OP² – OM² = √

√5² – 3² =4.
Hence clearly
5 5
sin 0= tan0= , cote= 1 , cosec 0 = 4' and sec 0 =
5' 3'
1
Ex. 4. Supposing 0 to be an angle whose sine is 3' to find the numeri-
cal magnitude of the other trigonometrical ratios .
1
Here sin 0 = so that the relation (2) of Art. 27 gives
2
+ cos² 0 = 1 ,
1 8
i.e. cos20 = 1 - =
9
2/2
i.e. cos 0= •
3
sin 0 1
Hence tan 0= = =
cos 2/2
1
cot @ =
tan 8 = 2 /2,
1 =
Cosec =
sin 0 3,
1 3
sec = = = 3/2
cos 2/2 4 '
vers 0-1- cos 0 = 1 2/2

3 "
and covers 0-1 - sin 0 = 1 - =

3
32.
the
In
following
table
given
is
the
result
expressing
of
each
trigonometrical
ratio
in
terms
of
each
others
.the 30
sin cos tan cot sec cosec
Ꮎ √1 0
tan 1 √sec20-1 1
sin sin c-os²
0
t
√1
+an20 √1
c
+ot²
0 sec cosec
√1
s-
0 in² 1 cot 1 -1
0
√cosec²
COS cos
√1
+
tan20 √1
c
+ot²
0 sec cosec
sin √1
c
-os²
0 1
tan
0 √se
- c20 1
tan 1
√1
s
-in³0 cos cot √cosec
0 ²
1
-
√1 0
sin2 1
cot - cos 1
e
cot √
-
0
cosec²
1
TRIGONOMETRY .
en
si √1
-
c
0 os² tan
0 s
√ec²0-1
1 1 √1
c
+ot20
e
sec tan²
+
√1
0 cosec
0
s
-in²
√1 cot
e sec
cos cosec²
√
1
-
0
1 1 √1
+
tan²
0
cosec √1
+
cot²
0 sec
sin √1
c-
0os² 0
tan √sec²0-1 cosec
EXAMPLES. VI.
1. Express all the other trigonometrical ratios in terms of the cosine.
2. Express all the ratios in terms of the tangent.
3. Express all the ratios in terms of the cosecant.
4. Express all the ratios in terms of the secant.
1
5. The sine of a certain angle is ; find the numerical values of the
other trigonometrical ratios of this angle.
12
6. If sin @ = 13 " find tan and versin 0.
11
7. If sin A = 61 find tan A, cos A, and sec A.
4
8. If cos 0:= 5 , find sin @ and cot 0.
9
9. If cos A =·41 " find tan A and cosec A.
3
10. If tan 0 =
4' find the sine, cosine, versine and cosecant of 0.
cosec20 - sec² 0
11. If tan 0:= find the value of
√7' cosec20+ sec² 0 *
15
12. If cot e = find cos and cosec 0.
8
3
13. If sec A = 2' find tan A and cosec A.
14. If 2 sin 0 = 2 - cos 0 , find sin 0.
15. If 8 sin 0 =4 + cos 0, find sin 0.
16. If tan + sec 0 = 1.5, find sin 0.
17. If cote + cosec 0 = 5, find cos 0.
18. If 3 sec¹ 0 +8 = 10 sec² 0, find the values of tan 0.
19. If tan20 + sec 0 = 5, find cos 0.
20. If tan @ + cot 0 = 2, find sin 0.
21. If sec2 0 = 2 + 2 tan 0 , find tan 0.
2x +
22. If tan @= (x 1) find sin and cos 0.
2x +1
32 TRIGONOMETRY .
Values of the trigonometrical ratios in

some useful cases.
33. Angle of 45°.

Let the angle AOP traced out
be 45°. 2a
Then, since the three angles of a /2
a triangle are together equal to

45°
two right angles, /2 MA
- ▲ PMO
▲ OPM = 180° – ▲ POM −
= 180° -45° -90° =45° = POM.
.. OM = MP.
If OP be called 2a, we then have
4a² = OP² = OM² + MP² = 2.0M²,
so that OM = a√√
/2.
MP α 1
... sin 45 °.= = =
OP √2.a √/2 '
OM α 1
cos 45° = = =
OP √2.a √2 '
and tan 45 ° = 1.
34. Angle of 30°.

P
Let the angle AOP traced

2a
out be 30°. a
Produce PM to P' making 30° M
MP' equal to PM. a√3
The two triangles OMP and
OMP' have their sides OM and
MP' equal to OM and MP and
also the contained angles equal.
Therefore OP' = OP, and OP'P = OPP' = 60°, so
that the triangle P'OP is equilateral.
Hence, if OP be called 2a, we have
MP = P'P = OP = a.
Also OM = √OP² – MP² = √√4a² — a² = a√/3.
MP 1
... sin 30° = =
OP 2'
OM = a√3 = √3
cos 30°:=
OP 2a 2
sin 30° 1
and tan 30° = =
cos 30° √3
35. Angle of 60°.
Let the angle AOP traced

out be 60°.
Take a point N on OA , so
that
2a/
MNOM = a (say).
a/3
The two triangles OMP and
NMP have now the sides OM 60°
a M NA
and MP equal to NM and MP
respectively, and the included
angles equal, so that the triangles are equal.
... PN = OP, and ▲ PNM = < POM = 60°.
The triangle OPN is therefore equilateral, and hence
OP =ON = 20M = 2a.
.. MP = √OP² — OM² = √√4a² — a² = √√3 . a.

L. T. 3
34 TRIGONOMETRY.
MP √3a √3
Hence sin 60° = =
OP 2a 2
OM α 1
cos 60° = = =
OP 2a 2
sin 60° =
and tan 60°: √
/3.
cos 60°
36. Angle of 0°.

Let the revolving line OP have turned through a very
small angle, so that the angle
MOP is very small. P
The magnitude of MP is M
then very small, and initially,
before OP had turned through an angle large enough to
be perceived, the quantity MP was smaller than any quan-
tity we could assign, i.e. was what we denote by 0.
Also, in this case, the two points M and P very nearly
coincide, and the smaller the angle AOP the more nearly
do they coincide.
Hence, when the angle AOP is actually zero, the two
lengths OM and OP are equal and MP is zero.
MP 0
Hence sin 0° = = = 0,
OP OP
OM OP
cos 0° = 1,
OP OP
and tan 0° == 0.
OM
Also cot 0° = the value of when M and P coincide
MP
= the ratio of a finite quantity to something infinitely
small
= a quantity which is infinitely great .
Such a quantity is usually denoted by the symbol ∞ .
Hence cot 0° = ∞ .
OP
Similarly cosec 0° = = ∞ also .
MP
OP
And sec 0° = = 1.
OM
37. Angle of 90°.

Let the angle AOP be very nearly, but
not quite, a right angle.
When OP has actually described a
right angle, the point M coincides with 0,
so that then OM is zero and OP and MP OM
are equal.
MP OP
Hence sin 90° = = = 1,
OP OP
OM 0
cos 90° = = = 0,
OP OP
MP a finite quantity
tan 90° =
OM an infinitely small quantity
= a number infinitely large = ∞ ,
OM 0
cot 90° = = =
MP MP 0,
OP
sec 90° = = ∞ , as in the case of the tangent,
OM
OP ᏫᏢ
and cosec 90° = = 1.
MP OP
38. Complementary Angles. Def. Two angles

are said to be complementary when their sum is equal
to a right angle. Thus any angle and the angle
90° -0 are complementary.
3-2
36 TRIGONOMETRY .
39. To find the relations between the trigonometrical

ratios of two complementary angles.
Let the revolving line, starting from OA , trace out
any acute angle AOP, equal to
6. From any point P on it
draw PM perpendicular to OA. 90-0
Since the three angles of a
triangle are together equal to
two right angles, and since OMP
is a right angle, the sum of the MA
two angles MOP and OPM is a
right angle.
They are therefore complementary and
< OPM = 90° -

— 0.
[When the angle OPM is considered , the line PM is

the " base " and MO is the " perpendicular ." ]
We then have
MO
sin (90° ) = sin MPO := = cos AOP = cos 0,
PO
PM
cos (90° -
– f) = cos MPO = == sin AOP = sin 0,
PO
MO
tan (90° -
– 0) = tan MPO = = cot AOP = cot 0,
PM
PM
cot (90° – 0) = cot MPO =
= = tan AOP = tan 0,
MO
PO
cosec (90° -
— 0) = cosec MPO = = sec AOP = sec 0,
ΜΟ
PO
and sec (90 ° - 0) = sec MPO = = cosec AOP = cosec 0.
PM
Hence we observe that

the Sine of any angle = the Cosine of its complement,
the Tangent of any angle = the Cotangent of its comple-
ment,
and the Secant of an angle = the Cosecant of its comple-
ment.
From this is apparent what is the derivation of the
names Cosine, Cotangent, and Cosecant.
40. The student is advised before proceeding any

further to make himself quite familiar with the following
table. [ For an extension of this table, see Art . 76.]
Angle 0⁰ 30º 450 60⁰ 90⁰
1 1 √3
Sine 1
Z √2 2
191
√3 1
Cosine 1 0
༠༠
72
Tangent √3 ∞
√3
1
8
Cotangent √3 1 0
√3
2
Cosecant 2 √2 1
8
√3
2
Secant 1 √2 2
8
√3
If the student commits accurately to memory the

portion of the above table included between the thick
lines, he should be able to easily reproduce the rest.
38 TRIGONOMETRY .
For
( 1) the sines of 60° and 90° are respectively the
cosines of 30° and 0°. (Art. 39.)
(2) the cosines of 60° and 90° are respectively the
sines of 30° and 0°. (Art. 39.)
Hence the second and third lines are known.
(3) The tangent of any angle is the result of dividing

the sine by the cosine.
Hence any quantity in the fourth line is obtained by
dividing the corresponding quantity in the second line by
the corresponding quantity in the third line.
(4) The cotangent of any angle is the reciprocal of
the tangent, so that the quantities in the fifth row are the
reciprocals of the quantities in the fourth row.
1
(5) Since cosec := 2 the sixth row is obtained
sin
by inverting the corresponding quantities in the second
row.
1
(6) Since sec 0 := , the seventh row is similarly
cos Ꮎ
obtained from the third row.
EXAMPLES. VII.
1. If A = 30°, verify that

(1) cos 24 = cos² A - sin² A = 2 cos² A - 1,
(2) sin 24 = 2 sin A cos A,
(3) cos 34 = 4 cos³ A - 3 cos A,
(4) sin 34 = 3 sin A - 4 sin³ A,
2 tan A
and (5) tan 24 = 1 - tan²A
[Exs. VII.]
2. If A =45°, verify that

(1) sin 24 = 2 sin A cos A,
(2) cos 24 = 1-2 sin² 4,
2 tan A
and (3) tan 24 = 1 - tan' A '
Verify that
3. sin² 30° + sin² 45° + sin² 60° =-2°
4. tan² 30° + tan² 45° + tan² 60° = 4}.

5. sin 30° cos 60° + cos 30° sin 60° = 1.
6. cos 45° cos 60° - sin 45° sin 60° = √3-1

2./2
7. cot² 30° +3 sin² 60° – 2 cosec2 60° - tan² 30° = 31.
8. cosec² 45° . sec² 30° . sin³ 90° . cos 60° = 1 } .
9. 4 cot² 45° - sec² 60° + sin³ 30° = } .
CHAPTER III.
SIMPLE PROBLEMS IN HEIGHTS AND DISTANCES.
41. ONE of the objects of Trigonometry is to find the

distances between points, or the heights of objects,
without actually measuring these distances or these
heights.
42. Suppose O and P to be two points, P being at a

higher level than 0.
Let OM be a horizontal line N
drawn through O to meet in M
the vertical line drawn through
P.
The angle MOP is called M
the Angle of Elevation of
the point P as seen from 0.
Draw PN parallel to MO, so that PN is the hori-
zontal line passing through P. The angle NPO is the
Angle of Depression of the point O as seen from P.
43. Two of the instruments used in practical work are the Theodo-
lite and the Sextant.
The Theodolite is used to measure angles in a vertical plane.
The Theodolite, in its simple form, consists of a telescope attached
to a flat piece of wood. This piece of wood is supported by three legs
and can be arranged so as to be accurately horizontal.
HEIGHTS AND DISTANCES . 41
This table being at O and horizontal, and the telescope being initially
pointing in the direction OM, the latter can be made to rotate in a
vertical plane until it points accurately towards P. A graduated scale
shews the angle through which it has been turned from the horizontal,
i.e. gives us the angle of elevation MOP.
Similarly, if the instrument were at P, the angle NPO through which
the telescope would have to be turned, downward from the horizontal,
would give us the angle NPO.
The instrument can also be used to measure angles in a horizontal
plane.
44. The Sextant is used to find the angle subtended by any two
points D and E at a third point F. It is an instrument much used on
board ships .
Its construction and application are too complicated to be here
considered.
45. We shall now solve a few simple examples in

heights and distances.
Ex. 1. A vertical flagstaff stands on a horizontal plane ; from a point

distant 150 feet from its foot, the angle of elevation of its top is found to
be 30°; find the height of the flagstaff.
Let MP (Fig. Art. 42) represent the flagstaff and O the point from
which the angle of elevation is taken.
Then OM = 150 feet, and ▲ MOP = 30°.
Since PMO is a right angle, we have
MP - 1
tan MOP - tan 30° = (Art. 34).
OM √3
OM 150 150/3
.. MP= = = = 50/3.
√3√3 3
Now, by extraction of the square root, we have
√3 = 1.73205....
Hence MP = 50 x 1.73205 ... feet 86.6025... feet.
Ex. 2. A man wishes to find the height of a church spire which stands
on a horizontal plane ; at a point on this plane he finds the angle of
elevation of the top of the spire to be 45° ; on walking 100 feet toward the
tower he finds the corresponding angle of elevation to be 60° ; deduce the
height of the tower and also his original distance from the foot of the
spire.
42 TRIGONOMETRY.
Let P be the top of the spire and A and B the two points at which
the angles of elevation are taken. Draw
PM perpendicular to AB produced and
let MP be x.
We are given AB = 100 feet,
‫ابع‬
LMAP=45°,
and ▲ MBP 60°.
We then have
45° 60°
AM
= cot 45°, A 100 B M
x A
BM 1
and cot 60° -== しょう
x √
/3
Hence AM= x, and BM = X ·
√3
Ꮖ √√3-1
.. 100 AM - BM = x - =x
√3
x = 100/3 = 100/3 (√3 + 1) = 50 (3 + √3)

√3-1 3-1
= 50 [3 +1.73205 ... ] = 236.6 ... feet.

Also AM = x, so that both of the required distances are equal to
236.6... feet.
Ex. 3. From the top of a cliff, 200 feet high, the angles of depression
of the top and bottom of a tower are observed to be 30° and 60° ; find the
height ofthe tower.
Let A be the point of observation and BA the height of the cliff and
let CD be the tower.
Draw AE horizontally, so that EAC - 30° and E
LEAD= 60°.
Let x feet be the height of the tower and produce 60
DC to meet AE in E, so that CE - AB - x = 200 - x. C
Since ADB = L DAE = 60° (Euc. 1. 29),
200
200
.. DB = AB cot ADB = 200 cot 60° -- X
√3
200- x CE 1
Also tan 30°-=
DB EA √3
HEIGHTS AND DISTANCES. 43
ᎠᏴ 200
.. 200 - x == "
√3 3
200
so that x=200- 3 = 133} feet.
Ex. 4. A man observes that at a point due south of a certain tower its
angle of elevation is 60° ; he then walks 300 feet due west on a horizontal
plane and finds that the angle of elevation is 30° ; find the height of the
tower and his original distance from it.
B
A/60 M
孝
M
в 300 √3x
a
A
30°
X/3 M A
A M
Let P be the top, and PM the height, of the tower, A the point due
south of the tower and B the point due west of A.
The angles PMA, PMB, and MAB are therefore all right angles.
For simplicity, since the triangles PAM, PBM, and ABM are in
different planes, they are reproduced in the second, third, and fourth
figures and drawn to scale.
We are given AB = 300 feet, LPAM= 60°, and PBM = 30°.
Let the height of the tower be x feet.
From the second figure,
AM 1
cot 60°: 9
X
x
so that AM= ·
√3
From the third figure,
BM
= cot 30° /3,
X
so that BM= √3.x.
44 TRIGONOMETRY .
From the last figure, we have

BM2=AM² + AB²,
1
i.e. 3x² == x² + 3002.
.. 8x23 x 3002.
.. x = 300/3
= 150 . №6=75
2 × √6
2./2
= 75 × 2.44949 ... 183 · 71 ... feet.
Also his original distance from the tower
x
=x cot 60° = = 75 × √2
√3
= 75 × (1 ·4142 ... ) = 106 · 065 ... feet.
EXAMPLES. VIII.
1. A person, standing on the bank of a river, observes that the angle

subtended by a tree on the opposite bank is 60° ; when he retires 40 feet
from the bank he finds the angle to be 30° ; find the height of the tree
and the breadth of the river.
2. At a certain point the angle of elevation of a tower is found to be
3
such that its cotangent is ; on walking 32 feet directly toward the tower
2
its angle of elevation is an angle whose cotangent is 5. Find the height
of the tower.
3. At a point A, the angle of elevation of a tower is found to be such
5
that its tangent is 12 ; on walking 240 feet nearer the tower the tangent
3
of the angle of elevation is found to be ; what is the height of the
tower?
4. Find the height of a chimney when it is found that, on walking
towards it 100 feet in a horizontal line through its base, the angular
elevation of its top changes from 30° to 45°.
5. An observer on the top of a cliff, 200 feet above the sea-level,
observes the angles of depression of two ships at anchor to be 45° and 30°
respectively ; find the distances between the ships if the line joining them
points to the base of the cliff.
[Exs. VIII.] HEIGHTS AND DISTANCES. 45
6. From the top of a cliff an observer finds that the angles of

depression of two buoys in the sea are 39° and 26° respectively ; the
buoys are 300 yards apart and the line joining them points straight
at the foot of the cliff ; find the height of the cliff and the distance of the
nearest buoy from the foot of the cliff, given that cot 26° = 2.0503, and
cot 39° 1.2349.
7. The upper part of a tree broken over by the wind makes an angle
of 30° with the ground, and the distance from the root to the point where
the top of the tree touches the ground is 50 feet ; what was the height of
the tree ?
8. The horizontal distance between two towers is 60 feet and the
angular depression of the top of the first as seen from the top of the
second, which is 150 feet high, is 30° ; find the height of the first.
9. The angle of elevation of the top of an unfinished tower at a
point distant 120 feet from its base is 45° ; how much higher must the
tower be raised so that its angle of elevation at the same point may be
60°?
10. Two pillars of equal height stand on either side of a roadway
which is 100 feet wide ; at a point in the roadway between the pillars the
elevations of the tops of the pillars are 60° and 30° ; find their height and
the position of the point.
11. The angle of elevation of the top of a tower is observed to be
60° ; at a point 40 feet above the first point of observation the elevation
is found to be 45° ; find the height of the tower and its horizontal
distance from the points of observation .
12. At the foot of a mountain the elevation of its summit is found
to be 45° ; after ascending one mile up a slope of 30° inclination the
elevation is found to be 60°. Find the height of the mountain .
13. What is the angle of elevation of the sun when the length of the
shadow of a pole is three times the height of the pole ?
14. The shadow of a tower standing on a level plane is found to be
60 feet longer when the sun's altitude is 30° than when it is 45°. Prove
that the height of the tower is 30 (1 + √3) feet.
15. On a straight coast there are three objects A, B, and C such
that AB BC = 2 miles . A vessel approaches B in a line perpendicular
to the coast and at a certain point AC is found to subtend an angle of
60° ; after sailing in the same direction for ten minutes AC is found to
subtend 120° ; find the rate at which the ship is going.
46 TRIGONOMETRY . [Exs. VIII.]
16. Two flagstaffs stand on a horizontal plane. A and B are two

points on the line joining the bases of the flagstaffs and between them.
The angles of elevation of the tops of the flagstaffs as seen from A are
30° and 60° and, as seen from B, they are 60° and 45°. If the length AB
be 30 feet, find the heights of the flagstaffs and the distance between
them .
17. P is the top and Q the foot of a tower standing on a horizontal

plane. A and B are two points on this plane such that AB is
2
32 feet and QAB is a right angle. It is found that cot PAQ = 5 and
cot PBQ= ;
find the height of the tower.
18. A square tower stands upon a horizontal plane. From a point
in this plane, from which three of its upper corners are visible, their
angular elevations are respectively 45° , 60°, and 45°. Shew that the
height of the tower is to the breadth of one of its sides as 6 (√5 + 1)
to 4.
19. A lighthouse, facing north, sends out a fan-shaped beam of
light extending from north-east to north-west. An observer on a steamer,
sailing due west, first sees the light when it is 5 miles away from the
lighthouse and continues to see it for 30/2 minutes. What is the
speed of the steamer ?
20. A man stands at a point X on the bank XY of a river with
straight and parallel banks and observes that the line joining X to a
point Z on the opposite bank makes an angle of 30° with XY. He then
goes along the bank a distance of 200 yards to Y and finds that the angle
ZYX is 60°. Find the breadth of the river.
21. A man, walking due north, observes that the elevation of a
balloon, which is due east of him and is sailing toward the north-west,
is then 60° ; after he has walked 400 yards the balloon is vertically over
his head ; find its height supposing it to have always remained the same.
CHAPTER IV .
APPLICATION OF ALGEBRAIC SIGNS TO TRIGONOMETRY.
46. Positive and Negative Angles. In Art. 6, in

treating of angles of any size, we spoke of the revolving
line as if it always revolved in a direction opposite to that
in which the hands of a watch revolve, when the watch is
held with its face uppermost.
This direction is called counter-clockwise.
When the revolving line turns in this manner it is said
to revolve in the positive direction and to trace out a
positive angle.
When the line OP revolves in the opposite direction,
i.e. in the same direction as the hands of the watch, it is
said to revolve in the negative direction and to trace out
a negative angle. This negative direction is clockwise.
47. Let the revolving line start from OA and revolve

until it reaches a position OP, which
lies between OA' and OB' and which
bisects the angle A'OB'.
If it has revolved in the positive
direction, it has traced out the positive
angle whose measure is + 225°.
48 TRIGONOMETRY.
If it has revolved in the negative direction, it has

traced out the negative angle - 135°.
Again, suppose we only know that the revolving line is
in the above position. It may have made one, two, three
... complete revolutions and then have described the
positive angle + 225 °. Or again, it may have made
one, two, three... complete revolutions in the negative
direction and then have described the negative angle
- 135°.
In the first case, the angle it has described is either
225°, or 360° + 225 °, or 2 × 360 ° + 225 ° , or 3 × 360° + 225°
......i.e. 225°, or 585 ° , or 945 °, or 1305 °....
In the second case, the angle it has described is - 135 ° ,
or - 360° - 135 °, or - - 2 × 360 ° – 135 °, or – 3 × 360° – 135°
...... i.e. - 135°, or - 495 ° , or -855 ° , or — 1215 ° ....
48. Positive and Negative Lines . Suppose that

a man is told to start from a given milestone on a straight
road and to walk 1000 yards along the road and then to
stop. Unless we are told the direction in which he
started, we do not know his position when he stops. All
we know is that he is either at a distance 1000 yards on
one side of the milestone or at the same distance on the
other side.
In measuring distances along a straight line it is
therefore convenient to have a standard direction ; this
direction is called the positive direction and all distances
measured along it are said to be positive. The opposite
direction is called the negative direction, and all distances
measured along it are said to be negative.
The standard, or positive, directions for lines drawn
parallel to the foot of the page is towards the right.
POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE LINES. 49
The length OA is in the positive direction. The

length OA' is in the
A'
negative direction . If A
B
the magnitude of the
distance OA or OA' be a, the point A is at a distance
- a from 0.
+ a from O and the point A' is at a distance
All lines measured to the right have then the positive
sign prefixed ; all lines to the left have the negative sign
prefixed.
If a point start from O and describe a positive distance
OA , and then a distance AB back again toward O, equal
numerically to b, the total distance it has described
measured in the positive direction is OA + AB,
i.e. + a + (- b), i.e. a - b.
49. For lines at right angles to AA ' , the positive

direction is from O towards the top of the page, i.e. the
direction of OB (Fig. Art. 47) . All lines measured from
O towards the foot of the page, i.e. in the direction OB′,
are negative.
50. Trigonometrical ratios for an angle of any magni-

tude.
Let OA be the initial line (drawn in the positive
direction) and let OA' be drawn in
B
the opposite direction to OA .
Let BOB' be a line at right
P2
angles to OA, its positive direction
M4
being OB. M2 Mg M1 A
Let a revolving line OP start
from OA and revolving in either
direction, positive or negative, trace Ps B'
L. T. 4
50 TRIGONOMETRY .
out an angle of any magnitude whatever. From a
point P in the revolving line draw PM perpendicular

to AOA'.
[Four positions of the revolving line are given in the figure, one in
each of the four quadrants, and the suffixes 1, 2, 3 and 4 are attached to
P for the purpose of distinction. ]
We then have the following definitions, which are the

same as those given in Art. 23 for the simple case of an
acute angle :
MP
is called the Sine of the angle AOP,
OP
OM
"" "" Cosine "" ""
OP
MP
"" ‫وو‬ Tangent "" ""
OM
OM
"" ‫دو‬ Cotangent ""
MP
OP
"" "" Secant "" ""
OM
OP
"" "" Cosecant 22
MP
The quantities 1 --- cos AOP, and 1- sin AOP are

respectively called the Versed Sine and the Coversed
Sine of AOP.
51. In exactly the same manner as in Art. 27 it may

be shewn that, for all values of the angle AOP (= 0), we
have
ANGLES OF ANY MAGNITUDE. 51
sin20 + cos20 = 1 ,
sin
= tan 0,
cos
sec² = 1 + tan20,
and cosec² = 1+ cot20.
52. Signs of the trigonometrical ratios.
First quadrant. Let the revolving line be in the first

quadrant, as OP . This revolving line is always positive.
Here OM, and M₁P₁1 are both positive, so that all the
trigonometrical ratios are then positive.
Second quadrant. Let the revolving line be in the
second quadrant, as OP . Here MP, is positive and OM,
is negative .
The sine, being equal to the ratio of a positive quantity
to a positive quantity, is therefore positive.
The cosine, being equal to the ratio of a negative
quantity to a positive quantity, is therefore negative.
The tangent, being equal to the ratio of a positive
quantity to a negative quantity , is therefore negative.
The cotangent is negative.
The cosecant is positive.
The secant is negative.
Third quadrant. If the revolving line be, as OP3 , in
the third quadrant, we have both M¸P,3 and OM, negative.
The sine is therefore negative.
The cosine is negative.
The tangent is positive.
The cotangent is positive.
The cosecant is negative.
The secant is negative..
4-2
52 TRIGONOMETRY .
Fourth quadrant. Let the revolving line be in the

fourth quadrant, as OP . Here M.P. is negative and
OM,4 is positive.
The sine is therefore negative.
The cosine is positive.
The tangent is negative .
The cotangent is negative.
The cosecant is negative .
The secant is positive .
The annexed table shews the signs of the trigono-
metrical ratios according to the quadrant in which lies
the revolving line, which bounds the angle considered.
+11
B
sin sin +
+1
COS COS +
tan tan +
cot cot +
Cosec + cosec +
+ +
sec sec
A' A
sin sin
+
COS COS
tan + tan
cot + cot
cosec cosec
+
sec sec
B'
53. Tracing of the changes in the sign and magnitude

of the trigonometrical ratios of an angle, as the angle
increases from 0° to 360°.
Let the revolving line OP be of constant length a.

CHANGES IN THE TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS. 53
When it coincides with OA, the

B P1
length OM is equal to a and, P2
when it coincides with OB, the Pe
point M, coincides with O and OM,
A M3 M4 A
vanishes. Also, as the revolving M2 M2 M1 M1 M1
line turns from OA to OB, the dis-
tance OM, decreases from a to P3 P4
zero. B
Whilst the revolving line is in
the second quadrant and is revolving from OB to OA', the
distance OM, is negative and increases numerically from
O to a [i.e. it decreases algebraically from 0 to −a] .
In the third quadrant, the distance OM, increases
-
algebraically from a to 0, and, in the fourth quadrant ,
the distance OM, increases from 0 to a.
In the first quadrant, the length M₁P,1 increases from
O to a ; in the second quadrant, M,P, decreases from a to
0 ; in the third quadrant, MP, decreases algebraically
from 0 to -a ; whilst in the fourth quadrant M.P₁
increases algebraically from - a to 0.
54. In the first quadrant, as the angle in-

Sine.
MP 0
creases from 0 to 90° , the sine, i.e. " increases from
a
toa , i.e. from 0 to 1 .

a'
In the second quadrant, as the angle increases from
a 0
90° to 180°, the sine decreases from - to i.e. from 1 to 0.
α α
In the third quadrant, as the angle increases from 180 °
0 α
to 270°, the sine decreases from to i.é. from 0 to - 1.
a
54 TRIGONOMETRY.
In the fourth quadrant, asthe angle increases from

a 0
270° to 360°, the sine increases from to " i.e. from
a
- 1 to 0.
55. Cosine . In the first quadrant the cosine, which

OM α 0
is equal to decreases from - to " i.e. from 1 to 0.
α a a
0 - a
In the second quadrant, it decreases from a to a i.e.
from 0 to -1.
α 0
In the third quadrant, it increases from to " i.e.
a
from - 1 to 0.
0
In the fourth quadrant, it increases from i.e.
from 0 to 1.
56. Tangent.In the first quadrant, M,P, increases

M₁P₁1
from 0 to a and OM, decreases from a to 0, so that
OM ,
continually increases (for its numerator continually in-
creases and its numerator continually decreases).
When OP,1 coincides with OA , the tangent is 0 ; when
the revolving line has turned through an angle which is
slightly less than a right angle, so that OP₁ nearly
coincides with OB, then MP, is very nearly equal to
M₁P₁ therefore very
a and OM, is very small. The ratio is
OM₁
large, and the nearer OP, gets to OB the larger does the
ratio become, so that, by taking the revolving line near
enough to OB, we can make the tangent as large as we
please. This is expressed by saying that, when the angle
is equal to 90° , its tangent is infinite.
The symbol is used to denote an infinitely great

quantity.
Hence in the first quadrant the tangent increases from
0 to ∞o .
In the second quadrant, when the revolving line has
described an angle AOP, slightly greater than a right
angle, MP, is very nearly equal to a and OM, is very
small and negative, so that the corresponding tangent is
very large and negative.
Also , as the revolving line turns from OB to OA ', M‚P₁
decreases from a to 0 and OM, is negative and decreases
from 0 to -a, so that when the revolving line coincides
with OA' the tangent is zero.
Hence, in the second quadrant, the tangent increases
from - ∞ to 0.
In the third quadrant, both M,P, and OM, are negative,
and hence their ratio is positive. Also, when the revolving
line coincides with OB
' , the tangent is infinite.
Hence, in the third quadrant, the tangent increases
from 0 to co .
In the fourth quadrant, M.P, is negative and OM, is
positive, so that their ratio is negative . Also, as the
revolving line passes through OB' the tangent changes
from + ∞oto - ∞ [just as in passing through OB] .
Hence, in the fourth quadrant, the tangent increases
from - ∞ to 0.
57. Cotangent. When the revolving line coincides

with OA, MP, is very small and OM, is very nearly
OM₁
equal to a, so that the cotangent, i.e. the ratio is
MP
infinite to start with. Also, as the revolving line rotates
56 TRIGONOMETRY.
from OA to OB, the quantity MP, increases from 0 to a

and OM, decreases from a to 0.
Hence, in the first quadrant, the cotangent decreases
from 0 to 0.
In the second quadrant, M,P₂2 is positive and OM,
-a
negative, so that the cotangent decreases from 0 to 0
i.e. from 0 to -∞ .
In the third quadrant, it is positive and decreases from
∞ to 0 [for as the revolving line crosses OB' the cotangent
changes from - ∞ to ∞ ] .
In the fourth quadrant, it is negative and decreases
from 0 to ∞☀ .
58. Secant. When the revolving line coincides with

OA the value of OM, is a, so that the value of the secant
is then unity.
As the revolving line turns from OA to OB, OM₁
decreases from a to 0, and when the revolving line
coincides with OB the value of the secant is , i.e. ∞ .
Hence, in the first quadrant, the secant increases from

1 to ∞o .
In the second quadrant, OM, is negative and decreases
from 0 to -a. Hence , in this quadrant, the secant in-
creases from - ∞ to -1 [ for as the revolving line crosses
OB the quantity OM, changes sign and therefore the
secant changes from + ∞ to - ∞ ].
In the third quadrant, OM, is always negative and
increases from 1- a to 0 ; therefore the secant decreases
from - 1 too . In the fourth quadrant, OM, is always
positive and increases from 0 to a. Hence, in this quad-
rant, the secant decreases from to +1.
59. Cosecant. The change in the cosecant may be

traced in a similar manner to that in the secant.
In the first quadrant, it decreases from ∞ to + L

In the second quadrant, it increases from +1 to + ∞ .
In the third quadrant, it increases from - ∞ to -1 .
In the fourth quadrant, it decreases from - 1 to -∞ .
60. The foregoing results are collected in the annexed

table.
B
In the second quadrant , the In the first quadrant, the
sine decreases from 1 to 0 sine increases from 0 to 1
cosine decreases from 0 to -1 cosine decreases from 1 to 0
tangent increases from - ∞o to 0 tangent increases from 0 to ∞
cotangent decreases from 0 to -∞o cotangent decreases from ∞ to 0
secant increases from - to - 1 secant increases from 1 to ∞
cosecant increases from 1 to co cosecant decreases from ∞ to 1
A' A
In the third quadrant, the In the fourth quadrant, the

sine decreases from 0 to-1 sine increases from - 1 to 0
cosine increases from - 1 to 0 cosine increases from 0 to 1
tangent increases from 0 to ∞o tangent increases from-∞ to 0
cotangent decreases from ∞ to 0 cotangent decreases from 0 to -∞o
secant decreases from- 1 to -co secant decreases from ∞ to 1
cosecant increases from - to - 1 cosecant decreases from- 1 to -∞
B'
61. Periods of the trigonometrical functions.

As an angle increases from 0 to 2π radians, i.e. whilst the
revolving line makes a complete revolution, its sine first
increases from 0 to 1 , then decreases from 1 to - 1, and
-
finally increases from 1 to 0, and thus the sine goes
through all its changes, returning to its original value.
58 TRIGONOMETRY .
Similarly, as the angle increases from 27 radians to

4π radians, the sine goes through the same series of
changes.
Also, the sines of any two angles which differ by four
right angles, i.e. 2π radians, are the same.
This is expressed by saying that the period of the
sine is 27.
Similarly, the cosine, secant, and cosecant go through
all their changes as the angle increases by 2π.
The tangent, however, goes through all its changes as
the angle increases from 0 to π radians, ¿ e. whilst the
revolving line turns through two right angles. Similarly
for the cotangent.
The period of the sine, cosine, secant and cosecant is
therefore 2 radians ; the period of the tangent and
cotangent is π radians.
Since the values of the trigonometrical functions
repeat over and over again as the angle increases, they
are called periodic functions.
* 62. The variations in the values of the trigono-

metrical ratios may be graphically represented to the eye
by means of curves constructed in the following manner.
Bi
R₁' R3 R4
R₁ R₂ R5 X
B₁ B₂3
Sine-Curve.
Let OX and OY be two straight lines at right angles
SINE-CURVE. 59
and let the magnitudes of angles be represented by

lengths measured along OX.
Let R1 , R2, R.,... be points such that the distances
OR₁ , RR , RR,,... are equal. If then the distance OR₁
represent a right angle, the distances OR,, OR , OR₁ ,...
must represent two, three, four, ... right angles.
Also, if P be any point on the line OX, then OP
represents an angle which bears the same ratio to a right
angle that OP bears to OR.
1
[For example, if OP be equal to OR₁ , then OP would represent one-
third of a right angle ; if P bisected RR4 , then OP would represent 3
right angles.]
Let also OR, be so chosen that one unit of length

represents one radian ; since OR, represents two right
angles, i.e. π radians, the length OR, must be π units of
length, i.e. about 34 units of length.
In a similar manner, negative angles are represented
by distances OR , OR,,... measured from 0 in a negative
direction.
At each point P erect a perpendicular PQ to represent
the sine of the angle which is represented by OP ; if the
sine be positive, the perpendicular is to be drawn parallel
to OY in the positive direction ; if the sine be negative,
the line is to be drawn in the negative direction.
[For example, since OR, represents a right angle, the sine of which is
1, we erect a perpendicular RB₁ equal to one unit of length ; since OR
represents an angle equal to two right angles, the sine of which is zero,
we erect a perpendicular of length zero ; since OR, represents three right
angles, the sine of which is -1, we erect a perpendicular equal to − 1,
i.e. we draw RB, downward and equal to a unit of length ; if OP were
1
equal to one-third of OR₁, it would represent 3 of a right angle, i.e. 30°,
60 TRIGONOMETRY.
1
the sine of which is
2' and so we should erect a perpendicular PQ equal
to one-half the unit of length .]
The ends of all these lines, thus drawn, would be

found to lie on a curve similar to the one drawn above.
It would be found that the curve consisted of portions,
similar to OB, RBR₁, placed side by side. This corre-
sponds to the fact that each time the angle increases by
2π, the sine repeats the same value.
*63. Cosine-Curve.
Y
B
Rg R₂' R1 R2 R3
R R4 X
The Cosine-Curve is obtained in the same manner as

the Sine-Curve, except that in this case the perpendicular
PQ represents the cosine of the angle represented by OP.
The curve obtained is the same as that of Art. 62 if in
that curve we move О to R₁ and let OY be drawn along
R₁B₁ .
* 64. Tangent-Curve.
In this case, since the tangent of a right angle is

infinite and since OR, represents a right angle, the per-
pendicular drawn at R₁ must be of infinite length and
the dotted curve will only meet the line RL at an infinite
distance.
TANGENT-CURVE. 61
Since the tangent of an angle slightly greater than a

right angle is negative and almost infinitely great, the
Y L
RR₂ Ri P R1 R2 R3 X
dotted curve immediately beyond LR,L

' commences at an
infinite distance on the negative side, i.e. below, OX.
The Tangent-Curve will clearly consist of an infinite
number of similar but disconnected portions, all ranged
parallel to one another. Such a curve is called a Discon-
tinuous Curve. Both the Sine- Curve and the Cosine-
Curve are, on the other hand, Continuous Curves.
* 65. Cotangent- Curve. If the curve to represent

the cotangent be drawn in a similar manner, it will be
found to meet OY at an infinite distance above 0 ; it will
pass through the point R, and touch the vertical line
through R, at an infinite distance on the negative side of
OX. Just beyond R, it will start at an infinite distance
above R₂, and proceed as before.
The curve is therefore discontinuous and will consist
of an infinite number of portions all ranged side by side.
62 TRIGONOMETRY.
* 66. Cosecant- Curve.
B1
R2' R1' R3
R1 R2 X
B B3
When the angle is zero, the sine is zero, and the

cosecant is therefore infinite.
Hence the curve meets OY at infinity.
When the angle is a right angle, the cosecant is unity,
and hence RB, is equal to the unit of length.
When the angle is equal to two right angles its
cosecant is infinity, so that the curve meets the perpen-
dicular through R, at an infinite distance.
Again, as the angle increases from slightly less to
slightly greater than two right angles, the cosecant
changes from + ∞ to - ∞ .
Hence just beyond R, the curve commences at an
infinite distance on the negative side of, i.e. below, OX.
* 67. Secant-Curve. If, similarly, the Secant- Curve

be traced it will be found to be the same as the Cosecant-
Curve would be if we moved OY to R,B₁.
ANGLES OF ANY SIZE . 63
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES. IX.
1. In a triangle one angle contains as many grades as another con-

tains degrees, and the third contains as many centesimal seconds as
there are sexagesimal seconds in the sum of the other two ; find the
number of radians in each angle.
2. Find the number of degrees, minutes, and seconds in the angle at
the centre of a circle, whose radius is 5 feet, which is subtended by an arc
of length 6 feet.
3. To turn radians into seconds , prove that we must multiply by
206265 nearly, and to turn seconds into radians the multiplier must be
⚫0000048.
x²- y2
4. If sin @ equal find the values of cos @ and cot 0.
x² +y2
m² +2mn
5. If sin 0=
m² +2mn + 2n² '
m² + 2mn
prove that tan @ =
2mn + 2n2 *
6. If =
cos - sin 0/2 sin 0,
prove that =
cos +sin 0/2 cos 0.
7. Prove that
coseca - cot a = 3 cosec² a cot² a + 1.
8. Express 2 sec² Asec+ A - 2 cosec2 A + cosec¹ A
in terms of tan A.
9. Solve the equation 3 cosec² = 2 sec 0.
10. A man on a cliff observes a boat at an angle of depression of
30°, which is making for the shore immediately beneath him. Three
minutes later the angle of depression of the boat is 60°. How soon will
it reach the shore ?
1
11. Prove that the equation sin @ = x + XC is impossible if x be real.
4xy
12. Shew that the equation sec² 0 = is only possible when
(x +y)2
x =y.
CHAPTER V.
TRIGONOMETRICAL FUNCTIONS OF ANGLES OF ANY

SIZE AND SIGN .
[On a first reading of the subject, the student is recommended

to confine his attention to the first of the four figures given in
Arts. 68 , 69, 70, and 72. ]
68. To find the trigonometrical ratios of an angle

( 0) in terms ofthose of 0, for all values of 0.
M M A
A
P'
-0
M -A A
M
ANGLES OF ANY SIZE AND SIGN. 65
Let the revolving line, starting from OA, revolve

through any angle 0 and stop in the position OP.
Draw PM perpendicular to OA (or OA produced) and
produce it to P', so that the lengths of PM and MP′ are
equal.
In the geometrical triangles MOP and MOP', we have
the two sides OM and MP equal to the two OM and
MP', and the included angles OMP and OMP' are right
angles.
Hence ( Euc. I. 4), the magnitudes of the angles MOP
and MOP' are the same, and OP is equal to OP'.
In each of the four figures, the magnitudes of the
angle AOP (measured counter-clockwise) and of the angle
AOP' (measured clockwise) are the same.
Hence the angle AOP' (measured clockwise) is
denoted by -0.
Also MP and MP' are equal in magnitude but are
opposite in sign. (Art. 49.) We have therefore
MP' -- MP
sin (-0) = = sin 0,
OP OP
OM OM
cos ( -0) = OP = cos 0,
OP
MP' - MP
tan ( 0) =
= OM
tan 0,
OM
OM OM
cot ( -0):= = = - cot 0,
MP -MP
OP
' OP
-
cosec ( 0) =
= MP = == cosec 0,
-MP
OP' OP
and sec ( -0) = = = sec 0.
OM OM
L. T. 5
66 TRIGONOMETRY .
[In this article, and the following articles, the values of the last four
trigonometrical ratios may be found, without reference to the figure,
from the values of the first two ratios.
sin (-0) - sin 0
Thus tan ( -9)=)COS - = - tan 0,
e) cos 8
cos
cot ( 0)==cos (-0) = - sin 0 =- cot 0 ,
sin ( 0)
1 - 1 = cosec 8,
cosec ( 0) - sin @
sin ( -0)
1 1
and sec ( -0)= COS - = COS 8 = sec 0. ]
0)
1
Exs. sin ( -30°) = - sin 30° -= - 2
tan ( -60°) = - tan 60° = √3,

1
and cos (-45°) = cos 45° :=
√2
69. To find the trigonometrical ratios of the angle

(90° - 0) in terms ofthose of 0, for all values of 0.
The relations have already been discussed in Art. 39,

for values of less than a right angle.

any angle AOP denoted by 0.
To obtain the angle 90° -0, let the revolving line
rotate to B and then rotate from B in the opposite
direction through the angle 0, and let the position of the
revolving line be then OP'.
The angle AOP' is then 90° - 0.
Take OP' equal to OP, and draw P'M' and PM per-
pendicular to OA , produced if necessary. Also draw P'N'
perpendicular to OB, produced if necessary.
In each figure, the angles AOP and BOP' are numeri-

cally equal, by construction.
B
B
N'
M'
A M O A
M' M
N P
IB B
N'
M M M
A -A
Hence, in each figure,

< MOP = N'OP' = OP'M
',
since ON
' and M'P' are parallel.
Hence the triangles MOP and M'P'O are equal in all
respects, and therefore OM = M'P' numerically,
and ' = MP numerically.
OM
Also, in each figure, OM and M'P' are of the same

sign, and so also are MP and OM',
i.e. OM + M'P', and OM = + MP.
5-2
68 TRIGONOMETRY.
Hence
M'P' OM
sin (90° -0) = sin AOP' = = = cos 0,
OP' OP
OM
' MP
cos (90° - 6) = cos AOP' =
- = = sin 0,
OP
' OP
M'P' OM
-- 0) = tan AOP' :=
tan ( 90° - - = cot 0,
'
OM MP
OM' MP
cot (90° - 0) = cot AOP' := = == tan 0,
M'P' OM
OP' OP
sec (90° - 0) = sec AOP' =
= = cosec 0,
OM' MP
'
OP OP
and cosec (90° - 0) = cosec AOP' = = = sec 0.
M'P
' ΟΜ
70. To find the trigonometrical ratios of the angle

(90° + 0) in terms of those of 0, for all values of 0.
M' M
-A A
M' M
M M'
M M' A

any angle ◊ and let OP be the position of the revolving
line then, so that the angle AOP is 0.
Let the revolving line turn through a right angle from
OP in the positive direction to the position OP' , so that
the angle AOP' is (90° + 0).
Take OP' equal to OP and draw PM and PM '
perpendicular to AO, produced if necessary. In each
figure, since POP' is a right angle, the sum of the angles
MOP and P'OM ' is always a right angle.
Hence < MOP = 90° - ▲ P'OM ' := OP'M'.
The two triangles MOP and MP'O are therefore equal
in all respects.
Hence OM and M'P' are numerically equal, as also
MP and OM' are numerically equal .
In each figure, OM and M'P ' have the same sign,
whilst MP and OM ' have the opposite sign, so that
M'P' + OM, and OM' - MP.
We therefore have
M'P' OM
sin (90° +0) = sin AOP' = = = cos 0,
OP' OP
OM -
- MP
= sin 0,
(cos 90° + 6) = cos AOP OP' OP
'
M'P OM
tan (90° + 0) = tan AOP' = = cot 0,
OM
' MP
ОМ ' MP
cot (90° + 0) = cot AOP' == = =- tan 0,
MP' OM
OP' OP
sec (90° + 0) = sec AOP' = = cosec 0,
ОМ ' - MP
OP' OP
: M'P = OM = sec0.
and cosec (90° + 0) = cosec AOP' =
70 TRIGONOMETRY.
EXS . sin 150° - sin (90° + 60°) = cos 60° 2
cos 135° =cos (90° + 45°) = - − sin 45° = -

√√2'
and tan 120° =tan (90° + 30°) = -
− cot 30° = --- √3.
71. Supplementary Angles.

Two angles are said to be supplementary when their
sum is equal to two right angles, i.e. the supplement of
any angle is 180° – 0.
Exs. The supplement of 30 ° = 180° - 30° = 150° .
The supplement of 120° 180° - 120° -60°.
The supplement of 275° -180° - 275° - 95°.
The supplement of - 126° 180° - ( - 126°) = 306°.
72. To find the values of the trigonometrical ratios of

the angle (180° – 0) in terms of those of the angle 0, for all
values of 0.
M ALM
M M
M M MO
A A A-
M
P ''
Let the revolving line start from OA and describe any

angle AOP (= 0).
To obtain the angle 180° - 0, let the revolving line

start from OA and, after revolving through two right
angles (ie. into the position OA'), then revolve back
through an angle into the position OP' , so that the angle
A'OP' is equal in magnitude but opposite in sign to the
angle AOP.
The angle AOP' is then 180° - 0.
Take OP' equal to OP, and draw P'M' and PM
perpendicular to AOA'.
The angles MOP and M'OP' are equal, and hence the
triangles MOP and M'OP' are equal in all respects.
Hence OM and OM ' are equal in magnitude, and so
also are MP and M'P'.
In each figure, OM and OM' are drawn in opposite
directions, whilst MP and M'P' are drawn in the same
direction, so that
OM' - OM, and M'P' = +
+ MP.
Hence we have
M'P MP
sin (180° -0) = sin AOP' = = = sin 0,
OP' OP
OM
' OM
cos ( 180° - 8) = cos AOP' = = = - cos 6,
OP' OP
M'P' MP
tan (180 ° - 0) = tan AOP' = = tan 0,
OM' OM
OM' - OM
cot (180° - 0) = cot AOP' cot 0,
'
= M'P MP
OP' OP
sec (180° - 0) = sec AOP' == =
-- OM
sec 0,
ОМ '
OP' OP
and cosec (180° -
— 0) = cosec AOP':= = = cosec 0.
MP MP
72 TRIGONOMETRY .
Exs. sin 120° sin (180° - 60°) = sin 60° :- 2

1
cos 135° =cos (180° - 45°) = - cos 45°:-
1
and tan 150° = tan (180° – 30°) — — tan 30° --
-
√3
73. To find the trigonometrical ratios of (180° +0) in

terms of those of 0, for all values of 0.
The required relations may be obtained geometrically,

as in the previous articles. The figures for this propo-
sition are easily obtained and are left as an example for
the student.
They may also be deduced from the results of Art. 70 ,

which have been proved true for all angles. For putting
90° + = B, we have
sin (180° + 6) = sin (90° + B) = cos B (Art. 70)
= cos (90° + 0) = — sin 0, (Art. 70)
and cos (180° + 0 ) = cos (90° + B) = − sin B (Art. 70)

= − sin (90° + 0) = -
= cos 0. (Art. 70).
So tan (180° + 0) = tan (90° + B) = — cot B

== cot (90° + 0) = tan 0,
and similarly cot (180° + 0) = cot 0,
sec (180° + 0) = - sec 0,
and cosec ( 180° + 0) = — cosec 0.
74. To find the trigonometrical ratios of an angle

(360° + 0) in terms ofthose of 0, for all values of 0.
In whatever position the revolving line may be when

it has described any angle 0, it will be in exactly the same
position when it has made one more complete revolution
in the positive direction, i.e. when it has described an
angle 360° + 0.
Hence the trigonometrical ratios for an angle 360° +0
are the same as those for 0.
It follows that the addition or subtraction of 360°, or

any multiple of 360°, to or from any angle does not alter
its trigonometrical ratios.
75. From the theorems of this chapter it follows that

the trigonometrical ratios of any angle whatever can be
reduced to the determination of the trigonometrical ratios
of an angle which lies between 0° and 45°.
For example,
sin 1765° = sin [4 x 360° + 325°] = sin 325° (Art . 74)

= sin (180 ° + 145°) = - sin 145° (Art. 73 )
= -sin (180° -35°) = sin 35° (Art. 72) ;
tan 1190° = tan ( 3 × 360° + 110°) = tan 110° (Art. 74)
= tan (90° + 20°) = — cot 20 ° (Art. 70) ;
and cosec ( 1465°) =
= = cosec 1465° (Art. 68)
-=
cosec (4 × 360° + 25 °) = cosec 25° (Art. 74).
Similarly any other such large angles may be treated.
First, multiples of 360° should be subtracted until the
angle lies between 0° and 360° ; if it be then greater than
180°, it should be reduced by 180° ; if then greater than
90°, the formulae of Art. 70 should be used , and finally, if
necessary, the formulae of Art. 69 applied.
74 TRIGONOMETRY.
76. The table of Art. 40 may now be extended to

some important angles greater than a right angle.
Angle 0° 30° 45° 60° 90° 120° 135° 150° | 180°
112
12
༠༠༥
1 √3 1
Sine 0 1
12
2 √2
༢
112
12
1 1 √3
Cosine 1 -1
༠༠
√2 √/ 2
-3
1 8 1
Tangent 1 √3 -√3 –1 0
√3 √3
1 1
8
Cotangent
∞
√3 1 1 -√√3
√3 √3
333
2 2
Cosecant 2 √√2 √2 2
8
8
√3 √3
2
ཨ
-
8
122
Secant 2 2 -√2 -1
T
√3 √3
EXAMPLES. X.
Prove that
1. sin 420° cos 390° + cos ( - 300°) sin ( -− 330°) = 1.
2. cos 570° sin 510° - sin 330° cos 390°=0.
and 3. tan 225° cot 405° + tan 765° cot 675° = 0.
What are the values of cos Asin A and tan A + cot A when A has
the values
π 2π 5п 7π 11π q
4. 5.
3• 6. 4 7. 4 and 8. 3
[Exs. X.] EXAMPLES . 75
What values between 0° and 360° may A have when

1 1
9. sin A:= 10. cos A = - 2 11. tan A = −1 ,
√2 '
2
12. cot A = - №3, 13. sec A = and 14. cosec A = -2 ?
√3
Express in terms of the ratios of a positive angle, which is less than
45°, the quantities
15. sin ( -65°). 16. cos ( - 84°). 17. tan 137°.
18. sin 168°. 19. cos 287°. 20. tan ( -246°) .
21. sin 843°. 22. cos ( -928°). 23. tan 1145°.
24. cos 1410°. 25. cot ( -1054°). 26 . sec 1327° and
27. cosec ( -756°) .
What sign has sin 4 +cos A for the following values of A ?
28. 140°. 29. 278°. 30. - 356° and 31. - 1125°.
What sign has sin A - cos A for the following values of A ?
32. 215°. 33. 825°. 34. - 634° and 35 . -457°.
36. Find the sines and cosines of all angles in the first four quadrants
whose tangents are equal to cos 135°.
Prove that
37. sin (270° + 4) = −cos A, and tan (270° + A) = – cot A.
38. cos (270° -
– A) = - sin A, and cot (270° – A) = tan A.
39. cos A + sin (270° + 4 ) – sin (270° -
– A) + cos (180° +4 ) = 0.
40. sec (270° - A ) sec (90° – A) + tan (270° -- A) tan (90° + 4) + 1 = 0.
41. cot A +tan (180° + 4) + tan (90° + 4) – tan (360° – A) = 0.
CHAPTER VI.
GENERAL EXPRESSIONS FOR ALL ANGLES HAVING A

GIVEN TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIO.
77. To construct the least positive angle whose sine is

equal to a, where a is a proper fraction.
Let OA be the initial line, and let OB be drawn in the
positive direction perpendicular to OA.
Measure off along OB a distance
N
ON which is equal to a units of length.
[If a be negative the point N will lie in
BO produced . ]
Through N draw NP parallel to OA. With centre 0,
and radius equal to the unit of length, describe a circle
and let it meet NP in P.
Then AOP will be the required angle.
Draw PM perpendicular to OA, so that
MP ON α
sin AOP = = = = α.
OP OP 1
The sine of AOP is therefore equal to the given

quantity, and hence AOP is the angle required.
ANGLES HAVING A GIVEN COSINE. 77
78. To construct the least positive angle whose cosine

is equal to b, where b is a proper fraction.
Along the initial line measure off a distance OM equal
to b and draw MP perpendicular to OA.
[If b be negative, M will lie on the other
side of O in the line AO produced. ]
With centre 0, and radius equal to M
unity, describe a circle and let it meet
MP in P.
Then AOP is the angle required. For
ом b
cos AOP = = = b.
OP 1
79. To construct the least positive angle whose tangent

is equal to c.
Along the initial line measure off
OM equal to unity, and erect a per- C
pendicular MP. Measure off MP
equal to c. M A
A
Then
MP
tan AOP .= C,
OM
so that AOP is the required angle.
80. It is clear from the definition given in Art. 50,

that, when an angle is given, so also is its sine. The
converse statement is not correct ; there is more than one
angle having a given sine ; for example, the angles 30°,
150° , 390°, -210°,... all have their sine equal to
Hence, when the sine of an angle is given, we do not
definitely know the angle ; all we know is that the angle
is one out of a large number of angles.
78 TRIGONOMETRY .
Similar statements are true if the cosine, tangent, or

any other trigonometrical function of the angle be given.
Hence, simply to give one of the trigonometrical
functions of an angle does not determine it without
ambiguity.
81. Suppose we know that the revolving line OP

coincides with the initial line OA . All we know is that
the revolving line has made 0, or 1 , or 2, or 3,... complete
revolutions, either positive or negative.
But when the revolving line has made one complete
revolution, the angle it has described is (Art. 17) equal to
2π radians .
Hence, when the revolving line OP coincides with the
initial line OA , the angle that it has described is 0, or 1 ,
or 2, or 3 ... times 27 radians, in either the positive or
negative directions, i.e. either 0, or ± 2π, or ± 4π, oг ± 6π…
...
radians.
This is expressed by saying that when the revolving
line coincides with the initial line the angle it has de-
scribed is 2n , where n is some positive or negative
integer.
82. Theorem. To find a general expression to in-

clude all angles which have the same sine.
Let AOP be any angle having the given sine, and
let it be denoted by a.
Draw PM perpendicular to OA
and produce MO to M ', making
OM' equal to MO, and draw M'P'
parallel and equal to MP. AM' MA
As in Art. 72, the angle AOP'
is equal to π -α.
ANGLES HAVING THE SAME SINE. 79
When the revolving line is in either of the positions

OP or OP', and in no other position, the sine of the angle
traced out is equal to the given sine.
When the revolving line is in the position OP, it has
made a whole number of complete revolutions and then
described an angle a, ie. , by the last article, it has described
an angle equal to
2rπ + a. .(1)
where r is zero or some positive or negative integer.
When the revolving line is in the position OP', it has,
similarly, described an angle 2rπ + AOP', i.e. an angle
2гπ + π - α,
i.e. (2r + 1 ) π - α....... ..(2)
All these angles will be found to be included in the
expression
- 1 )™ α.......
nπ + ( − .. (3) ,
where n is zero or a positive or negative integer.
For, when n = 2r, since (-1 ) = + 1 , the expression (3)
gives 2rπ + a , which is the same as the expression ( 1 ).
Also, when n2r + 1 , since (-1 ) +1 = 1 , the expres-
sion (3) gives (2r + 1 ) π - α, which is the same as the
expression ( 2).
Cor. Since all angles which have the same sine have
also the same cosecant, the expression (3) includes all
angles which have the same cosecant as a.
83. Theorem. To find a general expression to in-

clude all angles which have the same cosine.
Let AOP be any angle having the given cosine, and
let it be denoted by a.
80 TRIGONOMETRY.
Draw PM perpendicular to OA and pro-

duce it to P', making PM equal to MP'.
When the revolving line is in the position M
OP or OP', and in no other position, then, as
in Art. 78, the cosine of the angle traced out
is equal to the given cosine.
When the revolving line is in the position OP, it has
described an angle a, i.e. it has described an angle 2nπ + α,
where n is zero or some positive or negative integer.
When the revolving line is in the position OP', it has
-
described an angle — a, i.e. it has described an angle 2nπ - a.
All these angles are included in the expression
2n + α ....... ...... (1)
Cor. The expression (1) includes all angles having

the same secant as a.
84. Theorem. To find a general expression for all

angles which have the same tangent.
Let AOP be any angle having the given tangent,
and let it be denoted by a.
Produce PO to P', making OP'
equal to OP, and draw P'M' per-
pendicular to OM
'.
As in Art. 73 , the angles AOP M'
M
and AOP' have the same tangent ;
also the angle AOP' = π + α.
When the revolving line is in
ANGLES HAVING THE SAME TANGENT. 81
the position OP, it has described a whole number of

complete revolutions and then turned through an angle
a, i.e. it has described an angle
2rπ + a ....... .. (1 ) ,
When the revolving line is in the position OP', it has
similarly described an angle 2rπ + (π + α),
i.e. (2r + 1 ) π + α ........ . (2).
All these angles are included in the expression

nπ + α ........ . (3),

For, when n is even , (= 2r say) , the expression (3 )
gives the same angles as the expression (1 ).
Also, when ŉ is odd, ( = 2r + 1 say), it gives the same
angles as the expression (2 ).
Cor. The expression (3) includes all angles which

have the same cotangent as a.
85. In Arts. 82 , 83 , and 84 the angle a is any angle

satisfying the given condition. In practical examples it
is, in general, desirable to take a as the smallest positive
angle which is suitable.
Ex. 1. Write down the general expression for all angles,

√3
(1) whose sine is equal to 2 "
1
(2) whose cosine is equal to — 2'
1
and (3) whose tangent is equal to
√3
π
(1) The smallest angle, whose sine is is 60°, i.e.
L. T. 6
82 TRIGONOMETRY.
Hence, by Art. 82, the general expression for all the angles which
have this sine is
П
nπ + ( -− 1)" ·
(2) The smallest positive angle, whose cosine is 12

2'
2π
is 120°, i.e. 3
Hence, by Art. 83, the general expression for all the angles which
have this cosine is
2π
2nπ ± •
3
(3) The smallest positive angle, whose tangent is

π
is 30°, i.e.
6
Hence, by Art. 84 , the general expression for all the angles which
have this tangent is
π
Nπ + •
6
Ex. 2. What is the most general value of 0 satisfying the equation

sin20= ?
Here we have sin 0 = ±

2
Taking the upper sign,
1 π
= =
sine--sin
¸ ::. 0 = nπ + ( − 1)n 7 .
Taking the lower sign,
π
sin @ =
- 1 = sin ( - )
- π
.. 0 = n + ( − 1 )" ( − T) .
Putting both solutions together, we have
П
0 = nπ ±( −1)" ,
or, what is the same expression,
π
0 = nπ ±
6
EXAMPLES. 83
Ex. 3. What is the most general value of 0 which satisfies both of the
1
equations sin 0 = - 2 and tan 0 = ?
?
√3
Considering only angles between 0° and 360°, the only values of 0,
1
when sin @ = -
2' are 210° and 330°. Similarly, the only values of 0, when
1
tan 0 = are 30° and 210°.
√3
The only value of 0, between 0° and 360°, satisfying both conditions
7π
is therefore 210°, i.e.
6'
The most general value is hence obtained by adding any multiple
7π
of four right angles to this angle, and hence is 2nπ + 6 " where n is any
positive or negative integer.
EXAMPLES. XI.
What are the most general values of 0 which satisfy the equations,
1 1
1. sin 0 = 2. sin 0 = - √32
3. sin 0 =
4. cos 0= - 5. cos 0 = 6. cos 0= -

2 √2
7. tan0 = √3. 8. tane - 1. 9. cot 0 = 1.
2
10. sec0 =2. 11. cosec = 12. sin20 = 1.
√3
13. cos20:= 14. tan20 =3. 15. 4 sin20 = 3.
16. 2 cot20 = cosec² 0. 17. sec20 = =?
18. What is the most general value of 0 that satisfies both of the
equations
cos 0= and tan0 = 1 ?
√2
19. What is the most general value of that satisfies both of the
equations
cote√3 and cosec = -2 ?
6-2
84 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XI.]
1 1
(A + B) = find the smallest positive
20. If cos (A- B) : 2' and sin
values of A and B and also their most general values.
2
21. If tan (4 -– B) = 1, and sec (A + B) :=√3' find the smallest positive
values of A and B and also their most general values.
22. Find the angles between 0° and 360° which have respectively (1 )
1
their sines equal to √3, 9 and (3) their tan-
2 (2) their cosines equal to 2
1
gents equal to
√3'
23. Taking into consideration only angles less than 180°, how many
5 1
values of x are there if (1) sin x = ; (2) cos x = (3) cos x =
7'
2
(4) tan x= 3 and (5) cotx = −7 ?
24. Given the angle x construct the angle y if (1 ) sin y = 2 sin x,
1
(2) tan y = 3 tan x, (3) cos y = 2 cos x, and (4) sec y = cosec x.
25. Shew that the same angles are indicated by the two following
π π
formulae : (1) (2n − 1) 2 + ( -
− 1)n and (2) 2nπ ± 6 " n being any integer.
3
26. Prove that the two formulae
- -α
T± a and (2) nπ + ( − 1)" ( "
(1) (2n + 1}) ▾
denote the same angles, n being any integer.
Illustrate by a figure.
27. If 0 - a = nπ + ( − 1)" ß , prove that 0 = 2mπ + a + ß or else that
0 = (2m + 1) π + a - ß, where m and n are any integers.
28. If cos p0 + cos q0 = 0, prove that the different values of 0 form two
2π
arithmetical progressions in which the common differences are and
p+q
2π
respectively .
p ~q
3
29. Construct the angle whose sine is •
2 + √5
EQUATIONS. 85
86. An equation involving the trigonometrical ratios

of an unknown angle is called a trigonometrical equation.
The equation is not completely solved unless we
obtain an expression for all the angles which satisfy it.
Some elementary types of equations are solved in the
following article.
87. Ex. 1. Solve the equation 2 sin2x + /3 cos x + 1 = 0 .

The equation may be written
2-2 cos²x + √3 cosx + 1 = 0,
i.e. 2 cos2x - 3 cos x-
x - 3 = 0,
i.e. (cosx - √3) (2 cos x + √3) = 0.
√3
The equation is therefore satisfied by cos x ==√3, or cos x =
2
Since the cosine of an angle cannot be numerically greater than unity,
the first factor gives no solution.
√3 is 150°, i.e. 5п •
The smallest positive angle, whose cosine is 2 " 6
Hence the most general value of the angle, whose cosine is -
is 2nπ ± 5п · (Art. 83.)
6
This is the general solution of the given equation .
Ex. 2. Solve the equation tan 50 = cot 20.

tan 50 tan
( -20).
Now the most general value of the angle, that has the same tangent as
π π
20, is, by Art. 84, Nπ + - 20,
where n is any positive or negative integer.

The most general solution of the equation is therefore
π
50 = nπ + - 20.
2
=
where n is any integer.
86 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XII. ]
EXAMPLES. XII .
Solve the equations

1
1. cos20 - sin =0. 2. 2 sin² +3 cos 0 = 0.
3. 2/3 cos20 = sin 0. 4. cos 0 + cos2 0 = 1.

1
5. 4 cos 0-3 sec 0-2tan 0. 6. sin² 0 - 2 cos + = 0.
7. tan²0- (1 + √3) tan 0 + √3 = 0.
cot
8. oot²0 + (√3 + 11 ) 0010 + 1 = 0
9. cot 0 - abtan 0 - a - b. 10. tan20 + cot² 0 = 2.
11. sec0-1 = (√
/2 −1) tan 0. 12. 3 ( sec² +tan² 0) = 5.
13. cot 0 +tan 0 = 2 cosec 0. 14. 4 cos² + √3 = 2 (√3 + 1 ) cos 0.
1
15. 3 sin2 0-2 sin 0 = 1. 16. sin 50 = •
√2
17. sin 90 = sin 0. 18. sin 30 = sin 20.
19. cosme = cos no. 20. sin 20 =cos 30.
21. cos 50 = cos 40. 22. cos mesin no.
23. cot 0 = tan 80. 24. cot 0 tan no.
2
25. tan 20 = tan 26. tan 20tan 0 = 1.
27. tan² 30 = cot² a. 28. tan 30 = cot 0.

29. tan2 30 tan² a. 30. 3 tan20 = 1 .
31. tan mx + cot nx = 0. 32 . tan ( cot 0) = cot (π tan 0) .
1
−4) = ½ , and cos (0 + ¢) = 2'
33. sin (0.-
1 √3
34. cos (2x + 3y) = 2' and cos (3x + 2y ) := 2
35. Find all the angles between 0° and 90° which satisfy the equation
sec² 0 cosec² +2 cosec² 0 = 8.
5
36. If tan20 = 4' find versin and explain the double result.
1
37. If the coversin of an angle be 3 find its cosine and cotangent.
CHAPTER VII.
TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS OF THE SUM AND DIFFERENCE

OF TWO ANGLES.
88. Theorem. To prove that
sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B,

and cos (A + B) = cos A cos B- sin A sin B.
B
R N
R N
B
A M
M
A X
Let the revolving line start from OA and trace out

the angle AOB (= A ) , and then trace out the further
angle BOC (= B).
In the final position of the revolving line take any
point P, and draw PM and PN perpendicular to OA and
OB respectively ; through N draw NR parallel to 40 to
meet MP in R, and draw NQ perpendicular to OA .
The angle
RPN90° - PNR = RNO = NOQ = A.
88 TRIGONOMETRY.
MP MR + RP
Hence sin (A + B) = sin AOP = =
OP OP
= QN + RP = QN ON + RP NP
OP OP ON OP NP OP
= sin A cos B + cos RPN sin B.
.. sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B.
OM OQ - MQ
Again cos (A + B) = cos AOP =
OP OP
= OQ RN = OQ ON RN NP
OP OP ON OP NP OP
- sin RPN sin B.
= cos A cos B –
.. cos (A + B) = cos A cos B – sin A sin B.
89. The figures in the last article have been drawn only for the case
in which A and B are acute angles.
The same proof will be found to apply to angles of any size, due
attention being paid to the signs of the quantities involved.
The results may however be shewn to be true of all angles, without
drawing any more figures, as follows.
Let A and B be acute angles, so that, by Art. 88, we know that the
theorem is true for A and B.
Let A₁ = 90° + A , so that, by Art. 70, we have
sin A₁ = cos A, and cos A₁ = - sin A.
Then sin (A +B) = sin { 90° + ( A + B) } = cos (A + B), by Art. 70 ,
= cos A cos B - sin A sin B = sin A, cos B +cos A, sin B.
Also cos (4₁ +B) = cos [ 90° + (A + B ) ] = − sin (A + B)
= - sin A cos B - cos A sin B = cos A₁ cos B - sin A₁ sin B.
Similarly, we may proceed if B be increased by 90°.
Hence the formulae of Art. 88 are true if either A or B be increased
by 90°, i.e. they are true if the component angles lie between 0° and
180°.
Similarly, by putting 42 = 90° + 41 , we can prove the truth of the
theorems when either or both of the component angles have values
between 0° and 270°.
By proceeding in this way, we see that the theorems are true uni-
versally.
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION FORMULE. 89
90. Theorem. To prove that
sin (AB) = sin A cos B -- cos A sin B,

and cos (AB) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B.
Let the revolving line starting from the initial line

OA trace out the angle
B
AOB ( A ), and then, re-
volving in the opposite di-
rection, trace out the angle N
BOC, whose magnitude is

B. The angle AOC is there-
fore A - B.
Take a point P in the M
final position of the revolv-
ing line, and draw PM and PN perpendicular to OA and
OB respectively ; from N draw NQ and NR perpendicular
to OA and MP respectively.
The angle RPN= 90 ° - PNR = < RNB= < QON = A.
Hence
MP MR - PR = QN PR
sin (AB) = sin AOC =
OP OP. OP OP
QN ON PR PN
=
ON OP PN OP
= sin A cos B - cos RPN sin B,
so that sin (AB) = sin A cos B – cos A sin B.
OM_OQ + QM OQ , NR
: OP =
Also cos (AB) = +
OP OPT OP
OQ ON NR NP
= + cos A cos B + sin NPR sin B,
ON OP NP OP
so that cos (A - B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B.

90 TRIGONOMETRY.
91. The proofs of the previous article will be found to apply to

angles of any size, provided that due attention be paid to the signs of
the quantities involved.
Assuming the truth of the formulae for acute angles, we can shew
them to be true universally without drawing any more figures.
For, putting A₁ = 90° + A , we have,
(since sin A₁ =cos A, and cos A₁ = − sin A) ,
sin (4₁ - B) = sin [90° + (A -
− B)] = cos (A - B) (Art. 70)
= cos A cos B + sin A sin B
= sin A₁ cos B - cos A₁ sin B.

Also cos (4₁ - B) = cos [ 90° + (A − B) ] = − sin ( A -
– B) (Art. 70)
= - sin A cos B + cos A sin B
= cos A, cos B +sin A, sin B.
Similarly we may proceed if B be increased by 90°.
Hence the theorem is true for all angles which are not greater than
two right angles.
So, by putting 42 = 90° + 4₁ , we may shew the theorems to be true for
all angles less than three right angles, and so on.
Hence, by proceeding in this manner, we may shew that the theorems
are true for all angles whatever.
92. The theorems of Arts. 88 and 90 , which give

respectively the trigonometrical functions of the sum and
differences of two angles in terms of the functions of the
angles themselves, are often called the Addition and
Subtraction Theorems.
93. Ex. 1. Find the values of sin 75° and cos 75°.
sin 75° sin (45° + 30°) = sin 45° cos 30° + cos 45° sin 30°
1 √3
= + 1 1 = √3+ 1
√22 √2 2 2/22
and cos 75° = cos (45° + 30°) = cos 45° cos 30° - sin 45° sin 30°
1 13 1 1 = √3-1
= N -
/2 2 /2 2 2./2
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION FORMULA. 91
Ex. 2. Prove that sin (A + B) sin (A −-B) = sin² A – sin² B,

and cos (A + B) cos (A – B) = cos² A − sin³ B.
By Arts. 88 and 90, we have
sin (A + B) . sin ( A – B) = (sin A cos B + cos A sin B ) (sin A cos B --cos A sin B)
= sin² A cos2 B - cos2 A sin² B = sin² A (1 - sin² B) −- (1 − sin² A) . sin² B
= sin2 A - sin2 B.
Again, by the same articles, we have
cos (A + B) cos (4 – B) = (cos A cos B -– sin A sin B) (cos A cos B + sin A sin B)
=cos² A cos² B - sin² A sin² B = cos² A ( 1 - − sin² B) −- ( 1 − cos² A) sin² B
= cos2 A - sin² B.
Ex. 3. Assuming the formulae for sin (x + y) and cos (x + y) , deduce

the formulae for sin (x - y) and cos (x - − y).
We have
sin x = sin { (x − y) + y } = sin (x -
− y) cos y + cos (x -
− y) sin y…………
..(1) ,
and cos x = cos {(x − y) + y } = cos (x − y) cos y - — sin (x − y) sin y . . (2).
Multiplying (1) by cosy and (2) by sin y and subtracting, we have
sin x cos y - cos x sin y = sin (x -− y) { cos² y + sin² y } = sin (x − y).
Multiplying (1) by sin y and (2) by cosy and adding, we have
sin x sin y + cos x cos y = cos (x − y) { cos² y + sin² y} = cos (x − y) .
Hence the two formulae required are proved.
These two formulae are true for all values of the angles, since the
formulae from which they are derived are true for all values.
EXAMPLES . XIII.
3 9
1. If sin a= 5 and cos ẞ =41' find the value of sin (a -B) and cos (a + B).
45 33
2. If sin a =; and sinẞ = 9 find the values of sin (a - B) and
65
53
sin (a + B).
15 12
3. If sin a = 17 and cosẞ = 13 find the values of sin (a + B), cos (a -
– ẞ) ,
and tan (a +ẞ).
Prove that
4. cos (45° -4) cos (45° – B) – sin (45° – A) sin (45° – B) = sin (A + B). .
92 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XIII. ]
5. sin (45° + 4) cos (45° -– B) + cos (45° + A) sin (45° – B) = cos (4 – B).
sin (A - B) sin (B - C) sin (C - A)
6. cos A cos B = 0.
cos Bcos C cos C cos A
7. sin 105° + cos 105° = cos 45°.
8. sin 75° - sin 15° = cos 105° + cos 15°.
9. cos a cos (y - a) - sin a sin (y- a) = cos y.
10. cos (a + B) cos y - cos (B + y) cos a = sin ẞ sin (y - a).

11. sin (n + 1) A sin (n - - 1 ) A = cos 2A.
− 1 ) A + cos (n + 1) A cos (n −
12. sin (n + 1 ) A sin (n + 2) A + cos (n + 1) A cos (n + 2) A = cos A.
94. From Arts. 88 and 90 , we have, for all values of

A and B,
sin ( A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B,

and sin ( A – B) = sin A cos B - cos A sin B.
Hence, by addition and subtraction, we have
sin (A + B) + sin (A - B) = 2 sin A cos B...... (1 ),

and -
sin ( A + B) — sin ( A – B) = 2cos A sin B……………
...(2).
From the same articles we have, for all values of A
and B,
cos (A + B) = cos A cos B - sin A sin B,
and cos (AB) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B.
Hence, by addition and subtraction, we have

cos (A + B) + cos (AB) = 2 cos A cos B......(3),
and cos (AB) - cos ( A + B) = 2 sin A sin B...... (4).
Put A + B = C, and A -
− B = D, so that
C+ D C- D
A= , and B =
2 2
PRODUCT FORMULA . 93
On making these substitutions, the relations ( 1 ) to (4)

become, for all values of C and D,
C+ D C- D
sin C + sin D = 2 sin COS ..... .I,
C+D C - D
sin Csin D = 2 cos sin …………..II,
2
C+D с
cos C + cos D = 2 cos COS c -D ...III,
2
C+ D
and cos D - cos C =-2 sin sin c- D ... IV.
2
[The student should carefully notice that the left- hand

member of IV is cos D cos C and not cos C - – cos D. ]
95. These relations I to IV are extremely important

and should be very carefully committed to memory.
On account of their great importance we give a geo-
metrical proof for the case when C and D are acute angles.
Let AOC be the angle C and AOD the angle D.
Bisect the angle COD by the straight line OE. On OE
take a point P and draw QPR perpendicular to OP to
meet OC and OD in Q and R respectively.
Draw PL, QM, and RN perpendicular to OA , and
through R draw RST perpendicular to PL or QM to
meet them in S and T respectively.
Since the angle DOC is C – D, each of the angles
C- D
DOE and EOC is and also
2
C- D C+D
< AOE = LAOD + 2 DOE = D +
2 2
Since the two triangles POR and POQ are equal in
all respects, we have OQ = OR, and PR = PQ, so that
RQ = 2RP.
94 TRIGONOMETRY .
Hence QT2PS, and RT = 2RS, i.e. MN = 2ML.

Therefore MQ + NR = TQ + 2LS = 2SP + 2LS = 2LP.
Also OMON = 20M + MN = 20M + 2ML = 20L.
MQ NR = MQ + NR
Hence sin C + sin D +
0Q OR OR
E
P
8-
16
S R
M N A
2LP LP OP
= =2 = 2 sin LOP cos POR
OR OPOR
C+ D C-D
= 2 sin COS
2 2
MQ NR = MQ - NR = TQ
Again, sin C - sin D =
0Q OR OR OR
SP SP RP
=2 -
=2 = 2 cos SPR sin ROP
OR RP ' OR
C+D C- D
= 2 cos sin
2 2
C+ D
for SPR = 90 ° -
— ≤ SPO = ▲ LOP =
[ 2
OM ON OM + ON
Also, cos C + cos D:= OQ + =
OR OR
OL OL OP
=2 =2
OR OP OR
C +D C- D
= 2 cos LOP cos POR = 2 cos COS
2 2
PRODUCT FORMULE. 95
ON OM ON- OM
- cos C ==
Finally, cos D – =
OR OQ OR
MN SR 2SR PR
= =2 =
OR OR PR OR
= 2 sin SPR . sin POR
== 2 sin C + D sin
. C−D
2 2
96. The student is strongly urged to make himself

perfectly familiar with the formulae of the last article and
to carefully practise himself in their application ; perfect
familiarity with these formulae will considerably facilitate
his further progress.
The formulae are very useful, because they change
sums and differences of certain quantities into products of
certain other quantities, and products of quantities are, as
the student probably knows from Algebra, easily dealt
with by the help of logarithms.
We subjoin a few examples of their use.
60 +40 60-40
Ex. 1. sin 60+sin 40 = 2 sin COS 2 sin 50 cos 0.
2 2
30 + 70 70-30
Ex. 2. cos 30 - cos 70 = 2 sin sin 2 sin 50 sin 20.
2 2
75° + 15° 75° -15°
COS sin
sin 75° - sin 15° 2 2
Ex. 3.
cos 75° + cos 15° 75° + 15° 75° -15°
2 cos COS
2 2
2 cos 45° sin 30° 1 /3
= = tan 30° = = :.57735 ......
2 cos 45° cos 30° √3 3
[ This is an example of the simplification given by these formulae ; it
would be a very long and tiresome process to look out from the tables the
values of sin 75°, sin 15°, cos 75°, and cos 15°, and then to perform the
division of one long decimal fraction by another. ]
96 TRIGONOMETRY.
Ex. 4. Simplify the expression

(cos - cos 30) (sin 80+ sin 20)
(sin 50 - sin 0) (cos 40 - cos 60)*
On applying the formulae of Art. 94, this expression
0 +30 30-0 80+20 80-20
2 sin sin x 2 sin COS
2 2 2 2
= 60-40
50 + 0 50 0 40 +60
2 cos sin x 2 sin sin
2 2
=4. sin 20 sin 0. sin 50 cos 30 = 1.

4. cos 30 sin 20. sin 50 sin
EXAMPLES. XIV.
Prove that
sin 70 sin 50 cos 60 cos 40
1. =tan 0. 2. = -tan 0.
cos 70+ cos 50 sin 60+ sin 40
sin A +sin 34
3. cos A + cos 34 =tan 24.
sin 74 - sin A
4. sin 84 - sin 24 cos 44 sec 5A.
cos 2B + cos 24
5. cos 2B - cos 24 -= cot ( A + B) cot (A – B).
sin 24+ sin 2B tan (A + B)

6. sin 24 -sin 2B =
tan (A - B)*
sin A + sin 24 A sin 54 - sin 3A
7. cos Acos 24 = cot ༡ . 8. = tan A.
cos 34 + cos 5A
cos 2B- cos 24
9. == tan (A -
– B).
sin 2B + sin 24
10. cos (A + B) + sin (4 − B) = 2 sin (45° + 4 ) cos (45° + B).
cos 34 - cos A cos 24 - cos 44 sin A
11. + =
sin 34 - sin A sin 44 - sin 24 cos 24 cos 34 '
sin (44 - 2B) + sin (4B -
− 2A)
12. =tan (A + B).
cos (4A - 2B) + cos (4B − 2A)
tan 50+tan 30
13. tan 50 tan 30 =4 cos 20 cos 40.
PRODUCT FORMULAE, 97
[Exs. XIV .]
cos 30 + 2 cos 50+ cos 70

14. = cos 20 - sin 20 tan 30.
cos 0 + 2 cos 30+ cos 50
sin A + sin 3A + sin 5A + sin 74
15. =tan 44.
cos A + cos 34 + cos 5A + cos 7A
16. sin (0+ ) - 2 sin 0 + sin ( 0 -

− 6) = tan 0.
cós (0+ ) - 2 cos 0 + cos (0-4)
17. sin A + 2 sin 34 + sin 5A = sin 3A
sin 34 +2 sin 54+ sin 7A sin 54
sin (A - C) +2 sin A + sin (A + C) = sin A •
18.
sin (B - C) +2 sin B + sin (B + C) sin B
sin Asin 5A + sin 94 - – sin 134
19. = cot 44 .
cos A - cos 5A -
– cos 9A + cos 134
A- B
20. sin A + sin B =tan A +B cot
sin Asin B 2 2
cos A + cos B A+B A- B
21. =: cot -cot
cos B - cos A 2 2
sin A +sin B A+ B
22. = tan
cos A +cos B 2
sin A - sin B A+B
23. = cot
cos B - cos A 2
cos (A +B + C) + cos ( − A + B + C) + cos ( A -
− B + C) + cos (A + B - C)
24.
sin (A +B + C) + sin ( − A + B + C) − sin (A − B + C) + sin (A + B - C)
= cot B.
25. cos 34 + cos 54 + cos 74 + cos 154 = 4 cos 44 cos 5A cos 64.
26. cos ( A + B + C) + cos (A − B + C) + cos (A + B − C) + cos (A + B + C)
= 4 cos A cos B cos C.
27. sin 50° - sin 70° + sin 10° = 0.
28. sin 10° + sin 20° + sin 40° + sin 50° = sin 70° + sin 80°.
α 3a
29. sin a +sin 2a + sin 4a + sin 5a = 4 cos COS sin 3a.
2
Simplify
3
30. cos
cos (e + (n - 1 ) ) - cos (e + ( x + 1 ) ) .
아.
31. sin (8+ (n - 1 ) +} +sin {8+ ( x + 1) *} .·

L. T. 7
98 TRIGONOMETRY.
97. The formulae (1) , ( 2) , ( 3), and (4) of Art . 94 are

also very important. They should be remembered in the
form
2 sin A cos B = sin (A + B) + sin (A – - B)...( 1 ),
2 cos A sin B = sin (A + B) - sin (AB)...(2),

2 cos A cos B = cos (A + B) + cos (A -
– B)...(3) ,
2 sin A sin B = cos (A - B) – cos (A + B)... (4).
They may be looked upon as the converse of the
formulae I- IV. of Art. 94.
Ex. 1. 2 sin 30 cos 0 = sin 40+ sin 20.

Ex. 2. 2 sin 50 sin 30 = cos 20 - cos 80.
Ex. 3. 2 cos 110 cos 20 = cos 130+ cos 90.
Ex. 4. Simplify
sin 80 cos - sin 60 cos 30
cos 20 cos 0- sin 30 sin 40 '
By the above formulae, the expression
1 1
2 [sin 90+ sin 70 ] - [sin 90+ sin 30]
1
[ cos 30+ cos 0] - [cos - cos 70]
sin 70 sin 30
cos 30+ cos 70
2 cos 50 sin 20
2 cos 50 cos 20 ' by the formulae of Art. 94,
= tan 20.
[ The student should carefully notice the artifice of first employing
the formulae of this article and then, to obtain a further simplification,
employing the converse formulae of Art. 94. This artifice is often
successful in simplifications. ]
EXAMPLES . XV.
Express as a sum or difference the following :
1. 2 sin 50 sin 70. 2. 2 cos 70 sin 50.
3. 2 cos 110 cos 30. 4. 2 sin 54° sin 66°.
[Exs. XV.] TANGENT OF THE SUM OF TWO ANGLES. 99
Prove that
0 70 30 110
5. sin sin + sin- sin = sin 20 sin 50.
2 2 2
90 50
6. cos 20 cos 2 - cos 30 cos 2 - sin 50 sin 2
7. sin A sin (4 + 2B) – sin B sin (B +24) = sin (A -
− B) sin (A + B).
8. (sin 34 +sin A) sin A + (cos 34 - cos A) cos A = 0.
2 sin (AC) cos C - sin (A - 2C) = sin A
9. ·
2 sin (B - C) cos C - sin (B2C) sin B
sin A sin 24 + sin 34 sin 64 + sin 44 sin 134 = tan 94.
10.
sin A cos 24+ sin 34 cos 64+ sin 44 cos 13A
cos 24 cos 3A - cos 24 cos 74 +cos A cos 104
11. sin 44 sin 34 – =cot 64 cot 5A.
sin 24 sin 5A + sin 44 sin 74
12. cos (36° - A ) cos (36° + A) + cos (54° + A ) cos (54° - A ) = cos 24 .
. 13. cos A sin (B - C) + cos B sin (CA ) + cos C sin (4 - – B) = 0.
1
14. sin (45° + A ) sin (45° – 4) = cos 24.
15. versin (A + B) versin (A -– B) = (cos A· - cos B)2.
16. sin (B- ) cos (a − d) + sin (y -
− a) cos (ẞ − 8) + sin (a - ẞ) cos (y - 8) = 0 .
π 9π 3π 5п
17. 2 cos COS + cos + cos =0.
13 13 13 13
tan Atan B
98. To prove that tan (A + B) = 1 -tan A tan B' and
tan Atan B
that tan (A - B) =
1 + tan A tan B'
By Art. 88, we have, for all values of A and B,
sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
tan (A + B):=
cos (A + B) cos A cos B- sin A sin B
sin A sin B
+
cos A cos B
= by dividing both
sin A sin B
1-
cos A cos B
numerator and denominator by cos A cos B.
tan A + tan B
.. tan (A + B) = •
1 - tan A tan B
100 TRIGONOMETRY.
Again, by Art. 90,

sin (A - B) = sin A cos B - cos A sin B
tan (A – B) == 1 B) cos A cos B + sin A sin B
cos (A –
sin A sin B
s
co A cos B
= sin A sin B " by dividing as before .
1+
cos A cos B
tan Atan B
... tan (A -
– B) = 1+ tan A tan B '
99. The formulae of the preceding article may be obtained geometri-

cally from the figures of Arts. 88 and 90.
(1) Taking the figure of Art. 88, we have
MP QN +RP
tan (A +B) = OM = OQ - RN
QN RP RP
+ tan A +
OQ OQ OQ
RN RN RP'
1 1
OQ RP OQ
But, since the angles RPN and QON are equal, the triangles RPN and
QON are similar, so that
RP 09
=
PN ON'.
RP PN
and therefore = - tan B.
OQ ON
tan A+tan B tan A +tan B
Hence tan (A + B) = 1 – tan RPN tan B = 1 - tan A tan B
(2) Taking the figure of Art. 90, we have

MP QN - PR
tan (A - B) = OM = OQ +NR
QN PR PR
tan A
OQ •
= OQ OQ =
NR NR PR
1+ 14
OQ PR OQ
TANGENT OF THE SUM OF TWO ANGLES. 101
RP OQ
But, since the angles RPN and NOQ are equal, we have PN = ON'
PR PN
and therefore = tan B.
OQ ON
tan A - tan B tan Atan B
Hence tan (A -
– B) = =
1 +tan RPN tan B 1 +tan A tan B
100. As particular cases of the preceding formulae,

we have, by putting B equal to 45°,
tan A + 1 1 + tan A
tan (A + 45°) = =
1 - tan -A '
1 - tan A
tan A - 1
and tan ( A ―- 45°) = •
1 + tan A
Similarly, as in Art . 98, we may prove that

cot A cot B - 1
cot (A + B):=
cot A + cot B
and = cot A cot B +1

cot (AB) = cot B - cot A •
tan 45° + tan 30°

101. Ex. 1. tan 75° = tan (45° + 30°) = 1 - tan45° tan 30°
1
1+
= √3 =
_ √3 + 1 =
_ (√3 + 1)²-=
_ 4 + 2√3
/3-1 3-1 2 = 2 + √3
= 2 + 1.73205 ... = 3.73205 ....

tan 45° - tan 30°
Ex. 2. tan 15° -tan (45 ° – 30°) = 1+tan 45° tan 30°
1
= √3 = √3 − 1 = _ 4-
_ ( √3 − 1 )² = − 2√3¸-
/3 + 1 3-1 2 2 - √3
1+-
= 2-1.73205 ... ='= 26795....

102 TRIGONOMETRY.
EXAMPLES. XVI.
and tan B =
1. If tan A = 2 3' find the values of tan (24 + B) and
tan (24 - B).
√3 and tan B = √3 , prove that
2. If tan A = -
√3 4+ /3
tan (AB) = 375.
n 1
3. If tan A = and tan B =
n+ 1 2n + 1 " find tan (A + B).
5 1 π
4. If tan a = and tan ß:- 11 prove that a +B=
Prove that
π 3π
5. tan 4 +09 ) × tan ( ³T + 0 ) = - 1.
( 4 ›) = -:
π-
6. cot
( +0 ) cot (1 − 9 ) = 1 .
A
7. 1 +tan A tan 2 = tan A cot 2 1= = sec A.
102. As further examples of the use of the formulae

of the present chapter we shall find the general value of
the angle which has a given sine , cosine, or tangent. This
has been already found in Arts. 82-84.
Find the general value of all angles having a given sine.
Let a be any angle having the given sine, and ✪ any
other angle having the same sine.
We have then to find the most general value of
which satisfies the equation
sin = sin α,
i.e. sin -sin α = 0.
This may be written

θ+a 0 a
2 cos sin == 0,
2
ANGLES HAVING A GIVEN COSINE. 103
and it is therefore satisfied by

θ τα α
COS = 0, and by sin = 0,
2 2
θ τα
i.e. by = any odd multiple of
2 2
-α
and by = any multiple of π
2
i.e. by 0 = − a + any odd multiple of π………….. (1 ),
and 0 = a + any even multiple of π …………
.. (2) ,
i.e. must = (− 1 )" a + nπ, where n is any positive or

negative integer.
For, when n is odd, this expression agrees with ( 1 ), and ,
when n is even, it agrees with ( 2).
103. Find the general value of all angles having the

same cosine.
The equation we have now to solve is

cos = cos a,
i.e. cos acos = 0,
θ+α s 0 -a -= 0 ,
i.e. 2 sin in
2 2
and it is therefore satisfied by

θ +α -α
sin = 0, and by sin == 0 ,
2 2
θ τα
i.e. by any multiple of π,
2
-α
0-
and by = any multiple of π,
2
104 TRIGONOMETRY .
i.e. by 0= a + any multiple of 2π,

and by 0 = a + any multiple of 2π.
Both these sets of values are included in the solution
0 = 2nπ ± α, where n is any positive or negative integer.
104. Find the general value of all angles having the

same tangent.
The equation we have now to solve is
tan - tan a = 0,
i.e. sin cos a - cos e sin α = 0,
i.e. sin ( 0− a) = 0.
-
a = any multiple of π
= nπ , where n is any positive or
negative integer,
so that the most general solution is 0 = nπ + a.
CHAPTER VIII.
THE TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS OF MULTIPLE AND

SUBMULTIPLE ANGLES.
105. To find the trigonometrical ratios of an angle 2A

in terms of those of the angle A.
If in the formulae of Art. 88 we put BA , we have
sin 2A = sin A cos A + cos A sin A = 2 sin A cos A,

cos 2A = cos A cos Asin A sin A = cos² A - sin² A
= (1 - sin² A ) - sin² A = 1-2 sin² A,

and also
= cos² A - (1 − cos² A) = 2 cos² A − 1 ;
=
and
tan A + tan A 2 tan A
tan 2A: =
1 -tan A. tan A 1- tan² A
Now the formulae of Art. 88 are true for all values of

A and B ; hence any formulae derived from them are true
for all values of the angles.
In particular the above formulae are true for all values
of A.
106 TRIGONOMETRY.
106. An independent geometrical proof of the formulae

of the preceding article may be given for values of A
which are less than a right angle.
Let QCP be the angle 24.
With centre C and radius CP
describe a circle, and let QC meet Q
it again in 0.
'Join OP and PQ, and draw PN
perpendicular to OQ.
By Euc. III. 20, the angle
QOP = < QCP = A,
and the angle NPQ = zQ0P = A .

Hence
NP 2NP NP NP OP
sin 2A = = =2 - 2
CP 20Q 0Q OP OQ
= 2 sin NOP cos POQ, since OPQ is a right angle,
= 2 sin A cos A ;
also
CN =2CN = (OC + CN) - (OC - CN)
cos 2A =
CP 0Q 0Q
= ON - NQ = ON OP NQ PQ
0Q OP OQ PQ OQ
= cos² A - sin² A ;
NP
2
NP 2NP ON
and tan 2A =
CNON - NQ NQ PN
1-
PN ON
2 tan A
=
1- tan² A '
MULTIPLE ANGLES. 107
Ex. Tofind the values of sin 15° and cos 15°.

Let the angle 24 be 30°, so that A is 15º.
Let the radius CP be 2a, so that we have
CN =2a cos 30° = a√3,
and NP 2a sin 30° = a.
Hence ON = OC +CN = a (2 + √3),
and NQ CQ - CN = a (2 − √3).
.. OP = ON.OQ = a (2 + √3 ) × 4a (Euc. vi. 8),
so that OP a√2 ( 3 +1),
and PQ² =QN.QO = a (2 − √3) × 4a,
so that PQ a /2 ( 3-1).
Hence sin 15° = PQ = √2 ( 3-1) = √3-1

OQ 4 2/2
and _√3 + 1
cos 15°= OP = √2 (√3 + 1) =
OQ 4 2/2
107. To find the trigonometrical functions of 3A in

terms of those of A.
By Art. 88 , putting B equal to 2A , we have
sin 3A = sin ( A + 2A ) = sin A cos 2A + cos A sin 24
= sin A (1-2 sin² A) + cos A. 2 sin A cos A ,

by Art. 105 ,
= sin A (1-2 sin² A ) + 2 sin A ( 1 -
− sin² A).
Hence sin 3A = 3 sin A -
– 4 sin³ A …………………..(1 ) .
So
- sin A sin 2A
cos 3A = cos (A + 2A ) = cos A cos 2A –
= cos A (2 cos² A -
− 1 ) — sin A. 2 sin A cos A
= cos A (2 cos² A -
− 1) -
— 2 cos A ( 1 -
− cos² A ).
Hence cos 3A = 4 cos³ A - 3 cos A ......... (2).
108 TRIGONOMETRY.
tan A + tan 24
Also tan 3A = tan (A + 2A ) =
1 - tan A tan 2A
2 tan A
tan A +
1 tan² A tan A (1 -- tan² A) + 2 tan A
2 tan A (1 - tan² A) - 2 tan² A
1- tan A.
1- tan² A
3 tan A -
– tan³ A
Hence tan 3A =
1-3 tan2 A
[The student may find it difficult to remember, and distinguish
between, the formulae (1) and (2), which bear a general resemblance to
one another, but have their signs in a different order. If in doubt, he
may always verify his formula by testing it for a particular case, e. g. by
putting A = 30° for formula (1 ), and by putting A = 0° for formula (2). ]
108. By a process similar to that of the last article,

the trigonometrical ratios of any higher multiples of
may be expressed in terms of those of 0. The method is
however long and tedious. In a later chapter better
methods will be pointed out.
As an example, let us express cos 50 in terms of cos 0.
We have
cos 50 = cos (30 +20)
= cos 30 cos 20 — -- sin 30 sin 20
== ( 4 cos³ 0 -
– 3 cos 0) ( 2 cos² 0 −1 )
- (3 sin 0-4 sin³ 0) . 2 sin 0 cos 0
== ( 8 cos³ 0 -
— 10 cos³ 0 + 3 cos 0)
-- 2 cos 0. sin² 0 ( 3 – 4 sin³ 0)
==
= (8 cos 0 - 10 cos³ 0 + 3 cos 0)
- 2 cos 0 (1 - cos2 0) (4 cos 0-1)
== ( 8 cos5 0 - 10 cos³ 0 + 3 cos 0)
-- 2 cos 0 (5 cos2 0 - 4 cos¹ 0-1)
= 16 cos 0-20 cos³ 0 + 5 cos 0.
MULTIPLE ANGLES. 109
EXAMPLES. XVII.
1. Find the value of sin 2a when

3 12 16
(1) cos a = 5' (2) sin a = 13 ' and (3) tan a = 63
2. Find the value of cos 2a, when

15 4 5
(1) cos a = 17 (2) sin a = 5 ' and (3) tan a =
12'
3. If tan 0 = a 2 find the value of a cos 20+b sin 20.

Prove that
sin 24 sin 24
4. = tan A. 5. = cot A.
1+ cos 24 1 - cos 24
1- cos 24 =
6. tan24. 7. tan A + cot A = 2 cosec 24.
1+ cos 24
8. tan A - cot A = -2 cot 24. 9. cosec 24+ cot 2A = cot A.
1 - cos A + cos B − cos (A + B) =tan A cot B
10. 2
1 +cos A - cos B - cos ( A + B)
cos A 12. sec 84-1 = tan 8A
11. 1 + sin A = tan 45° ± sec 44 -- 1 tan 24
(
1 + tan² (45° -– A)
13. = cosec 24.
1 - tan2 (45° - A)
tan a +ß
sin a +sin ẞ 2
14. •
sin a- sin ẞ α- · β΄
tan
2
sin2 A-- sin2 B
15. sin A cos Asin B cos B = tan (A + B),
π -A
16. tan tan = 2 tan 20.
(1+ 0) -
A
17. cos A + sin cos Asin A
2 tan 24.
cos Asin A cos A +sin A
- 15°) = ; 4 cos 2A •
18. cot (4 + 15°) - tan ( 4 – 1 +2 sin 24
110 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XVII. ]
19. sin 0+sin 20 20. 1 + sin cos 0

= tan 0. =tan
1+cos 0 + cos 20 1+sin + cose 2'
- -
sin (n + 1) A − sin (n − 1) A A
21. = tan •
cos (n + 1) A +2 cos na + cos (n − 1 ) A 2
(n + 1) A + 2 sin nA + sin (n -
− 1) A
22. sin =cot
cos (n - 1) A - cos (n + 1) A 2
-
23. sin (2n + 1) A sin A = sin² (n + 1) A − sin² nA.
sin (A + 3B) + sin (3A +B)
24. sin 24+ sin 2B =2 cos (A + B).
A 3A
25. sin 34+ sin 2A - − sin A = 4 sin A cos COS
2 2'
26. tan 24 = (sec 24 + 1) √sec² A − 1.
27. cos³ 20+ 3 cos 20 = 4 (cos6 0 — sinº 0) .
28. 1 + cos220 = 2 (cos¹ 0+ sin¹ 0).
29. sec² A ( 1+sec 2A) = 2 sec 24.
30. cosec A - 2 cot 24 cos A = 2 sin A.
A
31. cot A = cot tan
(
1
32. sin asin (60° - a) sin (60° + a) = sin 3a.
33. cos a cos (60° -

– a) cos (60° + a) cos 3a.
34. cot a + cot (60° + a) – cot (60° - a) = 3 cot 3a.

1
35. cos 20° cos 40° cos 60° cos 80° = :
16
3
36. sin 20° sin 40° sin 60° sin 80°:= 16'
37. cos 4a = 1-8 cos² a +8 cos¹ a.

38. sin 44 =4 sin A cos³ A - 4 cos A sin³ A.
39. cos 6a = 32 cos6 a - 48 cos¹ a + 18 cos² a -
− 1.
40. tan 34 tan 24 tan A = tan 34 - tan 2A -- tan A.
41. 2 cos 2º0 +1 == (2 cos 0 -− 1 ) (2 cos 20 - 1) (2 cos 22 0 -
− 1)
2 cos 0 +1
.....
..(2 cos 2n−10 − 1).
SUBMULTIPLE ANGLES. 111
Submultiple angles.
109. Since the relations of Art. 105 are true for all
values of the angle A , they will be true if instead of A
A
we substitute and therefore if instead of 24 we put
2'
A
2· i.e. A.
2?
42x
Hence we have the relations まる。
Aa
sin A = 2 sin COS (1 ),

哈哈 2
cos A = cos² + - sin²
= 2 Cos² - 1 = 1 -^ 2 sin' (2),

哈
A
2 tan
2
and tan A = (3).
A
1 - tan2
From ( 1), we also have

12
A A
2 sin COS
2
sin A =
A A
Cos² + sin²
2 2
A
2 tan
2
"
A by dividing numera-
1 + tan²
2
cos²4 .
tor and denominator by cos²: 2
112 TRIGONOMETRY,
A A
cos2 - sin :
2
So cos A
= A A
cos2 + sin2
2 2
A
1- tan²
2
1 + tan²
2
110. To express the trigonometrical ratios of the angle

A
2 in terms of cos A.
From equation ( 2) of the last article, we have
A
cos A = 1-2 sin2:
2
A
so that 2 sin² =1 cos A ,
2
cos A
and therefore sin (1).
A
Again, cos A = 2 cos²: 1,
A
so that 2 cos2 = 1 + cos A ,
2
A 1 + cos A
and therefore COS (2).
A
sin
A 2 1 cos A
Hence, tan ± (3).
A 1 + cos A
COS
2
RATIOS OF IN TERMS OF COS A. 113
111. In each of the preceding formulae it will be

noted that there is an ambiguous sign. In any particular
case the proper sign can be determined as the following
examples will shew.
1
Ex. 1. Given cos 45° =
- ;, find the values of sin 221° and cos 221°.
√2
The equation (1) of the last article gives, by putting A equal to 45°,
cos 45° = ± 2- √2
sin 221° = ± ==
2 4
= .
√2-√2
Now sin 221° is necessarily positive , so that the upper sign must be
taken.
Hence sin 2210 = √2 - √2.
1+ cos 45° 2+ √2 = +
So cos 2210= ± √2 + √2 ;
2 4
also cos 221° is positive ;
2 + √2
.. cos 221° = 2
Ex. 2. Given cos 330°:= √3 find the values of sin 165° and cos 165°.
2
The equation (1) gives
№3
1 cos 330° 2 4-2 /3
sin 165° ±
2 8
= √3-1
2/2
Also
1+
cos 165° = ± 1+ cos 330° = 4 + 2 /3
± =±
8
==√3 + 1
2./2
L. T.
114 TRIGONOMETRY.
Now 165° lies between 90° and 180°, so that, by Art. 52, its sine is
positive and its cosine is negative.
Hence sin 165° = √3-1
2./2
and cos 165° - √3 +1

2/2
From the above examples it will be seen that, when the angle A and
A
its cosine are given, the ratios for the angle 2 may be determined without
any ambiguity of sign.
When, however, only cos A is given, there is an ambiguity in finding
A and cos A
sin • The explanation of this ambiguity is given in the next
article.
A
** 112. To explain why there is ambiguity when cos
A
and sin are found from the value of cos A.
2
We know that, if n be any integer,
cos A = cos (2nπ ± A ) = k (say).

A
Hence any formula which gives us cos 2 in terms of k,
2nπ + A
should give us also the cosine of 2
2nπ + A A
Now COS = 008 ( WT + 4)
2
42
A A A
= COS Nπ COS + sin nπ sin = COS NT COS
2 2
A
= cos >
2
according as n is even or odd.

RATIOS OF IN TERMS OF SIN A. 115
A
2 in terms of k,
Similarly, any formula, giving us sin 4
2NT + A
should give us also the sine of 2
2nπ + A
Also sin = sin Nπ
2 X 2
A A
= sin nπ cos + cos nπ sin = + cos nπ sin
2 2
A
= + sin •
2
Hence, in each case, we should expect to obtain two

A A
values for cos and sin > and this is the number which
2 2
the formulae of Art. 110 give.
[The student may illustrate this article geometrically by drawing the

2nπ + A
angles 2 9 i.e. nÃ ± 1. The bounding line for these angles will
have four positions, two inclined to the positive direction of the initial
A A
line at angles 4 and -4 , and two inclined at and -4 to the negative
2 2 2 2
direction of the initial line. It will be clear from the figure that there
are two values for cos and two for sin .]
2
113. To express the trigonometrical ratios of the angle

A
2 in terms of sin A.
From equation (1 ) of Art. 109, we have
A A
2 sin COS = sin A (1).
44 2
A A
Also sin² + cos² 1, always ......... (2).
2 2=
8-2
116 TRIGONOMETRY .
First adding these equations, and then subtracting

(1 ) from (2), we have
A A A A
sin2 + 2 sin142COS + cos² = 1 + sin A,
2 2 2
A A A A
and sin³ 4 - 2 sin COS + cos² = 1- sin A ;
2 2 2
2
i.e. sin + cos = 1 + sin A,
2
A 2
and sin - COS == 1 − sin A ;
2
12 42
A A
so that sin + cos = ± √1 + sin A ….... . (3),
2
A A
and sin -- COS = √1 - sin A ............ (4).
By adding, and then subtracting, we have

A
2 sin = ± √1 + sin A ± √1 -
− sin A.………….. (5),
A
and 2 cos =土
二 ± √1 + sin A + √1 – sin A........(6).
A
The other ratios of are then easily obtained.
2
114. In each of the formulae ( 5 ) and (6) there are

two ambiguous signs. In the following examples it is
shewn how to determine the ambiguity in any particular
case.
1
Ex. 1. Given that sin 30° is
2' find the values of sin 15° and cos 15°.
Putting 4 = 30°, we have from relations (3) and (4),
√3
sin 15° + cos 15° = ± √√√1 + sin 30° = ± /2
1
sin 15° – cos 15° = ± √√1 -
− sin 30° :==
√2*
Now sin 15° and cos 15° are both positive, and cos 15° is greater than
sin 15°. Hence the expressions sin 15° + cos 15° and sin 15° - cos 15° are
respectively positive and negative.
Hence the above two relations should be
sin 15° + cos 15° = +
1
and sin 15° - cos 15°
√2 .
Hence sin 15° = √3-1 and cos 15° = √3 +1

2/2 2/2
Ex. 2. Given that sin 570° is equal to 2' find the values of sin 285°
and cos 285°.
Putting A equal to 570°, we have
sin 285° + cos 285° := ± √√√1 + sin 570°:==
√2'
and sin 285° - cos 285° ± √√1 -− sin 570° = ±
Now sin 285° is negative, cos 285° is positive, and the former is
numerically greater than the latter, as may be seen by a figure.
Hence sin 285° + cos 285° is negative, and sin 285° - cos 285° is also
negative.
1
.. sin 285° + cos 285° :
√2'
and sin 285° - cos 285° :

√2
Hence sin 285°:-- √3 + 1

2/2
and √3-1
cos 285°-
2/2
118 TRIGONOMETRY .
A
** 115 . To explain why there is ambiguity when sin 2
A
and cos are found from the value ofsin A.
We know that, if n
ŉ be any integer,
sin {nπ + ( − 1 )" A } = sin A = k (say) . (Art. 82.)
A
Hence any formula which gives us sin 2 in terms of k,
Nπ + (− 1 )n A
should give us also the sine of 2
First, let n be even and equal to 2m . Then

nπ + (− 1 )" A A
sin = sin mπ +
2 2
A A A
= sin mπ cos + cos mπ sin = cos mπ sin
2 2 2
A
= sin.
2
according as m is even or odd.
Secondly, let n be odd and equal to 2p + 1 .
Then
nπ +(- 1 )" A 2рπ + π- A = π -A
sin = sin sin рπ +
2 2 2
π - A π - A A
= sin рп COS + cos рπ sin = cos рπ COS
2 2
A
= + cos 2'
according as p is even or odd.
Hence any formula which gives us sin 442in terms of
sin A should be expected to give us, in addition , the

values of
A A
COS and - COS 2
- sin 4 ,
2
i.e. 4 values in all. This is the number of values which

we get from the formulae of Art. 113 , by giving all possible
values to the ambiguities.
A
In a similar manner it may be shewn that when cos 2
is found from sin A , we should expect 4 values.

nπ + ( −- 1 )" A
[If the angles 2 , i.e. n + ( - 1)" , be drawn geometri .
A
cally for the case when 2 is an acute angle, it will be found that there
are four positions of the bounding line, two in the first quadrant inclined
A π A
at angles and - to the initial line, and two in the third quadrant
2 2 2
A π A
inclined at and - to the negative direction of the initial line. It
2 2 2
will be clear from the figure that we should then expect four values for
A A
sin and four for cos 4. Similarly for any other value of .]
4.
116. In any general case we can shew how the

ambiguities in relations ( 3) and ( 4) of Art. 113 may be
found.
We have
A A 1 A 1 A
sin + cos √
/2 sin COS
2 2 2 + √2 2
A π
= =
2 cos
-1/2 [ sin 4 + cos 2 2
sin 4 - √2 sin ( +4)
The right-hand member of this equation is positive if

π A
+ lie between 2nπ and 2nπ + TT,
4 2
12
A П 3π
i.e. if lie between 2nπ and 2nπ +
4 4
120 TRIGONOMETRY.
A
Hence sin + cos lie between
2 is positive if 4
π 3π
2nπ - and 2nπ +
4 4
it is negative otherwise .
Similarly we can prove that
A A A
sin COS = √2 sin
2 2 2
A A
Therefore sin COS is positive if
2 2
lie between 2n and 2nπ + ,

2 4
A π 5П
i.e. if lie between 2nπ + and 2nπ + ·
4 4
It is negative otherwise.
The results of this article are shewn graphically in the
following figure.
B
42 42
42 42
sin + cos 44is +
sin - COS A is+
A
sin + cos is +
1242
sin + cos
2 42
42
A' sin sin -COS is A

COS is +
O
12 42
42 42
sin47 Cos is
+
S
sin COS is
B'
OA is the initial line, and OP, OQ, OR and OS bisect

RATIOS OF IN TERMS OF TAN A. 121
2
the angles in the first, second, third and fourth quadrants

respectively.
Numerical Example. Within what limits must 2 lie if
2 sin == √1+ sin A -− √1 − sin A ?

2
In this case the formulae of Art. 113 must clearly be
A A
sin + cos4177== √1+sin A ..(1),
sin 2
A-
and sin COS = - √1 - sin A . (2).
2
For the addition of these two formulae gives the given formula.
From (1) it follows that the revolving line which bounds the angle 4
must be between OQ and OR or else between OR and OS.
From (2), it follows that the revolving line must lie between OR and
OS or else between OS and OP.
Both these conditions are satisfied only when the revolving line lies
A
between OR and OS, and therefore the angle lies between
2
3π π
2nT - and 2nπ
4 4
2.0
in
117. To express the trigonometrical ratios of 4
terms of tan A.
From equation (3) of Art. 109, we have
A
2 tan
2
tan A =
A
1- tan²
2
A 2 A
.. 1 - tan² - tan
2 tan A 2
2 A 1
Hence tan2 + tan + - 1+
2 tan A 2 tan² A tan² A
1 + tan² A
=
tan2 A
122 TRIGONOMETRY .
A 1 √1 + tan² A
.. tan + = ±
2 tan A tan A
A -1
+ √1 + tan² A –
.. tan = .(1 ).
2 tan A
118. The ambiguous sign in equation (1 ) can only

be determined when we know something of the magnitude
of A.
Ex. Given tan 15° 2 - √3 , find tan 71°.

Putting 4 = 15° we have, from equation (1) of the last article,
- 2
tan 71°= ± √√1 + (2 − √√3)² – 1 ± √8-4√3-1 ..(1).
2- /3 2 - √3
Now tan 71° is positive, so that we must take the upper sign.
Hence tan 710= + (√6-2) -1

2 - √3
=(√6 - √2-1) (2 + √3) = √√6 −√3 + √2-2 (√3 - √2) (√2 − 1).
15°
Since tan 150° -tan 195°, the equation which gives us tan 2 in terms
195°
of tan 15° may be expected to give us tan in terms of tan 195°. In
2
fact the value obtained from (1) by taking the negative sign before the
195°
radical is tan
2
195°
Hence tan = -√8-4√3-1 = - (√√6 −√√2) − 1
2 2 - √√√3 2 - √3
= (- √6 +√2-1) (2 + √3) = − ( √3 + √2) (√2 + 1) ,
so that - cot 70-tan 973° = − (√3 + √2 ) (√2 + 1 ).
A
** 119. To explain why there is ambiguity when tan 2
is found from the value of tan A.

We know, by Art. 84, that, if n be any integer,
tan (n + A ) = tan A = k (say).
RATIOS OF 12 IN TERMS OF SIN A. 123
A
Hence any equation which gives us tan 2 in terms of k
nπ + A
may be expected to give us tan also.
2
First, let n be even and equal to 2m .

Then
nn + A 2mπ + A
tan =
= tan = tan mπ +
2 2 ( 1-472
A
= tan as in Art. 84.
2
Secondly, let n be odd and equal to 2p +1.

nπ + A (2p + 1 ) π + A
Then tan = tan
2 2
T +A π +A
= = tan
tan (pπ + 2 2 (Art. 84)
A
- cot 4. (Art . 70.)
2
A
Hence the formula which gives us the value of tan 2
A
-
should be expected to give us also the value of cot 2
An illustration of this is seen in the example of the

last article.
EXAMPLES. XVIII.
1. If sin @ = and sin =3' find the values of sin (0+ ) and
sin (20 +2p).

2. The tangent of an angle is 2.4. Find its cosecant, the cosecant of
half the angle, and the cosecant of the supplement of double the angle.
124 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XVIII. ]
11 4 α -- β
3. If cos a = and sin - find the values of sin² and
61 2
cos² + ,the angles a and ß being positive acute angles.
3 4 α- B
4. If cos a = 5 and cos B= 5 2 find the value of cos 2 " the angles
ẞ being positive acute angles.
a and β
0
5. Given sec 0 = 11, find tan 2 and tan 0.
6. If cos A = 28, find the value of tan

2 and explain the resulting
ambiguity.
7. Find the values of (1) sin 71°, (2) cos 71°, (3 ) tan 221°, and
(4) tan 11 °.
θ -Φ
8. If sin 0+ sin pa and cos + cos & = b , find the value of tan 2
Prove that
a+
9. (cos a +cos B) ² + (sin a·- sin 8)2 = 4 cos2
α β
10. (cos a + cos B)² + (sin a + sin ẞ)² = 4 cos2 . 2 •
a- β
11. (cos a - cos B)2 + (sin a − sin 6)² = 4 sin²
A
2 tan 1- tan2
2
12. sin A = 13. cos A:=
1 + tan2 1 +tan²
0 sec
14. Bec ( + ) cc ( - ) = 2 sec 29.
1+ sin A
X15. tan (45°
( 45° +
+ = sec A + tan A.
1- sin A
П П A 1
sin2 A.
16. sin² ( + ) - in² (8 -4) = √ sind.
3
17. cos²a + cos² (a + 120°) + cos² (a -− 120° ) = 2 ·
π 3п 5п 7π 3
18. cos¹ + cos4 + cos4. + cos¹ = ·
8 8 2
[Exs. XVIII.] EXAMPLES. 125
π 3π 5π 7π - 3
19. sin¹ + sin¹ + sin¹ + sin
8 8 8 8 2'
20. cos 20 cos 24+ sin² (0 − p) – sin² ( 0 + 4) = cos (20 + 24) .
21. (tan 44+ tan 24) (1 - − tan² 3Atan² A ) = 2 tan 34 sec² 4.
a a a α
1 +tan +sec == sin a sec²
22. (1 +tan - sec) ( 2 2'
Find the proper signs to be applied to the radicals in the three follow-
ing formulae .
A
23. 2 cos 2 = ± √√√1 - sin A ± √1 + sin A , when 278°.
A = 19π
24. 2 sin
2 = ± √√1 − sin A ± √1 + sin A , when 2 11
A
25. 2 cos 2 = ± √√1 − sin ▲ ± √1 + sin A , when = 140°.
26. If A = 340°, prove that

A -
2 sin √1+sin A + √1 − sin A ,
2 =
and 2 cos = √1 +sin A - √√1 – sin 4.

2
A
2 cos = - 1 + sin A + √√1 -− sin A.

A
2 sin -=
√1 +sin A - √√1- sin A.
29. Within what respective limits must 2 lie when
(1) 2 sin = √1 +sin A + √1 -– sin 4 ,

A
(2) 2 sin 2. = - √1 + sin ▲ + √1 – sin A,
A
(3) 2 sin 4 = + √1 + sin A - √√1 − sin ▲ ,
A
and (4) 2 cos = √1 + sind -
– √1 -
– sin d .
30. In the formula
A
2 cos
2 = ± √√1 + sin A ± √1 − sin A ,
A
find within what limits must lie when
2
(1) the two positive signs are taken,
(2) the two negative 99 99
and (3) the first sign is negative and the second positive.
31. Prove that the sine is algebraically less than the cosine for any
3п π
angle between 2nπ - and 2nπ + where n is any integer.
4
4
A
32. If sin 3 be determined from the equation
A
sin 4 =3 sin - 4 sin³ 4,
3 2
prove that we should expect to obtain also the values of
π- A T+A
sin and - sin •
3
Give also a geometrical illustration .
A
33. If cos be found from the equation
3
A A
cos A4 cos³ - 3 COS
3
prove that we should expect to obtain also the values of
2π- A 2π + A
COS and cos
3 3
Give also a geometrical illustration.
120. By the use of the formulae of the present

chapter we can now find the trigonometrical ratios of
some important angles.
To find the trigonometrical functions of an angle of 18°.
Let stand for 18°, so that 20 is 36° and 30 is 54°.
Hence 20 = 90° - 30,
and therefore
sin 20 = sin (90° - 30) = cos 30.
-
.. 2 sin cos 0 = 4 cos³ 0 − 3 cos 0 (Arts. 105 and 107) .
ANGLES OF 18° AND 36°. 127
Hence, either cos 0 = 0 , which gives 0 = 90 °, or

2 sin = 4 cos² 0 - 3 = 1 - 4 sin² 0.
.. 4 sin² 0 + 2 sin 0 = 1.
By solving this quadratic equation, we have

± √5-1
sin =
4
In our case sin is necessarily a positive quantity.
Hence we take the upper sign, and have
sin 18° = √5-1
Hence
6-2 /5 = 10+ 2/5
cos 18° = √1 - sin² 18 ° := 1-
16 16
√10 + 2√5
=
4
The remaining trigonometrical ratios of 18° may be

now found.
Since 72° is the complement of 18°, the values of the
ratios for 72° may be obtained by the use of Art. 69.
121. To find the trigonometrical functions of an angle

of36°.
Since cos 2012 sin² 0, (Art. 105),
.. cos 36° = 1 - 2 sin² 18° = 1−22( 6—2√5 )

16
- 3 - √5
=1
4
√5 + 1
so that cos 36° =
4
Hence
6 + 2 /5 √10-2√/5
sin 36° = √1 - cos² 36° = 1
16 4
128 TRIGONOMETRY .
The remaining trigonometrical functions of 36° may

now be found.
Also, since 54° is the complement of 36° , the values of
the functions for 54° may be found by the help of Art. 69 .
122. The value of sin 18° and cos 36° may also be
found geometrically as follows.
Let ABC be a triangle constructed ,
as in Euc. IV. 10, so that each of the
angles B and C is double of the angle
A. Then L
180° = A + B + C = A + 2A + 2A ,
so that A = 36°,
Hence, if AD be drawn perpendicu- B

lar to BC, we have
▲ BAD = 18°.
By Euclid's construction we know that BC is equal to

AX where X is a point on AB, such that
AB . BX == AX2
Let AB = a, and AX = x.
This relation then gives
a (a − x) = x²,
i.e. x² + αx = a²,
√5-1
i.e. x= α
2
BD 1 BC
Hence sin 18° = sin BAD = =
BA 2 BA
1 x
= = √5-1
2a
ANGLES OF 9 ° AND 81°. 129
Again, (by Euc. IV. 10), we know that AX and XC are

equal ; hence, if XL be perpendicular to AC, then L
bisects AC.
Hence
AL α 1
cos 36° = =
AX 2 √5-1
= √5 +1 = √5 + 1
(√5 −1 ) (√5 + 1 ) 4
123. To find the trigonometrical functions for an angle

of 9°.
Since sin 9° and cos 9° are both positive, the relation
(3) of Art. 113 gives
sin 9° + cos 9° = √1 + sin 18° =

- 1+ √5-1_√3 = + √5
4 2
.. ( 1 ).
Also, since cos 9° is greater than sin 9° (Art. 53), the
quantity sin 9° - cos 9° is negative. Hence the relation
(4) of Art. 113 gives
√5-1
= = √1 - sin 18° =-
sin 9° - cos 9° = 1.
4
√5 - √5
=
2 . ( 2).
By adding (1 ) and (2), we have
/5 -
√3 + √√ −√5 −√√
/5
sin 9°-=
4
and, by subtracting ( 2) from (1 ), we have
cos 9° = √3 + √5 + √5 −√√
/5
4
The remaining functions for 9° may now be found.

L. T. 9
130 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XIX . ]
Also, since 81° is the complement of 9°, the values of

the functions for 81 ° may be obtained by the use of
Art. 69.
EXAMPLES . XIX.
Prove that
1. sin² 72° – sin² 60° :=√√5 −1
2. cos² 48° - sin² 12° _√5 + 1

8
3. cos 12° + cos 60° +cos 84° = cos 24° + cos 48°.
T 2π 3п 4π 5
4. sin sin sin sin = ·
5 5 5 16
π 13π 1 π 13π
5. sin + sin 6. sin sin
10 10 10
7. tan 6° tan 42° tan 66° tan 78° = 1.

П 2π 3п 4π 5п 6п 7π - 1
8. cos COS COS COS
15 COS 15 COS 15 15 15 15
COS
15 27
2π Απ 8π 14π
9. 16 cos 15 COS 15 COS 15 COS 15 = 1.
10. Two parallel chords of a circle, which are on the same side of the
centre, subtend angles of 72° and 144° respectively at the centre. Prove
that the perpendicular distance between the chords is half the radius of
the circle.
11. In any circle prove that the chord which subtends 108° at the
centre is equal to the sum of the two chords which subtend angles of 36°
and 60°.
12. Construct the angle whose cosine is equal to its tangent.

13. Solve the equation
sin 50 cos 30 = sin 90 cos 70.
CHAPTER IX.`
IDENTITIES AND TRIGONOMETRICAL EQUATIONS.
124. THE formulae of Arts. 88 and 90 can be used to

obtain the trigonometrical ratios of the sum of more than
two angles.
For example
sin ( A + B + C) = sin ( A + B) cos C + cos ( A + B) sin C
= [ sin A cos B + cos A sin B] cos C
+ [cos A cos B- sin A sin B] × sin C

=
= sin A cos B cos C + cos A sin B cos C
+ cos A cos B sin C - sin A sin B sin C.

So
cos (A + B + C) cos (A + B) cos C - sin (A + B) sin C
= (cos A cos B- sin A sin B) cos C

-
— (sin A cos B + cos A sin B) sin C
= cos A cos B cos C - cos A sin B sin C - sin A cos B sin C
- sin A sin B cos C.

9-2
132 TRIGONOMETRY .
tan (A + B) + tan C
Also tan (A + B + C) =
1 - tan (A + B) tan C
tan A + tan B
+ tan C
1 tan A tan B
=
tan Atan B
1- tan C
1- tan Atan B
tan A + tan B + tan C - tan A tan B tan C
=
1- tan B tan C - tan C tan A - tan A tan B
125. The last formula of the previous article is a

particular case of a very general theorem which gives the
tangent of the sum of any number of angles in terms of
the tangents of the angles themselves. The theorem is
tan (A₁ + A2 + Ag + ... + A₂)
= S1 - S3 + 85 - S7 + ... .. (1 ),
1 - S₂ + 84-86 + ...
where
S1 = tan A, + tan A₂2 + ... + tan An

= the sum of the tangents of the separate angles,
S2 = tan A₁tan A₂ + tan A₁1 tan A¸ + …..

= the sum of the tangents taken two at a time,
$3 = tan A, tan A, tan A, + tan A, tan A, tan A,4 + ...

= the sum of the tangents taken three at a time, and so
on.
Assume the relation ( 1 ) to hold for n angles, and add
on another angle An+1
Then tan (A₁ + A₂ + ... + An +1)
= tan [(A , + A 2, + ... + An) + An+1]
= tan (A₁ + A2 + ... + An) + tan An+1

1 - tan (A, + A2 + ... + An ) . tan An +1
TANGENT OF THE SUM OF ANGLES. 133
81838587- + ...
+ tan An+1
1-83 + 84 ...
S1 - S3 + S5
1.- tan Anti
1 - 82 +84 ...
Let tan A₁ , tan A,, ... tan An+1 be respectively called

tr , $ , $n + 1
Then tan (A,1 + A + ... + An + 1 )
-
= (81-83 + 85...) + tn +1 ( 1 − 82 +84 ...)
-(81-83 + 85 ...) tn +1
(1-82 +84 ...)
= (81 + tn+1) − (S3 + 82 tn+1) + ( 85 + S₁ tn+1) …..

1- (8₂ + 8₁tn+1 ) + (84 + 83 tn +1) - (S6 + 85 tn+ 1) ...
But 8 + tn+1 = (t₂ + to + ... tn ) + tn+1

the sum of the (n + 1) tangents,
82 + 8₁tn+1 = (t₂tą + t₂ts + ... ) + ( t₂ + t₂ + ... + tn) tn +1

= the sum, two at a time, of the (n + 1 ) tangents.
83 + 8₂ tn +1 = (t₂tątз + tętзts + ... ) + ( t₂tą + t₂tz + ... ) tn+1

= the sum three at a time of the (n + 1) tangents
and so on.
Hence we see that the same rule holds for (n + 1)
angles as for n angles.
Hence, if the theorem be true for n angles, it is true
for (n + 1 ) angles.
But, by Arts. 98 and 124, it is true for 2 and 3 angles.
Hence the theorem is true for 4 angles ; hence for
5 angles .... Hence it is true universally.
Cor. If the angles be all equal, and there be n of

them, and each equal to 0, then
s₁ = n . tan 0 ; 8₂ = " C₂2 tan³0 ; 8 = "C's tan³0,......
134 TRIGONOMETRY .
EX. Write down the value of tan 40.
Here tan 40 = 81-83 = 4tan 0-4C3 tan³ 0

1-82 + 84¯¯¯ 1-4C₂ tan² +4C tan¹ 0
4 tan 0-4 tan³
1-6 tan²0 +tan¹ 0 *
5 tan 0-10 tan³ 0 +tan5
Ex. Prove that tan 50 =
1-10 tan20 + 5 tan¹ 0
126. By a method similar to that of the last article

it may be shewn that sin (A, + A₂2 + ... + An)
= cos A, cos A, ... cos An (81 - 83 +85 — ...) ,

and that cos (A₁ + A 2 + ... + An)
= cos A, cos A2 ... cos An ( 1 -· 82 +84 -
— ...) ,
where S1 , S2, S3, ... have the same values as in that article.
127. Identities holding between the trigono-

metrical ratios of the angles of a triangle.
When three angles A , B, and C, are such that their

sum is 180°, many identical relations are found to hold
between their trigonometrical ratios.
The method of proof is best seen from the following
examples.
Ex. 1. If A + B + C = 180°, to prove that

sin 24 + sin 2B + sin 2C = 4 sin A sin B sin C.
sin 24+ sin 2B + sin 2C
=2 sin (A + B) cos (A -
– B) + 2 sin C cos C.
Since A +B +C = 180°,
we have A+B =180° – C,
and therefore sin (A + B) = sin C,
and cos (A + B) - cos C. (Art. 72)
IDENTITIES. 135
Hence the expression

= 2 sin C cos (4 -
– B) +2 sin C cos C
= 2 sin C[cos (A - B) + cos C]
=2 sin C [cos (4 -− B) −- cos (A + B)]
=2 sin C. 2 sin A sin B
=4 sin A sin B sin C.
Ex. 2. If A +B + C = 180°,
A B
prove that cos A +cos B - cos C - 1 + 4 cos COS sin
2
The expression =cos A + (cos B - cos C)
A C-B
= 2 cos2 -M-1 +2 sin B + C sin
2 2 2
Now B +C 180° - A,
B+ C A
so that == 90° -
2
B +C A
and therefore sin = cos "
2 2
B +C
and COS sin •
Hence the expression
A C- B
= 2 cos² - 1 + 2 cos sin -B
2 2
A C-B
A
= 2 cos + in 2
[cos -1
B+C
= 2 cos [ ain "++sin
2 2 3-1
с B
= 2 cos31.22 sin COS 2 - 1
2
B
= -1 + 4 cos COS sin ·
2
Ex. 3. If A +B + C 180°,
prove that sin2 A + sin² B + sin² C = 2 + 2 cos A cos B cos C.
Let S=sin2 A + sin² B + sin² C,
so that 2S 2 sin² A +1 - cos 2B + 1 - cos 2C
=2 sin² A + 2-2 cos (B + C) cos (B - C)
= 2-2 cos²A +2 - 2 cos (B + C) cos (B - C).
.. S=2 +cos A [ cos (B - C) + cos (B + C) ],
136 TRIGONOMETRY .
since cos A = cos { 180° − ( B + C) } =

= - cos (B + C).
.. S = 2 + cos A.2 cos B cos C.
= 2 +2 cos A cos B cos C.
Ex. 4. If A +B + C = 180°,
prove that tan A +tan B +tan C = tan A tan B tan C.
By the third formula of Art. 124, we have
tan A +tan B + tan C - tan A tan B tan C
tan (A + B + C) = 1 – (tan B tan C + tan C tan A +tan A tan B) *
But tan (A + B + C) = tan 180° = 0.
Hence 0 =tan A +tan B +tan C - tan A tan B tan C,
i.e. tan A +tan B +tan C = tan A tan B tan C.
This may also be proved independently. For
tan (A + B) = tan (180° C) - tan C.
tan A + tan B
.. = - tan C.
1 - tan A tan B
..tan A +tan B = -tan C +tan A tan B tan C,
i.e. tan A +tan B +tan C -tan A tan B tan C.
Ex. 5. If x + y + z = xyz, prove that

2x 2y 2z 2x 2y 2z
+ + -
1 - x2 1 - y21-22-1 - x²'1 - y²'1 – z² '
Put x=tan A, y = tan B, and z = tan C, so that we have
tan A +tan B +tan C = tan A tan B tan C.
tan A +tan B
= -- tan C,
1 - tan A tan B
so that tan (A +B) =tan (π – C ). [Art. 72. ]
Hence A +B + C NT + T,
2x 2y 22 - 2 tan A 2 tan B 2 tan C
+ +
1 - x2 + 1 - y2 1-221 - tan² A 1- tan² B 1 - tan2 C
= tan 24 + tan 2B + tan 2C = tan 24 tan 2B tan 2C,
(by a proof similar to that of the last example)
2.x 2z
• 2y
¯¯ 1 − x² · 1 –- y² · 1 − z² *
IDENTITIES. 137
EXAMPLES. XX.
If A +B + C = 180° , prove that

1. sin 24+sin 2B - sin 2C - 4 cos A cos B sin C.
2. cos 24+ cos 2B + cos 2C - 1-4 cosa cos B cos C.
3. cos 24+ cos 2B - cos 2C - 1-4 sin A sin B cos C.
A B
4. sin A +sin B + sin C = 4 cos 2 COS 2 COS 2
A B C
5. sin A + sin B - sin C = 4 sin sin COS
A B
6. cos A + cos B + cos C = 1 + 4 sin 2 sin sin
7. sin² A + sin² B - sin² C = 2 sin A sin B cos C.

8. cos² A +cos2 B + cos² C = 1-2 cos A cos B cos C.
9. cos² A + cos2 B - cos² C = 1-2 sin A sin B cos C.
A B A B C
10. sin² +sin² + sin² C= 1-2 sin 2 sin sin
2
42
4 B
11. sin² sin² = 1-- 2 cos
+ sin¹ 2 -- sin² COS
312
312
A B Bt C
12. tan tan + tan an2 + tanttan - 1.
312
༢ས
Α B C A B C
13. cot +cot 2 + cot 2 =cot cot cot
14. cot B cot C + cot C cot A + cot A cot B = 1 .

15. sin (B + 2C) + sin ( C + 24) + sin (A +2B)
B- C C-A A- B
=4 sin sin sin
2 2 2
B C π- π B
16. sin + sin + sin -1-4 sin sin sin "-C
2 2
A B T+ B π- C
cos COS
17. cos +008-008 cos COS + COS
=40084008 08
2
sin 24 + sin 2B + sin 2C

18. -8 sin sin sin
sin A +sin B + sin C 2
138 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XX.]
19. sin (B + C− A ) + sin (C + A − B) + sin (A + B – C)

=4 sin A sin B sin C.
If A +B + C = 2S prove that
20. sin (S - A ) sin ( S -

− B) + sin S sin (S – C) = sin A sin B.
21. 4 sin S sin (S - A) sin (S - B) sin (S - C)
= 1 - cos² A - cos2 B - cos² C + 2 cos A cos B cos C.
22. sin (SA) + sin (S -

– B) + sin (S – C) – sin S
A B
=4 sin sin sin
23. cos² S + cos2 (S - 4) + cos2 (S - B) + cos² (S – C)

= 2 +2 cos A cos B cos C.
24. cos² A + cos2 B + cos2 C +2 cos A cos B cos C
= 1 +4 cos S cos ( S-- A) cos (SB) cos (S -
– C).
25. If a + B + y + 8 = 2π, prove that
a +ß a +y α+ δ
(1) cos a + cos 8 + cos y + cos 8+ 4 cos- 2 COS 2 COS 2 = 0,
a +ß a+y a +8
(2) sin a - sin ẞ +siny -- sin d +4 cos sin COS =0,
2
and (3) tan a + tan ẞ +tan y +tan d
=tan atan ẞtan y tan 8 (cot a + cot ẞ + cot y + cot d).
26. If the sum of four angles be 180°, prove that the sum of the
products of their cosines taken two and two together is equal to the
sum of the products of their sines taken similarly.
27. Prove that sin 2a + sin 28 + sin 2y
=2 (sin a +sin ẞ + sin y) (1 + cos a + cos ẞ + cos y),
if a +B + y = 0.
28. Verify that
sin³ a sin (b − c) + sin³ b sin (c -− a) + sin³ c sin (a - b)
+sin (a + b + c) sin (b − c) sin (c -
− a) sin (a — b) = 0.
If A, B, C, and D be any angles prove that
29. sin A sin B sin (A – B) + sin B sin C sin (B - C)
+ sin C sin A sin ( C -
− A) + sin (A -− B) sin (B − C) sin ( C – 4 ) = 0.
[Exs. XX. ] TRIGONOMETRICAL EQUATIONS. 139
30. sin (AB) cos (A + B) + sin (B - C) cos (B + C)

+ sin (C - D) cos (C + D) + sin (D − A ) cos (D + 4) = 0.
31. sin (A + B - 2C) cos B -– sin (A + C − 2B) cos C
= sin (B - C) { cos (B + C - A) + cos (C + A − B) + cos (A + B − C)} .
32. sin (A + B + C + D) + sin (A + B − C −- D) + sin (A + B −- C + D)
+ sin (A + B + C - D) = 4 sin (A + B) cos C cos D.
33. If any theorem be true for values of A, B, and C such that
A +B +C = 180°,
prove that the theorem is still true if we substitute for A, B, and C
respectively the quantities
A B с
(1) 90° - 4,
2' 90° - 2'
and 90°
2
or (2) 180° - 24 , 180° - 2B, and 180° – 2C.
Hence deduce Ex. 16 from Ex. 6, and Ex. 17 from Ex. 5.
If x +y + z = xyz prove that
34. 3x - x³ 3y - y³ , 3z - z³ = 3x - x³ 3y - y³ 3z - z3
1-3x2 + 1-3y2 + 1-3z2 1-3x² 1-3y² ' 1-3z2
and 35. (1 - y²) (1 − z²) + y (1 -− z²) (1 − x²) + z ( 1 -
− x²) (1 − y²) = 4xyz.
128. The Addition and Subtraction Theorems may be

used to solve some kinds of trigonometrical equations.
Ex
. Solve the equation
sin x + sin 5x = sin 3x.
By the formulae of Art. 94, the equation is
2 sin 3x cos 2x = sin 3x.
.. sin 3x = 0, or 2 cos 2x = 1 .
If sin 3x = 0 , then 3x = Nπ.
1 π
If cos 2x = > then 2x = 2nπ ± ·
2 3
Nπ π
Hence X= or nπ + •
3 6
140 TRIGONOMETRY.
129. To solve an equation of the form

a cos 0 + b sin 0 = c.
Divide both sides of the equation by Va² + b², so that

it may be written
α b с
cos e + sin ==
√a² + b² √a² +b² √a² + b²
Find from the table of tangents the angle whose

b
tangent is and call it a.
a
b
Then tan a = - , so that
a
b a
sin α = and cos α =
√a²+ b² √a² + b²
The equation can then be written

с
cos a cos + sin a sin = ,
√a²+b²
с
i.e. cos (0 − a) = √a² + b² '
Next find from the tables, or otherwise, the angle ß
whose cosine is
√a²+b²
so that cos B =
√a² +b²'
[N.B. This can only be done when c is < √a² + b².]

The equation is then cos ( -a) = cos B.
The solution of this is - α = 2nπ ± ẞ, SO that
0 = 2nπ + а ± ß,

GRAPHIC SOLUTION. 141
Angles, such as a and B, which are introduced into

trigonometrical work to facilitate computation are called
Subsidiary Angles.
130. The above solution may be illustrated graphically

as follows ;
Measure OM along the initial
line equal to a, and MP perpen-
dicular to it, and equal to b. The
M N A
angle MOP is then the angle whose
b
tangent is " i.e. a.
α
With centre O and radius OP,
i.e. Va + b², describe a circle, and measure ON along
the initial line equal to c.
Draw QNQ ' perpendicular to ON to meet the circle in
Q and Q ' ; the angles NOQ and Q'ON are therefore each
equal to B.
The angle QOP is therefore a - ẞ and QOP is a + B.
Hence the solutions of the equation are respectively
2n + QOP and 2nπ + Q'OP.
The construction clearly fails if c be >Va² + b², for then

the point N would fall outside the circle.
131. As a numerical example let us solve the equation

5 cos 0-2 sin 0 = 2,
2
=
given that tan 21° 48′: 5
Dividing both sides of the equation by
√52+22, i.e. √29, √29 2
we have 21°48'
5 2 2 5
√25
29 cose - 2
29 sine = 29
142 TRIGONOMETRY .
Hence cos e cos 21° 48′ -

– sin 0 sin 21° 48'
= sin 21° 48′ = sin (90° – 68° 12')
=cos 68° 12'.
..cos (0 +21° 48′) = cos 68° 12'.
Hence 0 +21 ° 48′ = 2n x 180° ± 68° 12′. (Art. 83)
.. 0 =2n x 180° - 21° 48' ± 68° 12′
= 2n × 180° - 90°, or 2n × 180° +46° 24′,
Aliter. The equation of Art. 129 may be solved in another way.

0
For let t tan
2'
2 tan
2t
so that sin 0= =
0 ´1 + t² '
1+ tan²
2
1- tan²
2 1- t2
and cos 0 = = (Art. 109.)
Ꮎ +12 .
1 +tan2
2
The equation then becomes
1- t2 2t
a + b 1 +t2 =c,
1 + 12
so that t2 (c + a) - 2bt + c - a = 0.
This is a quadratic equation giving two values for t and hence two
0
values for tan
2*
Thus, the example of this article gives
7t² +4t - 3 = 0 ,
so that t = -1 or
= tan ( -45°) or tan 23° 12′ ( from the tables).
0
Hence = N . 180° – 45° , or n . 180° + 23° 12',
2
i.e. 0 =n. 360° -90°, or n . 360° + 46° 24'.
[Exs. XXI. ] TRIGONOMETRICAL EQUATIONS . 143
EXAMPLES . XXI.
Solve the equations

1. sin +sin 70 =sin 40. 2. cos 0+ cos 70 = cos 40.
3. cos 0+cos 30 = 2 cos 20. 4. sin 40 sin 20 = cos 30.
5. cos sin 30 = cos 20. 6. sin 70 = sin 0 + sin 30.
7. cos 0+ cos 20+ cos 30 = 0. 8. sin +sin 30+ sin 500.
9. sin 20 - cos 20 - sin 0+ cos 0 = 0.
10. sin (30 + a) + sin (30 -
− a) + sin (a − 0) -— sin (a + 0) = cos a.
11. cos (30 + a) cos (30 − a) + cos (50 + a) cos (50 - a) = cos 2a.
12. cos no = cos (n −- 2) 0+ sin 0. n+ 1 n--1

13. sin 0 = sin 50+sin 0.
2
14. sin me +sin n0 = 0. 15. cos me + cos no = 0.
16. sin² no - sin² (n ---− 1) = sin² 0. 17. sin 30+cos 20 = 0.
18. 3 cos + sin 0 = √2. 19. sin cos 0 = √2.
20. √3 sin - cos 0 = √2. 21. sin x + cos x = /2 cos A.
22. 5 sin 6 +2 cos 0 = 5 (given tan 21° 48′ = 4) .
23. 6 cosx + 8sinx = (given tan 53° 8'13 and cos 25° 50' =⚫9).
24. 1 +sin20 = 3 sin 0 cos 0 (given tan 71° 34' = 3).
25. cosec 0 = cot 0 + √3. 26. cosec x = 1 + cotx.
27. (2 + 3) cos 0 = 1 − sin 0. 28. tan 0+sec 0 = √3.
29. cos 20 cos² 0. 30. 4 cos 0-3 sec 0 = tan .
31. cos 20 + 3 cos 0 =0. 32. cos 30 +2 cos 0 = 0.
33. cos 20 = ( √2 +-11)) (( co

cos 0- 1/2). 34. cot - tan 0 = 2.
35. 4 cot 20 = cot2 0- tan² 0. 36. 3 tan (0-15°) = tan (0 + 15°).

37. tan +tan 20 +tan 30 = 0.
38. tan 0 + tan 20 + /3 tạn 0 tan20 = /3.
39. sin 3a =4 sin a sin (x + a) sin (x -− a).
40. Prove that the equation x³ - 2x + 1 = 0 is satisfied by putting for x
either of the values
2 sin 45º, 2 sin 18°, and 2 sin 234°.
144 TRIGONOMETRY.
41. If sin (π cos 0) = cos (π sin 0), prove that

π 4n +1
COS
(0+ ) = ¹n 2/2
42. If sin (π cot 0) = cos (π tan 0), prove that either cosec 20 or cot 20
is equal to n + 1.
132. Ex. To trace the changes in the sign and
magnitude ofthe expression sin 0 + cos 0 as 0 increases from
0 to 360°.
1 1
We have sin + cos 0 = √2 sin 0 + cos
[√2 √/2
= √2 [sin 0
Ꮎ cos 45 ° + cos 0 sin 45 ° ] = √√2 sin ( 0 + 45 °).
As increases from 0 to 45 ° , sin ( 0 + 45 ° ) increases
from sin 45° to sin 90° , and hence the expression increases
from 1 to 2.
As increases from 45° to 135°, + 45° increases from
90° to 180°, and hence the expression is positive and
decreases from 2 to 0.
As increases from 135° to 225° , the expression
changes from √2 sin 180° to √2 sin 270°, i.e. it is negative
and decreases from 0 to√2.
As increases from 225° to 315°, the expression
changes from 2 sin 270° to √2 sin 360° , i.e. it is negative
and increases from - 2 to 0.
As increases from 315° to 360° , the expression
changes from 2 sin 360° to 2 sin 405°, i.e. it is positive
and increases from 0 to 1.
133. Ex. To trace the changes in the sign and

magnitude of a cos 0 + b sin 0, and to find the greatest
value of the expression.
We have
a b
a cos + b sin 0 = √√a² + b² cos + sin
√a² + b² √a²+ b²
MAXIMUM VALUE. 145
Let a be the smallest positive angle such that

α b
COS α = , and sin α =
√a² + b² √a² + b²
The expression therefore
Ꮎ cos a + sin ✪ sin a ] = √a² + b² cos ( 0 -

= √ a² + b² [cos ✪ − a).
As changes from a to 360° + a, the angle -a
changes from 0 to 360°, and hence the changes in the
sign and magnitude of the expression are easily obtained.
Since the greatest value of the quantity cos (0 - a) is
unity, i.e. when equals a, the greatest value of the
expression is Va² + b².
Also the value of 0 which gives this greatest value is
α
such that its cosine is
√a² + b²·
EXAMPLES . XXII.
As increases from 0 to 360°, trace the changes in the sign and

magnitude of
1. sin cos 0,
2. sin 0 + √3 cos 0,
N. B. sin +N√3 cos 0 = 2 sin 0 + cos e = 2 sin (9 + 60°) . ]
3. sin 0-3 cos 0. 4. cos20 - sin² 0.

5. sin cos 0. sin 0+sin 20
6.
cos 0+cos 20 '
7. sin (π sin 0). 8. cos (π sin 0).
sin (π cos 0)
9.
cos (πsin 0)
10. Trace the changes in the sign and magnitude of sin 30 as the
cos 20
angle increases from 0 to 90°.
L.. T. 10
CHAPTER X.
LOGARITHMS .
134. SUPPOSING that we know that

102.4031205 = 253, 102-6095944 = 407 ,
and 105-0127149102971 ,
we can shew that 253 × 407 = 102971 without performing

the operation of multiplication. For
253 x 407 = 102.4031205 × 102-6095944
= 102.4031205 +2.6095944
= 105.0127149 = 102971 .
Here it will be noticed that the process of multiplica-

tion has been replaced by the simpler process of addition.
Again, supposing that we know that
104.900405579507,
and that 101-6334685 = 43 ,
we can easily shew that the cube root of 79507 is 43.
For $ 79507 = [ 79507 ] * = ( 104-9004055)₫

=
= 103×4.9004055 = 101.6334685 = 43.
Here it will be noticed that the difficult process of

extracting the cube root has been replaced by the simpler
process of division.
LOGARITHMS. 147
135. Logarithm. Def. Ifa be any number, and x

and N two other numbers such that a* = N, then x is called
the logarithm of N to the base a and is written loga N.
The logarithm of a number to a given base is therefore
the index of the power to which the base must be raised
that it may be equal to the given number.
Exs. Since 102 = 100, therefore 2 = log10 100.
Since 105 = 100000, therefore 5 = log10 100000.
Since 24-16, therefore 4 = log₂ 16.
2
Since 83 = [ 8}]² = 2² = 4, therefore 3 == logg 4.
1 1
Since 9- - = therefore
93 33 27'
- 3 = logg
2 27
"
N.B. Since aº = 1 always, the logarithm of unity to any base is always
zero.
136. In Algebra, if m and n be any real quantities

whatever, the following laws, known as the laws of indices,
are found to be true :
(i) am xan = am+n,
(ii) am ÷ an = am-n,
and (iii) (am)n = amn¸
Corresponding to these we have three fundamental
laws of logarithms, viz.
(i) loga (mn) = log₂ m + log, n,
(ii) loga = logam - loga n,
and (iii) loga m² = n log₂ m.

The proofs of these laws are given in the following
articles.
137. The logarithm of the product of two quantities is

C 10-2
inn
148 TRIGONOMETRY .
equal to the sum of the logarithms of the quantities to the

same base, i.e.
loga (mn) = log, m + log₂ n.
Let x = logam , so that a* = m,
and y = logan, so that a = n.
Then mn = ax × a¥ = ax+y¸
.. loga mn = x + y (Art. 135 , Def. )
= loga m + loga n.
138. The logarithm of the quotient of two quantities is
equal to the difference oftheir logarithms, i.e.
loga -
( ) = log. m – log. n.
Let x = logam, so that a* = m , ( Art. 135 , Def. )
and y = logan, so that a³ = n.
m
Then =· Ɑ² ÷ a³ = ax―y.
n
'm`
.. loga n = x-y (Art. 135, Def. )
= logam — loga n.
139. The logarithm of a quantity raised to any power
is equal to the logarithm of the quantity multiplied by the
index of the power, i.e.
log, (m") = n log, m.
Let x = logam, so that a* = m . Then
mn = (ax)n = anx¸
.. loga (m²) = nx (Art. 135 , Def. )
= n loga m.
Exs. log 48 = log (24 × 3) = log 24+log 3 = 4 log 2+ log 3 ;
63 7 x 32 =
log 484 =log
22 x 112 = log 7 + log 32 – log 22 - log 112
= log 7 + 2 log 3 - 2 log 2 - 2 log 11 ;
log√13 = log 13 = log 13 .
LOGARITHMS. 149
140. Common system of logarithms. In the

system of logarithms which we practically use the base is
always 10, so that, if no base be expressed, the base 10
is always understood. The advantage of using 10 as the
base is seen in the three following articles.
141. Characteristic and Mantissa. Def. If the

logarithm of any number be partly integral and partly
fractional, the integral portion of the logarithm is called its
characteristic and the decimal portion is called its mantissa.
Thus, supposing that log 795 = 2.9003671 , the number
2 is the characteristic and 9003671 is the mantissa.
Negative characteristics. Suppose we know that
log 2 = ' 30103 .

Then, by Art. 138,
log = log 1 - log 20 - log 2 = -30103 ,

so that logis negative.
Now it is found convenient, as will be seen in Art. 143,
that the mantissæ of all logarithms should be kept positive .
We therefore instead of - 30103 write - [ 1 ·69897 ] , so
that
log = ( 1-69897 ) = −1 + · 69897.
For shortness this latter expression is written I'69897 .

The horizontal line over the 1 denotes that the integral
part is negative ; the decimal part however is positive.
As another example, 3-4771213 stands for
−3 + 4771213.
142. The characteristic ofthe logarithm of any number

can always be determined by inspection.
150 TRIGONOMETRY.
(i) Let the number be greater than unity.

Since 10° = 1, therefore log 1 = 0;
since 10¹ = 10,therefore log 10 = 1 ;
since =
10² 100, therefore log 100 = 2,
and so on.
Hence the logarithm of any number lying between 1

and 10 must lie between 0 and 1 , that is, it will be a
decimal fraction and therefore have 0 as its characteristic .
So the logarithm of any number between 10 and 100
must lie between 1 and 2, i.e. it will have a characteristic
equal to 1.
Similarly, the logarithm of any number between 100
and 1000 must lie between 2 and 3, i.e. it will have a
characteristic equal to 2.
So, if the number lie between 1000 and 10000, the
characteristic will be 3.
Generally, the characteristic of the logarithm of any
number will be one less than the number of digits in its
integral part.
EXS. The number 296· 3457 has 3 figures in its integral part, and
therefore the characteristic of its logarithm is 2.
The characteristic of the logarithm of 29634-57 will be 5-1 , i.e. 4.
(ii) Let the number be less than unity.
Since 10° = 1 , therefore log 1 =0;
1
since 10-1 = = 1, therefore log 1 = -1 ;
10
1
since 10-2 = = 01 , therefore log 01 = -2 ;
102
1
since 10-s = = 001 , therefore log 001 = -3 ;
10$
and so on.
CHARACTERISTIC OF ANY LOGARITHM . 151
The logarithm of any number between 1 and 1 there-

fore lies between 0 and -1 , and so is equal to -- 1 + some
decimal, i.e. its characteristic is I.
So the logarithm of any number between 1 and 01
lies between 1 and - 2, and hence it is equal to -2+
some decimal, i.e. its characteristic is 2.
Similarly, the logarithm of any number between '01
and 001 lies between - 2 and - 3, i.e. its characteristic is 3.
Generally, the characteristic of the logarithm of any
decimal fraction will be negative and numerically will be
greater by unity than the number of cyphers following the
decimal point.
For any fraction between 1 and 1 (e.g. 5) has no
cypher following the decimal point and we have seen that
its characteristic is 1.
Any fraction between 1 and 01 ( e.g. '07) has one
cypher following the decimal point and we have seen
that its characteristic is 2.
Any fraction between 01 and 001 ( e.g. 003 ) has two
cyphers following the decimal point and we have seen that
its characteristic is 3.
Similarly for any fraction.
Exs. The characteristic of the logarithm of the number ·00835 is 3.

The characteristic of the logarithm of the number ' 0000053 is 6.
The characteristic of the logarithm of the number ⚫34567 is I.
143. The mantissa of the logarithm of all numbers,

consisting of the same digits, are the same.
This will be made clear by an example.
Suppose we are given that
log 66818 = 4.8248935.
152 TRIGONOMETRY.
Then
66818
log 668·18 = log 100 = log 66818-log 100 (Art. 138)
== 4.8248935 -
– 2 = 2·8248935 ;
66818
log ' 66818 = log 100000 = log 66818 - log 100000
(Art. 138)
== 4·8248935 – 5 = 1·8248935.
66818
So log 00066818 = log 108 = log 66818 - log 108
=
= 4 ·8248935 – 8 = 4·8248935.
Now the numbers 66818, 668-18 , 66818 , and ' 00066818
consist of the same significant figures, and only differ in
the position of the decimal point. We observe that their
logarithms have the same decimal portion , i.e. the same
mantissa, and they only differ in the characteristic.
The value of this characteristic is in each case deter-
mined by the rule of the previous article.
It will be noted that the mantissa of a logarithm is
always positive.
144. Tables of logarithms. The logarithms of all

numbers from 1 to 108000 are given in Chambers' Tables
of Logarithms. Their values are there given correct to
seven places of decimals.
The student should have access to a copy of the above
table of logarithms or to some other suitable table. It
will be required for many examples in the course of the
next few chapters.
On the opposite page is a specimen page selected from
Chambers' Tables. It gives the mantissæ of the logarithms
of all whole numbers from 52500 to 53000.
No. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Diff.
5250 720 1593 1676 1758 1841 1924 2007 2089 2172 2255 2337
51 2420 2503 2586 2668 2751 2834 2916 2999 3082 3164
52 3247 3330 3413 3495 3578 3661 3743 3826 3909 3991
53 4074 4157 4239 4322 4405 4487 4570 4653 4735 4818
54 4901 4983 5066 5149 5231 5314 5397 5479 5562 5645
55 5727 5810 5892 5975 6058 6140 6223 6306 6388 6471
56 6554 6636 6719 6801 6884 6967 7049 7132 7215 7297
57 7380 7462 7545 7628 7710 7793 7875 7958 8041 8123
58 8206 8288 8371 8454 8536 8619 8701 8784 8867 8949
59 9032 9114 9197 9279 9362 9445 9527 9610 9692 9775
60 9857 9940 0023 0105 0188 0270 0353 0435 0518 0600
5261 721 0683 0766 0848 0931 1013 1096 1178 1261 1343 1426
62 1508 1591 1674 1756 1839 1921 2004 2086 2169 2251
63 2334 2416 2499 2581 2664 2746 2829 2911 2994 3076
64 3159 3241 3324 3406 3489 3571 3654 3736 3819 3901
65 3984 4066 4149 4231 4314 4396 4479 4561 4644 4726
66 4809 4891 4973 5056 5138 5221 5303 5386 5468 5551
67 5633 5716 5798 5881 5963 6045 6128 6210 6293 6375
68 6458 6540 6623 6705 6787 6870 6952 7035 7117 7200
69 7282 7364 7447 7529 7612 7694 7777 7859 7941 8024
CIILE
70 8106 8189 8271 8353 8436 8518 8601 8683 8765 8848
ANIN
82
5271 8930 9013 9095 9177 9260 9342 9424 9507 9589 9672 1 8
72 9754 9836 9919 0001 0084 0166 0248 0331 0413 0495 2 16
73 722 0578 0660 0742 0825 0907 0990 1072 1154 1237 1319 3 25
74 1401 1484 1566 1648 1731 1813 1895 1978 2060 2142 4 33
75 2225 2307 2389 2472 2554 2636 2719 2801 2883 2966 5 41
76 3048 3130 3212 3295 3377 3459 3542 3624 3706 3789 76 49
57
77 3871 3953 4036 4118 4200 4282 4365 4447 4529 4612 8 66
78 4694 4776 4858 4941 5023 5105 5188 5270 5352 5434 9 74
79 5517 5599 5681 5763 5846 5928 6010 6092 6175 6257
80 6339 6421 6504 6586 6668 6750 6833 6915 6997 7079
5281 7162 7244 7326 7408 7491 7573 7655 7737 7820 7902
**** 55882 §¤¤ ** * 5 ** 8
82 7984 8066 8148 8231 8313 8395 8477 8559 8642 8724
83 8806 8888 8971 9053 9135 9217 9299 9382 9464 9546
84 9628 9710 9792 9875 9957 0039 0121 0203 0286 0368
85 723 0450 0532 0614 0696 0779 0861 0943 1025 1107 1189
86 1272 1354 1436 1518 1600 1682 1765 1847 1929 2011
87 2093 2175 2257 2340 2422 2504 2586 2668 2750 2832
2914 2997 3079 3161 3243 3325 3407 3489 3571 3654
89 3736 3818 3900 3982 4064 4146 4228 4310 4393 4475
90 4557 4639 4721 4803 4885 4967 5049 5131 5213 5296
5291 5378 5460 5542 5624 5706 5788 5870 5952 6034 6116
92 6198 6280 6362 6445 6527 6609 6691 6773 6855 6937
93 7019 7101 7183 7265 7347 7429 7511 7593 7675 7757
94 7839 7921 8003 8085 8167 8250 8332 8414 8496 8578
95 8660 8742 8824 8906 8988 9070 9152 9234 9316 9398
96 9480 9562 9644 9726 9808 9890 9972 0054 0136 0218
97 724 0300 0382 0464 0546 0628 0710 0792 0874 0956 1038
98 1120 1202 1283 1365 1447 1529 1611 1693 1775 1857
99 1939 2021 2103 2185 2267 2349 2431 2513 2595 2677
5300 2759 2841 2923 3005 3086 3168 3250 3332 3414 3496
154 TRIGONOMETRY.
145. To obtain the logarithm of any such number, such

as 52687, we proceed as follows. Run the eye down the
extreme left-hand column until it arrives at the number
5268. Then look horizontally until the eye sees the figures
7035 which are vertically beneath the number 7 at the top
of the page. The number corresponding to 52687 is there-
fore 7217035. But this last number consists only of the
digits of the mantissa, so that the mantissa required is
7217035. But the characteristic for 52687 is 4 .
Hence log 526874.7217035 .
So log 52687 = 1.7217035 ,
and log ' 00052687 = 4 ·7217035.
If, again, the logarithm of 52725 be required, the
student will find (on running his eye vertically down the ex-
treme left-hand column as far as 5272 and then horizontally
along the row until he comes to the column under the
digit 5) the number 0166. The bar which is placed over
these digits denotes that to them must be prefixed not
721 but 722. Hence the mantissa corresponding to the
number 52725 is 7220166.
Also the characteristic of the logarithm of the number
52725 is 4.
Hence log 52725 = 47220166 .
So log '052725 = 2.7220166 .
We shall now work a few numerical examples to shew
the efficiency of the application of logarithms for purposes
of calculation.
146. Ex. 1. Find the value of $23.4.

Let x = 5/23 ·4 = (23 · 4) * ,
so that log = log (23·4), by Art. 139.
EXAMPLES OF LOGARITHMS. 155
In the table of logarithms we find, opposite the number 234, the

logarithm 3692159.
Hence log 23.4 1.3692159.
1
Therefore log x = [1.3692159] = · 2738432.
Again, in the table of logarithms we find , corresponding to the logarithm

2738432, the number 187864, so that
log 1.87864.2738432.
.. x = 1.87864.
Ex. 2. Find the value of

(6·45)³ × / 00034
(9.37)2× 8.93
Let x be the required value so that, by Arts. 138 and 139,
log x = log (6·45)³ +log ( '00034) — log (9-37) ³ — log 8.93

1 1
= 3 log (6·45) + log ( · 00034) -
– 2 log (9 ∙37) 4 log 8.93.
Now in the table of logarithms we find

opposite the number 645 the logarithm 8095597,
"" 99 99 34 19 "" 5314789,
99 99 937 "" 99 9717396,
and 99 99 99 893 99 9508515.
Hence
logx = 3 × 8095597+ (4.5314789)

1
- 2 x 9717396 - 4 x 9508515.
But 1 1 [6 +2.5314789]
(4-5314789)
= 2 + 8438263.
.. logx =2.4286791 + [ 2 + 8438263] -1.9434792 - ⚫2377129
= 3.2725054 - 4.1811921
=1 +4.2725054 −4.1811921
= 1.0913133 .
156 TRIGONOMETRY.
In the table of logarithms we find, opposite the number 12340, the

logarithm 0913152, so that
log 12340 = 1·0913152.
Hence log x=
x = log 12340 nearly,
and therefore x = 12340 nearly.
When the logarithm of any number does not quite agree with any
logarithm in the tables, but lies between two consecutive logarithms, it
will be shewn in the next chapter how the number may be accurately
found.
Ex. 3. Having given log 2 = 30103, find the number of digits in 267
and the position of the first significant figure in 2–37.
We have log 267 = 67 x log 2 = 67 x 30103
= 20.16901.
Since the characteristic of the logarithm of 267 is 20, it follows, by Art.

142, that in 267 there are 21 digits.
Again, log 2-37-37 log 237 x 30103
= -- 11.13811-12.86189.
Hence, by Art. 142, in 2−37 there are 11 cyphers following the decimal
point, i.e. the first significant figure is in the twelfth place of decimals.
Ex. 4. Given log 3 = 4771213, log 7 = 8450980, and log 11 = 1 ·0413927,

solve the equation
3x x 72x+1 = 11x+³.
Taking logarithms of both sides we have
log 3* + log 72x+1 = log 11x+5.
..xlog 3+ (2x + 1) log 7 = (x + 5) log 11.
... x [log 3 + 2 log 7 - log 11 ] = 5 log 11 - log 7.
.. x = 5 log 11 - log 7
log 3 + 2 log 7 - log 11
5.2069635.8450980
=
4771213 + 1 ·6901960 - 1 ·0413927
4.3618655
= 3.87 ....
1.1259246
LOGARITHMS TO DIFFERENT BASES. 157
147. To prove that

log, m = logь m x log, b.
Let loga m = x, so that a* = m.
Also let log, my, so that by = m.
... ax = by.
Hence loga (a*) = loga (by).
.. x = y loga b. (Art. 139.)
Hence loga m = log, m × loga b.
By the theorem of the foregoing article we can from
the logarithm of any number to a base b find its logarithm
to any other base a. It is found convenient, as will appear
in a subsequent chapter, not to calculate the logarithms to
base 10 directly, but to calculate them first to another
base and then to transform them by this theorem .
EXAMPLES. XXIII.
1. Given log 4 = 60206 and log 3 = 4771213, find the logarithms of

·8, · 003, ·0108, and (·00018)✈.
2. Given log 11 = 1 ·0413927 and log 13 = 1∙1139434, find the values of
(1) log 1.43, (2) log 133·1, (3) log 143, and (4) log 00169.
3. What are the characteristics of the logarithms of 243.7, 0153,
2-8713, 00057 , 023 , 24615 , and (24589)*?
4. Find the 5th root of ⚫003, having given log 3 = 4771213 and
log 312936 5'4954243.
5. Find the value of (1 ) 74, (2) ( 84)% , and (3) (·021)³ , having given
log 2 = 30103, log 3 = 4771213 ,
log 7 = 8450980, log 132057 = 5 ·1207283,
log 588453 = 5.7697117, and log 461791 = 5.6644438.
158 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XXIII. ]
6. Having given log 3 = 4771213,

find the number of digits in
(1) 343, (2) 327, and (3) 362,
and the position of the first significant figure in
(4) 3-13, (5) 3-43, and (6) 3-65¸
7. Given log 2 = 30103, log 3 = 4771213, and log 7 = 8450980, solve
the equations
(1) 2* .3x+4 = 7*,
(2) 22x+1 , 33x+2 = 74x,
(3) 72x2x-4—33x-7¸
7x+y X
× 32x+y = 9
and (4)
3x-4 ÷ 2x-2y = 3*[
}
8. From the tables find the seventh root of ' 000026751.
Making use of the tables, find the approximate values of
9. 645.3. 10. $/82357. 11. √5× 2/7

/8 /9°
3 7.2 x 8.3 8x11

12. V 9.4 ÷ 16.5 ' 13.
√74× 62
CHAPTER XI.
TABLES OF LOGARITHMS AND TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS.

PRINCIPLE OF PROPORTIONAL PARTS.
148. WE have pointed out that the logarithms of all

numbers from 1 to 108000 may be found in Chambers'
Mathematical Tables, so that, for example, the logarithms
of 74583 and 74584 may be obtained directly therefrom.
Suppose however we wanted the logarithm of a
number lying between these two, e.g. the number 74583.3 .
To obtain the logarithm of this number we use the
Principle of Proportional Parts which states that the
increase in the logarithm of a number is proportional to
the increase in the number itself.
Thus from the tables we find
log 74583 = 4.8726398 . .. (1),

and log 74584 = 4.8726457 ... (2) .
The quantity log 745833 will clearly lie between

log 74583 and log 74584.
Let then log 74583.3 = log 74583 + x
= 4.8726398 + x. . (3).
160 TRIGONOMETRY.
From (1 ) and (2), we see that for an increase 1 in the

number the increase in the logarithm is 0000059.
The Theory of Proportional Parts then states that for
an increase of 3 in the number the increase in the
logarithm is
3 × 0000059 , i.e. , 00000177 .
Hence log 74583.3 = 4.8726398 + 00000177
= 4.87264157.
149. As another example, we shall find the value of

log 0382757 and shall exhibit the working in a more
concise form .
From the tables we obtain
log 0382752.5829152
log 038276 = 2·5829265.
Hence the difference for
•000001 = •0000113.
Therefore the difference for
·0000007 = '7 × ⚫0000113
= '00000791 .
.. log 0382757 = 2· 5829152

+ 00000791
= 2.58292311 .
Since we only require logarithms to seven places of

decimals, we omit the last digit and the answer is
2 5829231 .
150. The converse question is often met with, viz.,

to find the number whose logarithm is given. If the
logarithm be one of those tabulated the required number
is easily found. The method to be followed when this is
not the case is shewn in the following examples.
PROPORTIONAL PARTS. 161
Find the number whose logarithm is 2.6283924.

On reference to the tables we find that the logarithm 6283924 is not
tabulated, but that the nearest logarithms are 6283889 and 6283991,
between which our logarithm lies.
We have then log 425.00 2.6283889 .. ..(1),
and log 425.01 = 2.6283991 . .(2).
Let log (425.00 + x) = 2· 6283924 . . (3).
From (1) and (2) , we see that corresponding to a difference 01 in the
number there is a difference 0000102 in the logarithm .
From (1) and (3) , we see that corresponding to a difference x in the
number there is a difference 0000035 in the logarithm .
Hence we have x : 01 0000035 : 0000102.
35 •35
.. x = × ⚫01 = = .00343 nearly.
102 102
Hence the required number = 425 ·00 + ·00343 = 425.00343.
151. Where logarithms are taken out of the tables

the labour of subtracting successive logarithms may be
avoided. On reference to page 153 there is found at the
extreme right a column headed Diff. The number 82 at
the head of the figures in this column gives the difference
corresponding to a difference unity in the numbers on
that page .
This number 82 means ' 0000082.
The rows below the 82 give the differences correspond-
ing to ' 1, 2 ,.... Thus the fifth of these rows means that
the difference for 5 is 0000041.
As an example, let us find the logarithm of 52746.74.
From page 153, we have
log 52746 =
= 4.7221895
diff. for .7 = ·0000057
diff. for *04
1
= x diff. for 4 = ·0000003
(
log 52746.74 = 47221955.

L. T. 11
162 TRIGONOMETRY.
We shall solve two more examples, taking all the logarithms from
the tables, and only putting down the necessary steps.
Ex. 1. Find the seventh root of 034574.

If a be the required quantity, we have
log x = log ( 034574) = † (2·5387496)
= (7 +5·5387496 ).
..log x = 1.7912499. 71) 150 (211
142
But log 61837 1.7912484
80
diff. = '0000015 . 71
But diff. for 00001- •0000071 , 90
..required increase 00000211, 71
.. x= 61837211 . 19
Ex. 2. If a = 34562· 73 and b = 28347-912, find the value of the square

root of a²- b².
If x be the required quantity, we have
2 log x = log (a² -– b²) = log (a -
− b) + log (a + b)
= log 6214.818+ log 62910-642.
Now log 6214.8 =3.7934272
1 7
8 56
log 62910-0 =4.7987197
6 41
28
2 14
Hence, by addition , 2 log x = 8· 5921525 54.
log x=4.2960763.
But log 19773 4.2960726
diff. = 37.
But diff. for 1 = 220,
.. proportional increase = × 1 = · 168,
.. x= 19773.168.
152. The proof of the Principle of Proportional Parts

will not be given at this stage. It is not strictly true
without certain limitations.
The numbers to which the principle is applied must

contain not less than five significant figures, and then we
may rely on the result as correct to seven places of
decimals.
For example, we must not apply the principle to
obtain the value of log 25 from the values of log 2 and
log 3.
For, if we did, since these logarithms are 30103 and
4771213 , the logarithm of 2.5 would be 389075.
But from the tables the value of log 2.5 is found to be
•3979400.
Hence the result which we should obtain would be
manifestly quite incorrect.
Tables of trigonometrical ratios .
153. In Chambers' Tables will be found tables giving

the values of the trigonometrical ratios of angles between
0° and 45°, the angles increasing by differences of l'.
It is unnecessary to separately tabulate the ratios for
angles between 45 ° and 90°, since the ratios of angles
between 45° and 90° can be reduced to those of angles
between 0° and 45 °. (Art. 75.)
For example,
[sin 76° 11′ = sin ( 90 ° — 13 ° 49 ′) = cos 13 ° 49′ ,

and is therefore known ].
Such a table is called a table of natural sines , cosines,
etc. to distinguish it from the table of logarithmic sines ,
cosines, etc.
If we want to find the sine of an angle which contains
an integral number of degrees and minutes, we can obtain
11-2
164 TRIGONOMETRY.
it from the tables. If, however, the angle contain seconds,

we must use the principle of proportional parts.
Ex. 1. Given sin 29° 14' = 4883674,

and sin 29° 15'4886212,
find the value of sin 29° 14′ 32".
By subtraction we have
difference in the sine for 1' = 0002538.
32
... difference in the sine for 32":= x0002538 · 00013536 ,
60
.. sin 29° 14' 32" = 4883674
+ '00013536
='48850276.
Since we want our answer only to seven places of decimals , we omit

the last 6, and, since 76 is nearer to 80 than 70, we write
sin 29° 14′ 32″ =· 4885028.
N.B. When we omit a figure in the eighth place of decimals we add

1 to the figure in the seventh place, if the omitted figure be 5 or a number
greater than 5.
Ex. 2. Given cos 16° 27''9590672,
and cos 16° 28'9589848,
find cos 16° 27′ 47″.
We note that, as was shewn in Art. 55, the cosine decreases as the
angle increases.
Hence for an increase of l', i.e. 60″, in the angle, there is a decrease
of 0000824 in the cosine.
Hence for an increase of 47″ in the angle, there is a decrease of
4760
x0000824 in the cosine.

47
..cos 16° 27′ 47″ =· 9590672 -> ' 0000824
60
= · 9590672 – ⚫0000645
='9590672
-.0000645
='9590027.
In practice this may be abbreviated thus ;

cos 16° 28'- •9589848
cos 16° 27' = •9590672 824
diff. for 1' - ' 0000824. 47
diff. for 47″ = - 47 × ·0000824 5768
==-.0000645. 3296
Ans . = •9590672 60) 3872,8
645
-.0000645
= ⚫9590027.
154. The inverse question, to find the angle, when

one of its trigonometrical ratios is given, will now be
easy.
EX. Find the angle whose cotangent is 1·4109325 , having given

cot 35° 19' 1.4114799, and cot 35° 20′ = 1.4106098.
Let the required angle be 35° 19′ + x" ,

so that cot (35° 19' + x") = 1.4109325.
From these three equations we have
For an increase of 60″ in the angle, a decrease of ·0008701 in the cotangent,
99 99 x" 99 99 9 99 ⚫0005474 22 99
.. x 60 :: 5474 : 8701 , so that x = 37.7.
Hence the required angle = 35° 19′ 37·7″ .
!
155. In working all questions involving the applica-
tion of the Principle of Proportional Parts, the student must
be very careful to note whether the trigonometrical ratios
increase or decrease as the angle increases. As a help to
his memory, he may observe that in the first quadrant the
three trigonometrical ratios whose names begin with co-,
i.e. the cosine, the cotangent, and the cosecant, all decrease
as the angle increases.
166 TRIGONOMETRY.
Tables of logarithmic sines, cosines, etc.
156. In many kinds of trigonometric calculation, as

in the solution of triangles, we often require the logarithms
of trigonometrical ratios. To avoid the inconvenience of
first finding the sine of any angle from the tables and
then obtaining the logarithm of this sine by a second
application of the tables, it has been found desirable to
have separate tables giving the logarithms of the various
trigonometrical functions of angles. As before, it is only
necessary to construct the tables for angles between 0°
and 45°.
Since the sine of an angle is always less than unity,
the logarithm of its sine is always negative (Art. 142) .
Again, since the tangent of an angle between 0° and
45° is less than unity its logarithm is negative , whilst the
logarithm of the tangent of an angle between 45 ° and
90° is the logarithm of a number greater than unity and
is therefore positive .
157. To avoid the trouble and inconvenience of print-

ing the proper sign to the logarithms of the trigonometric
functions, the logarithms as tabulated are not the true
logarithms, but the true logarithms increased by 10.
For example, sine 30 ° = .
Hence log sin 30° = log = -log 2
== ·30103 = 1 · 69897.
The logarithm tabulated is therefore
10+ log sin 30°, i.e. 9.69897 .

Again, tan 60° = √3.
TABLES OF LOGARITHMIC SINES, ETC. 167
Hence log tan 60° = log 3 = ( 4771213)

= '2385606.
The logarithm tabulated is therefore

102385606, i.e. 10.2385606.
The symbol L is used to denote these " tabular

logarithms," i.e. the logarithms as found in the English
books of tables.
Thus L sin 15° 25′ = 10+ log sin 15° 25′,

and L sec 48° 23' = 10+ log sec 48° 23′.
158. If we want to find the tabular logarithm of any

function of an angle, which contains an integral number
of degrees and minutes, we can obtain it directly from the
tables. If, however, the angle contain seconds we must
use the principle of proportional parts. The method of
procedure is similar to that of Art. 152. We give an
example and also one of the inverse question.
Ex. 1. Given L cosec 32° 21' = 10-2715733,
and L cosec 32° 22' = 10.2713740,
find L cosec 32° 21′ 51″.
For an increase of 60" in the angle, there is a decrease of 0001993 in
the logarithm .
Hence for an increase of 51" in the angle, the corresponding decrease
51
is x0001993, i.e. 0001694.
60
Hence L cosec 32° 21′ 51″ -10-2715733
⚫0001694
= 10.2714039.
Ex. 2. Find the angle such that the tabular logarithm of its tangent
is 9.4417250.
Let x be the required angle.
168 TRIGONOMETRY .
From the tables, we have

L tan x 9.4417250 L tan 15° 28′ = 9.4420062
L tan 15° 27' - 9.4415145 L tan 15° 27' = 9.4415145
diff. = 2105. diff. for 1' = 4917.
2105
60
Corresponding increase = × 60" 4917) 126300 (25.7
= 25.7". 9834
..x == 15° 27′ 25.7". 27960
24585
33750
Ex. 3. Given L sin 14° 6' 9.3867040,
find L cosec 14° 6'.
Here - L sin 14° 6' - 10
log sin 14° 6' =
= -1 + 3867040.
1
Now log cosec 14° 6' = log sin 14° 6'
= -log sin 14° 6'
= 1-3867040 = 6132960.
Hence L cosec 14° 6' = 10·6132960.
More generally, we have sin x cosec 0 = 1.
.. log sin +log cosec 0 = 0.
L sin +L cosec = 20.
The error to be avoided is this ; the student sometimes assumes that,
because
log cosec 14° 6' = - log sin 14° 6',
he may therefore assume that
L cosec 14° 6' - L sin 14° 6'.
This is obviously untrue.
EXAMPLES. XXIV.
1. Given log 35705 4.5527290

and log 35706 =4.5527412,
find the values of log 35705-7 and log 35.70585.
2. Given log 5.87437689487
and log 587.44 2.7689561,
find the values of log 58743-57 and log ⚫00587432.
[Exs. XXIV.] PROPORTIONAL PARTS. EXAMPLES. 169
3. Given log 47847 = 4.6798547

and log 47848 = 4.6798638,
find the numbers whose logarithms are respectively
2-6798593 and 3.6798617.
4. Given log 258.36 2.4122253
and log 2.5837 = 4122421 ,
find the numbers whose logarithms are
4122378 and 2-4122287.
5. From the table on page 153 find the logarithms of
(1 ) 52538.97, (2) 527-286, (3) 000529673,
and the numbers whose logarithms are
(4) 3.7221098, (5) 2-7240075, and (6) 7210386.
6. Given sin 43° 23'' = ' 6868761
and sin 43° 24′ = .6870875,
find the value of sin 43° 23′ 47″.
7. • Find also the angle whose sine is 6870349.
8. Given cos 32° 16'⚫8455726
and cos 32° 17′ = ⚫8454172,
find the values of cos 32° 16' 24" and of cos 32° 16′ 47″.
9. Find also the angles whose cosines are

8454832 and 8455176.
10. Given tan 76° 21' 4 · 1177784

and tan 76° 22' 4.1230079,
find the values of tan 76° 21′ 29″ and tan 76° 21' 47".
11. Given cosec 13° 8' 4.4010616
and cosec 13° 9'4.3955817,
find the values of cosec 13° 8' 19" and cosec 13° 8' 37".
12. Find also the angle whose cosecant is 4.396789.
13. Given L cos 34° 44' =9.9147729
and L cos 34° 45'9.9146852,
find the value of L cos 34° 44' 27".
143-1-10
2 10.301-10
2 -9 :30 1-10
-1 +, 301
170 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XXIV.]
14. Find also the angle 0, where

L cos 09.9147328.
15. Given L cot 71° 27' = 9.5257779
and L cot 71° 28'9.5253589,
find the value of L cot 71° 27' 47",
and solve the equation L cot 09.5254782.
16. Given L sec 18° 27' = 10.0229168
and L sec 18° 28' = 10.0229590,
find the value of L sec 18° 27' 35".
17. Find also the angle whose L sec is 10.0229285.
18. Find in degrees, minutes, and seconds the angle whose sine is ' 6,
given that
log 6 = 7781513, L sin 36° 52′ = 9.7781186,
and L sin 36° 53' - 9.7782870.
159. On the next page is printed a specimen page

taken from Chambers' tables. It gives the tabular log-
arithms of the ratios of angles between 32° and 33° and
also between 57° and 58°.
The first column gives the L sine for each minute
between 32° and 33°.
In the second column under the word Diff. is found
the number 2021. This means that 0002021 is the
difference between Lsin 32° 0' and L sin 32° 1' ; this may
be verified by subtracting 9.7242097 from 9.7244118. It
will also be noted that the figures 2021 are printed half-
way between the numbers 9.7242097 and 9.7244118,
thus clearly shewing between what numbers it is the
difference.
This same column of Differences also applies to the
column on its right-hand side which is headed Cosec.
Similarly the fifth column, which is also headed Diff. ,
may be used with the two columns on the right and left
of it.
LOGARITHMIC SINES, TANGENTS, AND SECANTS.
32 Deg.
Sine Diff. Cosec. Tang. Diff. Cotang. Secant Diff. Cosine
888588 48258 99499 # 999 88588

0 9.7242097 2021 10-2757903 9.7957892 2811 10-2042108 10-0715795 790 9.9284205 60
1 9.7244118 2020 10.2755882 9*7960703 2810 10-2039297 10:0716585 790 9.9283415 59
2 9-7246138 2018 10.2753862 9.7963513 2809 10-2036487 10.0717375 791 9.9282625
39-7248156 10-2751844 9.7966322 10 2033678 10:0718166 9.9281834 57
4 9.7250174 2018
2015 10:2749826 9.7969130 2808
2808 10-2030870 10:0718957 791
792 9.9281043 56
5 9-7252189 2015 10-2747811 9-7971938 2807 10-2028062 10'0719749 792 9-9280251 55
6 9.7254204 2013 10.2745796 9-7974745 2806 10:2025255 10:0720541 793 9.9279459
7 9.7256217 2012 10.2743783 9.7977551 2805 10*2022449 10:0721334 9.9278666 53
8 9.7258229 2011 10-2741771 9.7980356 2804 10-2019644 10: 0722127 793 9-9277873
9 9-7260240 2009 10.2739760 9.7983160 2804 10-2016840 10.0722921 794 9*9277079
794 9-9276285 51
10 9.7262249 2008 10-2737751 9.7985964 2803 10 2014036 10.0723715 795 50
11 9-7264257 2007 10.2735743 9.7988767 2802 10.2011233 10:0724510 795 9.9275490
12 9-7266264 2005 10.2733736 9.7991569 2801 10 2008431 10:0725305 796 9.9274695 48
13 9.7268269 2004 10-2731731 9.7994370 2800 10 2005630 10:0726101 9.9273899 47
14 9-7270273 2003 10-2729727 9.7997170 2800 10 2002830 10 :0726897 796 9.9273103 46
15 9.7272276 2002 10-2727724 9.7999970 2799 10 2000030 10 :0727694 797
797 9.9272306 45
16 9-7274278 2000 10-2725722 9.8002769 2798 10.1997231 10.0728491 798 9.9271509 44
17 9.7276278 1999 10 2723722 9.8005567 2798 10.1994433 10:0729289 798 9.9270711 43
18 9-7278277 1998 10-2721723 9.8008365 2796 10.1991635 10:0730087 799 9.9269913 42
19 9-7280275 1996 10.2719725 9.8011161 2796 10.1988839 10-0730886 800 9-9269114 41
20 9-7282271 1996 10-2717729 9.8013957 2795 10.1986043 10:0731686 800 9.9268314 40
21 9.7284267 1993 10-2715733 9.8016752 10.1983248 10:0732486 9.9267514 39
22 9.7286260 1993 10 2713740 9.8019546 2794
2794 10 1980454 10:0733286 800
801 9.9266714 38
23 9.7288253 1991 10 2711747 9.8022340 2793 10.1977660 10 :0734087 801 9.9265913 37
24 9-7290244 1990 10 2709756 9.8025133 2792 10.1974867 10:0734888 802 9.9265112 36
25 9.7292234 1989 10.2707766 9.8027925 2791 10.1972075 10:0735690 803 9.9264310 35
26 9-7294223 1988 10.2705777 9.8030716 2790 10-1969284 10:0736493 803 9.9263507 34
88-8 ***** * 228 229

27 9-7296211 1986 10.2703789 9.8033506 2790 10.1966494 10:0737296 803 9*9262704 33
28 9-7298197 1985 10 2701803 9.8036296 10-1963704 10:0738099 9-9261901 32
29 9-7300182 1983 10.2699818 9.8039085 2789
2788 10 1960915 10:0738904 805 9.9261096 31
30 9-7302165 1983 10.2697835 9.8041873 2788 10.1958127 10:0739708 804
805 9*9260292 30
31 9-7304148 10.2695852 9.8044661 10.1955339 10-0740513 9*9259487 29
32 9 7306129 1981
1980 10 2693871 9.8047447 2786
2786 10.1952553 10:0741319 806 9.9258681
806 9.9257075 28
33 9-7308109 1978 10.2691891 9.8050233 2786 10.1949767 10:0742125 806 27
34 9-7310087 1977 10.2689913 9.8053019 2784 10.1946981 10:0742931 808 9.9257069 26
35 9-7313064 1976 10.2687936 9.8055803 2784 10-1944197 10:0743739 807 9-9256261 25
36 9.7314040 1975 10.2685960 9.8058587 2783 10.1941413 10:0744546 808 9-9255454 24
37 9 7316015 1974 10.2683985 9.8061370 2782 10.1938630 10:0745354 809 9.9254646 23
38 9-7317989 1972 10.2682011 9.8064152 2781 10.1935848 10:0746166 809 9.9253837
39 9-7319961 1971 10.2680039 9.8066933 2781 10 1933067 10.0746972 810 9.9253028 21
40 9-7321932 1970 10.2678068 9.8069714 2780 10-1930286 10.0747782 810 9*9252218 20
41 9-7323902 1968 10.2676098 9.8072494 2779 10.1927506 10:0748592 811 9.9251408 19
42 9-7325970 1967 10.2674130 9.8075273 2779 10.1924727 10:0749403 811 9*9250597 18
43 9.7327837 1966 10 2672163 9.8078052 10 1921948 10.0750214 9*9249786 17
44 9-7329803 1965 10.2670197 9.8080829 2777
2777 10-1919171 10.0751026 812
813 9.9248974 16
45 9-7331768 1963 10.2668232 9.8083606 2777 10 1916394 10.0751839 812 9.9248161 15
46 9.7333731
FREE
1962 10.2666269 9.8086383 2775 10-1913617 10.0752651 814 9.9247349 14

47 9.7335693 1961 10.2664307 9.8089158 2775 10 1910842 10.0753465 814 9*9246535 13
48 9.7337654 1960 10.2662346 9.8091933 2774 10 1908067 10.0754279 814 9.9245721 12
49 9-7339614 1958 10.2660386 9.8094707 2773 10 1905293 10:0755093 815 9.9244907 11
50 9-7341572 1957 10.2658428 9.8097480 2773 10.1902520 10:0755908 815 9*9244092 10
51 9-7343529 1956 10.2656471 9.8100253 2772 10 1899747 10.0756723 816 9*9243277 9
52 9.7345485
STOD VRCHO
1955 10.2654515 9.8103025 2771 10 1896975 10.0757539 817 9-9242461

53 9-7347440 1953 10 2652560 9.8105796 2770 10.1894204 10:0758356 817 9.9241644
54 9-7349393 1952 10.2650607 9.8108566 2770 10.1891434 10.0759173 817 9-9240827
55 9-7351345 10.2648655 9.8111336 10.1888664 10.0759990 819 9*9240010 5
1951 2769
56 9-7353296 1950 10.2646704 9.8114105 10.1885895 10.0760809 818 9.9239191 4
57 9-7355246 10.2644754 9.8116873 2768 10.1883127 10.0761627 819 9-9238373 3
58 9.7357195 1949 10.2642805 9.8119641 2768 10.1880359 10.0762446 820 9.9237554
59 9.7359142 1947 10.2640858 9.8122408 2767 10-1877592 10.0763266 820 9*9236734
60 9-7361088 1946 10.2638912 9.8125174 2766 10.1874826 10.0764086 9.9235914 0
Cosine Diff. Secant Cotang. Diff. Tang. Cosec. Diff. Sine
57 Deg.
172 TRIGONOMETRY.
160. There is one point to be noticed in using the

columns headed Diff. It has been pointed out that 2021
(at the top of the second column) means 0002021. Now
the 790 (at the top of the eighth column) means not ' 000790,
but 0000790. The rule is this ; the right-hand figure of
the Diff. must be placed in the seventh place of decimals
and the requisite number of cyphers prefixed . Thus
Diff. = 9 means that the difference is '0000009 ,
Diff. = 74 "" "" · 0000074,
Diff. = 735 ‫دو‬ ‫دو‬ "" ⚫0000735,
Diff. = 2021 "" "" "" ·0002021 ,
whilst Diff. = 12348 "" ‫دو‬ "" ·0012348.
161. Page 171 also gives the tabular logs. of ratios.

between 57° and 58° . Suppose we wanted L tan 57° 20′.
We now start with the line at the bottom of the page and
run our eye up the column which has Tang. at its foot. We
go up this column until we arrive at the number which is
on the same level as the number 20 in the extreme
right-hand column. This number we find to be 10· 1930286,
which is therefore the value of
L tan 57° 20'.
EXAMPLES. XXV .
1. Find 0, given that cos 0= 9725382,

cos 13° 27' = 9725733, diff. for 1' = 677.
3
2. Find the angle whose sine is 8 9 given
sin 22° 1 ' 3748763, diff. for 1' = 2696.

[Exs. XXV.] PROPORTIONAL PARTS. EXAMPLES. 173
3. Given cosec 65° 24' = 1.0998243,

diff. for 1' = 1464,
find the value of cosec 65° 24′ 37″,
and the angle whose cosec is 1.0997938.
4. Given L tan 22° 37′ = 9.6197205,
diff. for 1' = 3557 ,
find the value of L tan 22° 37' 22",
and the angle whose L tan is 9.6195283.
5. Find the angle whose L cos is 9.993, given
L cos 10° 15'9.9930131 , diff. for 1' = 229.
6. Find the angle whose Lsec is 10-15, given
L sec 44° 55'10.1498843 , diff. for 1 ' = 1260.
7. From the table on page 171 find the values of

(1) Lsin 32° 18′ 23″, (2) L cos 32° 16′ 49″,
(3) L cot 32° 29′ 43″, (4) Lsec 32° 52′ 27″,
(5) L tan 57° 45′ 28″, (6) Lcosec 57° 48′ 21″,
and (7) L cos 57° 58′ 29″.
8. With the help of the same page solve the equations

(1) L tan 0 = 10.1959261 , (2) L cosec = 10.0738125 ,
(3) L cos 0 = 9.9259283 , and (4) L sin 0 = 9.9241352.
9. Take out of the tables L tan 16° 6′ 23″ and calculate the value of
the square root of the tangent.
10. Change into a form more convenient for logarithmic computation

(i.e. express in the form of products of quantities) the quantities
1
(1) 1 +tan xtany, (2) 1 - tan x tan y,
(3) cotx + tany , (4) cotx - tany,
1 cos 2.x tan x + tany
(5) 1+ cos 2x' and (6)
cot x + coty
CHAPTER XII.
RELATIONS BETWEEN THE SIDES AND THE TRIGONOMETRICAL

RATIOS OF THE ANGLES OF ANY TRIANGLE.
162. IN any triangle ABC, the side BC, opposite

to the angle A , is denoted by a ; the sides CA and AB,
opposite to the angles B and C respectively, are denoted
by b and c.
163. Theorem. In any triangle ABC,

sin A sin B sin C
a b C
i.e. the sines of the angles are proportional to the opposite

sides.
444
Draw AD perpendicular to the opposite side meeting

it, produced if necessary, in the point D.
SIDES AND ANGLES OF A TRIANGLE. 175
In the triangle ABD, we have

AD
=
AB sin B, so that AD = c sin B.
In the triangle ACD, we have

AD
= sin C, so that AD = b sin C.
AC
[If the angle C be obtuse, as in the second figure, we have

AD
= sin ACD = sin (180° - C) = sin C
b = (Art. 72),
so that AD = b sin C.]
Equating these two values of AD, we have
c sin Bb sin C,
sin B sin C
i.e.
b C
In a similar manner, by drawing a perpendicular from

B upon CA, we have
sin C sin A
c a
If one of the angles, C, be a right angle, as in the third

figure, we have sin C = 1,
b
sin A == , and sin B =
sin A sin B 1 sin C

Hence =
α b с с
We therefore have , in all cases,
sin A sin B sin C

= =
a b
176 TRIGONOMETRY.
164. In any triangle, to find the cosine of an angle in

terms ofthe sides.
A A
b b
B :C B ‫ہے‬ ‫یہ‬D B ‫ے‬a‫ہ‬
a D a
Let ABC be the triangle and let the perpendicular

from A on BC meet it, produced if necessary, in the
point D.
First, let the angle C be acute, as in the first figure.
By Euc. II. 13, we have
AB BC2 + CA2-2BC . CD............(i) .

CD
But = cos C, so that CD = b cos c.
CA
Hence (i) becomes

c2a2 + b² - 2a.b cos C,
i.e. 2ab cos Ca² + b² — c²,
a² + b² - c²
i.e. COS C:=
2ab
Secondly, let the angle C be obtuse, as in the second

figure.
By Euc. II. 12, we have
AB2 = BC2 +CA2 + 2BC . CD ... (ii).

CD
But — C) = - cos C,
CA = cos ACD = cos ( 180°
(Art. 72)
so that CD - b cos C.
Hence (ii) becomes

c² = a² + b² + 2a ( − b cos C) = a² + b² - 2ab cos C,
so that, as in the first case, we have
a² + b² - c²
COS C =
2ab
In a similar manner it may be shewn that
b² + c² - a2
cos A =
2bc
c²+ a²- b²
and cos B =
2ca
If one of the angles, C, be a right angle, the above

formula would give c² =a² + b², so that cos C = 0. This
is correct, since C is a right angle.
The above formula is therefore true for all values of 0.
Ex. If a = 15, b = 36, and c = 39,
362 +392-152 32 (12² + 132 - – 5²) = 288 12
then COS A=
2 x 36 x 39 2 x 32 x 12 x 13 24 × 13 13
165. To find the sines of half the angles in terms of
the sides.
In any triangle we have, by Art. 164,

b² + c² -
— a²
cos A =
2bc
By Art. 109, we have
A
cos A = 1 2 sin²
2*
A b² + c² - a²
Hence 2 sin² = 1 - cos A = 1 -
2 2bc
2bc - b² - c² + a² a² - (b² + c² - 2bc) - -
= = a² − (b − c)²
2bc 2bc 2bc
-
= [a + (b −c)] [ a − (b −c)] = (a + b - c) (a - b + c) ...(1).
2bc 2bc
L. T. 12
178 TRIGONOMETRY.
Let 2s stand for a + b + c, so that s is equal to half the

sum of the sides of the triangle, i.e. s is equal to the semi-
perimeter of the triangle.
We then have
a + b - c = a + b + c2c2s - 2c = 2 (sc),
and a − b + c = a + b + c2b2s - 2b = 2 (s — b).
The relation (1) therefore becomes
_ 2 (s — b) (s — c) ¸
2 sin' 4 = 2 (s — c) × 2 (s - b) =
2bc bc
A (s - b) (sc)
sin = ........ . (2).
bc
Similarly,
B (s — c) ( s ·- a) (s -
− a) (s — b)
sin
2
= , and sin
ca ab
166. To find the cosines of half the angles in terms of

the sides.

A
cos A = 2 cos2 - 1.
A b² + c² - a²
Hence 2 cos2 - 1 + cos A == 1 +
2 2bc
a² _ (b + c)² -
2bc + b² + c² - a² — a²
=
2bc 2bc
= [(b + c) + a] [ (b + c) − a ] =
_ (a + b + c ) (b + c − a)
...(1 ).
2bc 2bc
Now b + c - a = a + b + c − 2a = 28-2a = 2 (sa),

so that (1) becomes

A
2 cos2 = 28 x 2 (sa) = 2 s (8 - a)
2 2bc bc
COS = (s - a)
.. .( 2) .
bc
Similarly,
B (s - b) and cos с = s (s - c)
COS = "
2 ca 2 √s ab
167. To find the tangents of half the angles in terms

ofthe sides.
A
sin
42
A 2
Since tan
COS
2
we have, by (2) of Arts. 165 and 166,
A (s — b) (s — c) (sa) = (s - b) (s - c)
tan =
bc bc s (s - a)
Similarly,
B S - c) (s - a) C (s- a) (s — b)
tan = , and tan 2 =
2 s(s- b) s (s - c)
A
Since, in a triangle, A is always < 180 °, 2 is always
< 90°.
A
The sine, cosine, and tangent of 2 are therefore always
positive (Art. 52).

The positive sign must therefore always be prefixed to
the radical sign in the formulae of this and the last two
articles.
12-2
180 TRIGONOMETRY.
168. Ex. If a= 13, b = 14, and c = 15,

13 + 14 + 15
then 8= = 21, s− a = 8, s − b = 7,
2
and s - c= 6.
A 7x6 1 1
Hence sin = = = 5
2 √ 14 × 15 √5 V ,
312
B 6x8 4
sin = = =
15 x 13 √65 65√65,
812
C 21 x 6 3 3
COS = = = 3№13,
13 x 14 √13 1
B 6x8 4
and =
tan 2 - =
21x- 7
169. To express the sine of any angle of a triangle

in terms of the sides.
We have, by Art. 109,
A
sin A = 2 sin 4 COS 4
2
But, by the previous articles,

A
sin A s (s - a)
½= (s — b) (s — c) ¸ and cos =
bc N bc
Hence
-
sin A = 2 (s − b) (s — c) /s (s − a) .
bc bc
2
... sin A = -
bc √ s (s − a) (s – b) (s — c) .
EXAMPLES. XXVI.
In a triangle
1. Given a=25, b = 52, and c = 63,
find B C
tan " tan and tan
2 2
[Exs. XXVI.] SIDES AND ANGLES OF A TRIANGLE. 181
2. Given a== 125 , b = 123, and c == 62,

find the sines of half the angles and the sines of the angles.
3. Given a =18, b = 24, and c = 30,
find sin A , sin B, and sin C.
4. Given a =35, b = 84, and c = 91 ,
find tan A, tan B, and tan C.
5. Given a= 13, b = 14, and c = 15,
find the sines of the angles.
6. Given a=287, b = 816, and c = 865,
A
find the values of tan and tan A.
2
√6
7. Given a= √3, b = √2, and c =' +√2
find the angles.
170. In any triangle, to prove that,

α = b cos C + c cos B.
Take the figures of Art. 164.

In the first case, we have
BD
= cos B, so that BD = c cos B,
BA
CD
and = cos C, so that CD = b cos C.
CA
Hence a = BC = BD + DC = c cos B + b cos C.
In the second case, we have

BD
= cos B, so that BD = c cos B,
BA
CD
and = cos ACD = cos (180° — C)
CA
= -cos C (Art. 72),

so that CD - b cos C.
182 TRIGONOMETRY.
Hence, in this case,
a = BC = BD - CD = c cos B− (− b cos C) ,
so that in each case
a = b cos C + c cos B.
Similarly, b = ccos A + a cos C,
and c = a cos B + b cos A.
171. In any triangle, to prove that

B- C b - C A
tan = cot
2 b+c 2
In any triangle, we have

b sin B
с sin C'
B+ C . B - C
2 cos sin
b- c sin B - sin C 2 2
b +c sin B + sin C B +C B-C
2 sin COS
2 2
B- с B- C
tan tan
2 2
B+C A
tan tan 90° -
2 ( 2
B- C
tan
2
A (Art. 69).
cot
2
B -с b- c A
Hence tan = cot
172. Ex. From the formulae of Art. 164 deduce those of Art. 170
and vice versâ.
The first and third formulae of Art. 164 give
a² + b²- c² c²+ a2 - b²
b cos C+c cos B = +
2a 2a
2a2
= =α,
2a
so that a=b cos C + c cos B.
Similarly, the other formulae of Art. 170 may be obtained.
Again, the three formulae of Art. 170 give
a= b cos C + c cos B,
b= c cos A + a cos C,
and c= a cos B + b cos A.
Multiplying these in succession by a, b, and -c we have, by addition,
a² + b² - c² = a (b cos C + c cos B) + b (c cos A + a cos C) -
− c (a cos B + b cos 4)
= 2ab cos C.
a²+b²- c²
..cos C= ·
2ab
Similarly, the other formulae of Art. 162 may be found.
173. The student will often meet with identities, which he is required
to prove, which involve both the sides and the angles of a triangle.
It is, in general, desirable in the identity to substitute for the sides in
terms of the angles , or to substitute for the ratios of the angles in terms
of the sides.
B- C
Ex. 1. Prove that a cos
2 = (b + c) sin .
B+C B-C
2 sin COS
b + c sin B + sin C 2 2
a sin A A A
2 sin COS
2
A B- C B-C
COS COS COS
2 2 2
A A
sin COS sin
12
2
A B-C
.. (b + c) sin 2 a cos 2
184 TRIGONOMETRY.
Ex. 2. In any triangle prove that

(b²- c²) cot A + (c² - a²) cot B + (a² -
– b²) cot C = 0.
By Art. 163 we have
sin A sin B sin C
=
a с = k (say).
Hence the given expression
cos A cos B cos C
= (b² -
— c²)
ak + (c² - a²) bk ·+ (a² - b²) ck
b2+ c2 - a2 c² + a2 - b² a² +b² - c2-
(b2 - c2). 2abc ·+ (c² — a²) .
2abc + (a² - b²) 2abc
= 1 -
¯2abck [b¹ — c¹ — a² (b² — c² ) + c¹ — aª − b² (c² — a²) + aª − b¹ − c² (a² — b²)]
=0.
Ex. 3. In any triangle prove that

B
(a+b +c) (tan
( 2 = 2c cot .
14+tan 2)
The left-hand member
= 28 (sb) (sc) + (s − c) (s - a)
√ s (s - a)
[ by Art. 167,
s (s - b)
8 s-b 8 s - b +s - a
= 28
8 8-a + Ꭶ 2√s (8 - c)
√√ (s -
− a) (s -
— b).
28 (8 - c) .c since
2s = a + b + c,
√(s − a) (8 -− b)
= 2c cot
2
This identity may also be proved by substituting for the sides.

a+ b+c sin A + sin B + sin C
c sin C
312
A B A
4 cos COS COS 2 cos COS
2 2
as in Art. 127, =
C
2 sin COS sin
2 2
C C A B
2 cot 2 cos COS COS
2 2 2 2
Also
32
812
B A
tan + tan sin sin COS + cos sin
12
324
812
312
42
B C B
2 cos COS COS 2 cos COS-
= (Art. 69.)
A+B
။
sin sin sin
2
We have therefore
2 cot
a+b+ c
c
tan +tan 2
Α
so that (a +b + c) ( tan 1 + tan 9) = 2c cot •
2
Ex. 4. Ifthe sides of a triangle be in Arithmetical Progression, prove

that so also are the cotangents of half the angles.
We have given that a + c = 2b....…………. .. (1),

and we have to prove that
A C B
cot 4++ cot = 2 cot 2 .. (2).
Now (2) is true if
8 (8 - a) 8 (8- c) =2 8 (8 - b)
+
(8 - b) (8 - c) (8 - a) (8 - b) (8- c) (8 - a)'
or, by multiplying both sides by
-
√(5 − a) (§ − b) (8 − c)
if, (s− a) + (s — c ) = 2 (s − b),

i.e. if 28- (a + c) = 28-2b,
i.e. if a + c = 2b, which is relation (1 ).
Hence if relation (1) be true, so also is relation (2) .
186 TRIGONOMETRY.
EXAMPLES. XXVII.
In any triangle ABC, prove that

B - C b--C
1. sin = COS •
2 a
2. b2 sin 20+ c² sin 2B = 2bc sin A.
3. a (b cos C -c cos B) = b²- c².

4. (b + c) cos A + ( c + a) cos B + (a + b) cos C = a + b + c.
5. a (cos B + cos C) = 2 (b + c) sin² 4.
6. a (cos C - cos B) = 2 (b − c) cos2
sin (B - C) = b2- c²
7. sin (B + C) a²
a+b A+B A- B
8. = tan cot
a 2 2
9. a sin B) = (b +c) sin •

( +B)
a² sin (B - C) b² sin (C - A) c² sin (A - B)
10. + = 0.
sin B + sin C sin C+ sin A + sin A +sin B
B
11. (b + c - a) (cot 2 + cot ) = 2a cot .
12. a² + b² + c² = 2 (bc cos A + ca cos B + ab cos C).
13. (a² − b² + c²) tan B = (a² + b² – c²) tan C.
с
14. c² (a - b)2 cos² + (a + b)2 sin².2 ·
15. a sin (B − C) + b sin (C -− A) + c‍sin (A – B) = 0.

a sin (B - C) = b sin (C - A) = c sin (A - B)
16. b2 - c² c² - a² a²- b2
B-C B C- A A- B
17. a sin sin + b sin sin + c sin sin = 0.
2 2 2 2
[Exs. XXVII. ] SIDES AND ANGLES OF A TRIANGLE . 187
18. a² (cos²B - cos² C) + b² (cos² C − cos² A ) + c² (cos² A - cos² B) = 0 .

b2 -c² c2- a2 a² - b2
19. sin 24+ sin 2B + sin 2C = 0.
a2 b2 c2
A B C
cot + cot + cot
(a + b + c)2 2 2 2
20.
a² + b² +c²¯¯ cot A + cot B + cot C
− A ) + c³ cos (A −- B) = 3 abc.
21. a³ cos (B - C) + b³ cos ( C -
22. In a triangle whose sides are 3, 4, and 38 feet respectively,
prove that the largest angle is greater than 120°.
23. The sides of a right-angled triangle are 21 and 28 feet ; find the
length of the perpendicular drawn to the hypothenuse from the right
angle.
24. If in any triangle the angles be to one another as 1 : 2 : 3,

prove that the corresponding sides are as 1 : 3 : 2.
25. In any triangle, if
A 5 B 20
tan = and tan - =
2 6 2 37'
find tan and prove that in this triangle a + c = 2b.
62
26. In an isosceles right-angled triangle a straight line is drawn from

the middle point of one of the equal sides to the opposite angle. Shew
that it divides the angle into parts whose cotangents are 2 and 3.
27. The perpendicular AD to the base of a triangle ABC divides it
into segments such that BD, CD, and AD are in the ratio of 2, 3, and 6 ;
prove that the vertical angle of the triangle is 45°.
28. A ring, ten inches in diameter, is suspended from a point one
foot above its centre by 6 equal strings attached to its circumference at
equal intervals. Find the cosine of the angle between consecutive
strings.
29. If a², b², and c² be in A.P. , prove that cot A, cot B, and cot C are in
A.P. also.
A B
30. If a, b, and c be in A. P., prove that cos A cot cos B cot
2
and cos C cot in A. P.
2 are
188 TRIGONOMETRY . [Exs. XXVII. ]
B
31. If a, b, and c are in H.P., prove that sin². sin2 and sin² are
2
also in H.Р.
32. The sides of a triangle are in A.P. and the greatest and least
angles are and ; prove that
4 (1 - cos 0) (1 - cos ø) = cos @ + cos &.
33. The sides of a triangle are in A.P. and the greatest angle exceeds
the least by 90° ; prove that the sides are proportional to √7 + 1, √7, and
√7-1.
34. If C = 60°, then prove that
1 1 = 3
+
a+ c b+ c a+ b+ c'
35. In any triangle ABC if D be any point of the base BC, such that
BD : DC : m : n, prove that
(m + n) cot ADC = n cot B -m cot C,
and (m+n)² AD² = (m + n) (mb² + nc²) -
− mna².
36. If in a triangle the bisector of the side c be perpendicular to the
side b, prove that
2 tan A +tan C = 0.
37. In any triangle prove that, if be any angle, then
b cos 0 = c cos (A − 0) + a cos (C +0).
38. If p and q be the perpendiculars from the angular points A and B
on any line passing through the vertex C of the triangle ABC, then
prove that
a²p² +b²q² -2abpq cos C = a2b2 sin² C.
39. In the triangle ABC, lines OA , OB, and OC are drawn so that
the angles OAB, OBC, and OCA are each equal to w ; prove that
cot w = cot A + cot B + cot C,
and cosec² w = cosec² A + cosec² B + cosec² C.
CHAPTER XIII.
SOLUTION OF TRIANGLES.
174. IN any triangle the three sides and the three

angles are often called the elements of the triangle. When
any three elements of the triangle are given, provided they
be not the three angles, the triangle is in general com-
pletely known, ie. its other angles and sides can be
calculated . When the three angles are given, only the
ratios of the lengths of the sides can be found, so that the
triangle is given in shape only and not in size. When
three elements of a triangle are given the process of
calculating its other three elements is called the Solution
of the Triangle.
We shall first discuss the solution of right-angled
triangles, i.e. triangles which have one angle given equal
to a right angle.
The next four articles refer to such triangles, and C
denotes the right angle.
175. Case I. Given the hypothenuse and one side, to

solve the triangle.
190 TRIGONOMETRY.
Let b be the given side and c the given hypothenuse.

The angle B is given by the
A
relation
b
sin B = - •
.. L sin B = 10+ log blog c.

B a
Since b and c are known, we
thus have L sin B and therefore B.
The angle A (= 90 ° – B) is then known .
The side a is obtained from either of the relations
a b
cos B = tan B = - , or a = √(c -
− b) (c + b) .
a
176. Case II. Given the two sides a and b, to solve

the triangle.
Here B is given by A
b
tan B = - , b
α
so that
B a
-
L tan B = 10+ log b — log a.
Hence L tan B, and therefore B, is known.
The angle A (= 90 ° --
– B) is then known .
The hypothenuse c is given by the relation c = √a² +b².
This relation is not however very suitable for loga-
rithmic calculation , and c is best given by
b
sin B = ² , i.e. c = sin B
.. log clog b— log sin B

= 10+ log b - L sin B.
Hence c is obtained.
SOLUTION OF. RIGHT-ANGLED TRIANGLES. 191
177. Case III. Given an angle B and one ofthe sides

a, to solve the triangle.
Here A (= 90° - B) is known.
The side b is found from the rela-
tion b
b C
= tan B, a
a
and c from the relation
=cos B.
178. Case IV. Given an angle B and the hypothenuse

c, to solve the triangle. A
Here A is known, and a and b are c
obtained from the relations b
α b
== cos B, and sin B. B a
EXAMPLES . XXVIII .
1. In a right-angled triangle ABC, where C is the right angle, if

a=50 and B= 75°, find the sides. (tan 75° = 2 + √3. )
2. Solve the triangle of which two sides are equal to 10 and 20 feet
and of which the included angle is 90° ; given that log 20 = 1.30103 , and
L tan 26° 33' 9.6986847 , diff. for 1' = 3160.
3. The length of the perpendicular from one angle of a triangle upon
the base is 3 inches and the lengths of the sides containing this angle are
4 and 5 inches. Find the angles, having given
log 230103, log 3 = 4771213,
L sin 36° 52′ = 9.7781186, diff . for 1' = 1684,
and L sin 48° 35'9.8750142 , diff. for 1'1115.
4. Findthe acute angles of a right-angled triangle whose hypothenuse
is four times as long as the perpendicular drawn to it from the opposite
angle.
192 TRIGONOMETRY.
179. We now proceed to the case of the triangle which

is not given to be right angled. •
The different cases to be considered are ;
Case I. The three sides given ;
Case II. Two sides and the included angle given ;
Case III. Two sides and the angle opposite one of

them given ;
Case IV. One side and two angles given ;
Case V. The three angles given.
180. Case I. The three sides a, b, and c given.

Since the sides are known, the semi-perimeter s is
known and hence also the quantities s - a , s - b, and
S - C.
A B с
The half-angles and are then found from the
2 2 2
formulae
tan
A
= (s— b) (s — c) tan B = (s — c) (s — a)
2 s(s - a) 2 s (s - b)
с (sa) (s — b)
and tan =
2 s (s — c)
Only two of the angles need be found, the third being

known since the sum of the three angles is always 180°.
The angles may also be found by using the formulae
for the sine or cosine of the semi-angles.
(Arts. 165 and 166.)
The above formulae are all suited for logarithmic
computation.
THE THREE SIDES GIVEN. 193
The angle A may also be obtained from the formula
b² + c² a²
cos A = (Art. 164. )
2bc
This formula is not, in general, suitable for logarithmic

calculation. It may be conveniently used however when
the sides a, b, and c are small numbers.
EX. The sides of a triangle are 32, 40, and 66 feet ; find the angle
opposite the greatest side, having given that
log 207 2.3159703, log 1073 = 3.0305997,
L cot 66° 18' = 9-6424341, tabulated difference for 1' = 3431.
Here a=
= 32, b = 40 , and c = 66,
so that 32 +40 +66

8= = 69, s - a = 37, 8 - b = 29, and 8 - c = 3.
Hence C 8(8- c) 69 × 3
cot = =
07
(8 - a)(8 - b) = √ 37 x 29 ✓ 21073
C 1
L cot
t = 10+ [log 207 – log 1078 ]
= 10 + 1 ·15798515 - 1.51529985
= 9.6426853.
L cot is therefore greater than L cot 66° 18′,
so that C
is less than 66° 18'.
Let then = 66° 18′ - x".
The difference in the logarithm corresponding to difference of a" in the

angle therefore
= 9.6426853
- 9.6424341
= ⚫0002512.
Also the difference for 60" = ' 0003431 .
L. T. 13
194 TRIGONOMETRY.
x ⚫0002512
Hence =
60 ⚫0003431 '
2512
so that x= x 60 nearly 44.
3431
.. 66° 18′ 44″ -66° 17′ 16″, and hence C = 132° 34' 32" .
EXAMPLES. XXIX.
1. If the sides of a triangle be 56, 65, and 33 feet, find the greatest
angle.
2. The sides of a triangle are 7 , 4/3, and √13 yards respectively.
Find the number of degrees in its smallest angle.
3. The sides of a triangle are x² + x + 1, 2x + 1, and x² - 1 ; prove that
the greatest angle is 120°.
4. The sides of a triangle are a, b , and √a² + ab + b² feet ; find the
greatest angle.
5. If a = 2, b = √6, and c = √3-1, solve the triangle.
6. If a = 2, b = /6, and c = √3 +1, solve the triangle.
7. If a = 9, b = 10, and c = 11, find B, given
log 2 = 30103, Ltan 29° 29' = 9-7523472,
and L tan 29° 30′ - 9-7526420.
8. The sides of a triangle are 130, 123, and 77 feet. Find the
greatest angle, having given
log 2 = 30103, L tan 38° 39′ = 9.9029376,
and L tan 38° 40' = 9.9031966.
9. Find the greatest angle of a triangle whose sides are 242, 188, and
270 feet, having given
log 2 = 30103, log 3 = 4771213, log 7 = 8450980,
L tan 38° 20′ = 9-8980104, and L tan 38° 19′ = 9.8977507.
10. The sides of a triangle are 2, 3, and 4 ; find the greatest angle,
having given
log 2 = 30103, log 3 = 4771213,
L tan 52° 14' = 10.1108395,
and L tan 52° 15'10.1111004.
GIVEN TWO SIDES AND THE INCLUDED ANGLE. 195
Making use of the tables, find all the angles when

11. a = 25, b = 26, and c = 27,
12. =27.
a = 17, b = 20 , and c = 2
13. a = 2000 , b = 1050, and c = 1150.
181. Case II. Given two sides b and c and the

included angle A.
Taking b to be the greater of the two given sides,

we have
B- C b- c A
tan = (Art. 171 ) ... (1 ) ,
2 b + c cot b
B +C A
and = 90° - 442 . (2).
2 B a
These two relations give us

B-C B+C
and
2 2
and therefore, by addition and subtraction, B and C.

The third side a is then known from the relation
α b
=
sin A sin B
sin A
which gives a= b "
sin B
and thus determines a.
The side a may also be found from the formula
a² = b² + c² -
— 2bc cos A.
This is not adapted to logarithmic calculation but is

sometimes useful, especially when the sides a and b are
small numbers.
13-2
196 TRIGONOMETRY.
182. Ex. 1. If b = √3, c = 1 , and A = 30° , solve the triangle.
We have
B- C b- c A √3-1
tan = cot = cot 15°.
2 b+ c 2 √√3 +1
Now tan 15°: √3-1 (Art. 101) ,

√3 + 1
so that cot 15° =√3 + 1

√3-1 °
B- C
Hence tan = 1.
2
B- C
=45° (1).
B+ C - A 90° 15° 75°

Also =90° - (2).
2
By addition , B = 120°.
By subtraction , C = 30°.
Since AC, we have a = c = 1.
Otherwise. We have
a²= b² + c² – 2bc cos 4 = 3 + 1-2√3.√3 = 1,
so that a = 1 = c.
.. C = A = 30°,
and B= 180° - A - C = 120°.
Ex. 2. If b = 215, c == 105 , and A = 74° 27', find the remaining angles
and also the third side a, having given
log 2 = 3010300, log 11 = 1.0413927,
log 105 =2.0211893, log 212-476 = 2.3273103 ,
L cot 37° 13'10.1194723 , diff. for 1' = 2622,
L tan 24° 20' 9.6553477, diff. for 1' = 3364,
L sin 74° 27' = 9.9838052,
and Lcosec 28° 25' = 10.3225025 , diff. for 1' = 2334.
SOLUTION OF TRIANGLES. 197
B- C b - c A
Here tan = cot = cot 37° 13' 30".
2 b +c 2
Now L cot 37° 13' = 10.1194723

diff. for 30": · 1311
.. L cot 37° 13′ 30″ = 10.1193412
log 11 = 1.0413927
⚫30103
11.1607339
1.50515 5
log 32 =
1.50515.
.. L tan †`(B —- C) = 9.6555839
But L tan 24° 20' = 9.6553477
diff. = 2362 2362
60
diff. for 33 of 60"
3364) 141720 ( 42.1
=- diff. for 42.1". 13456
B- C 7160
= 24° 20′ 42″. 6728
4320
B +C A
But 90° = 52° 46′ 30″.
2 2
.. by addition , B = 77° 7′ 12″ ,
and, by subtraction, C=28° 25′ 48″.
a
Again = с = c cosec C,
sin A sin C
.. a = 105 sin 74° 27' cosec 28° 25′ 48″.
But L cosec 28° 25' = 10.3225025 #8 ×2334
diff. for 48":= - • 1867 = × 2334
L cosec 28° 25′ 48″ = 10.3223158 = 1867.
L sin 74° 27' = 9.9838052
log 105 = 2.0211893
22.3273103
20
.. log a = 2.3273103.
.. a =212.476.
198 TRIGONOMETRY.
* 183. There are ways of finding the third side a of the triangle in the
previous case without first finding the angles B and C.
Two methods are as follows :
(1 ) Since a² = b2 + c² - 2bc cos A
= b2 +c2-2bc ( 2 cos2
(2 COS² 41-1)
= (b + c)² - 4bc cos²4 .

4bc
.. a² = (b + c)² [ 1− Cos2 •
(b + c)2
4bc A
Hence, if sin20 = cos2
(b + c)2 2'
we have a² = (b + c)2 [1 -
− sin² 0] = ( b + c)² cos² 0,
so that a= (b + c) cos 0.
If then sin be calculated from the relation
sin 0 = 2√bc COS A "

b+c 2
we have a = (b + c) cos 0.
(2) We have
a² = b² +c² - 2bc cos A = b² + c² - 2bc ( 1 - 2 sin²
(1-2 sin24)
A
= (b - c)² +4bc sin²
4bc
c)²
=(b - c) [1+ (b - c)2 sin² ].
Let 4bc A
sin2 = tan² 4,
(b - c)2 2
2 /bc A
so that tan o =
- с sin
and hence is known.
Then (b - c)2
a² = (b - c)² [1 + tan²ø] =- cos²
so that a=(b - c) seco,
and is therefore easily found.
An angle, such as or above, introduced for the purpose of
facilitating calculation is called a subsidiary angle (Art. 129) .
EXAMPLES. XXX.
1. If b = 90, c = 70, and A = 72° 48′ 30″, find B and C, given

log 2 = 30103, L cot 36° 24′ 15″ = 10.1323111 ,
L tan 9° 37'9.2290071 ,
and L tan 9° 38'9.2297735.
2. If a = 21, b = 11 , and C = 34° 42′ 30″, find A and B, given

log 2 =.30103,
and L tan 72° 38′ 45″ 10.50515.
3. If the angles of a triangle be in A. P. and the lengths of the greatest

and least sides be 24 and 16 feet respectively, find the length of the third
side and the other angles, given
log 2 = 30103 , log 3 = 4771213,
and L tan 19° 6' 9.5394287, diff. for 1' = 4084.
4. If a = 13, b = 7, and C = 60°, find A and B, given that

log 3 = 4771213,
and L tan 27° 27' = 9.7155508 , diff. for 1' = 3087.
5. If a = 2b, and C = 120°, find the values of A, B, and the ratio of c

to a, given that
log 3 = 4771213,
and L tan 10° 53′ = 9.2839070, diff. for 1' = 6808.
6. If b = 14, c = 11 , and A = 60°, find B and C, given that

log 230103 , log 3 = 4771213,
L tan 11° 44' - 9.3174299,
and L tan 11° 45′ = 9.3180640.
7. The two sides of a triangle are 540 and 420 yards long respectively
and include an angle of 52° 6′. Find the remaining angles , given that
log 2 = 30103, L tan 26° 3′ = 9.6891430,
L tan 14° 20' 9.4074189 , and L tan 14° 21' = 9.4079453.
200 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XXX .]
8. If b = 21 ft., c = 2 ft., and A = 22° 20′, find the other angles, and
shew that the third side is nearly one foot, given
log 2 = 30103, log 3 = 47712,
L cot 11° 10' 10.70465, L sin 22° 20′ = 9.57977,
L tan 29° 22′ 20″ -9-75038, L tan 29° 22′ 30″ = 9-75043,
and L sin 49° 27' 34" -9.88079.
9. If a = 2, b = 1 + √3, and C = 60°, solve the triangle.
10. Two sides of a triangle are √3 + 1 and √3-1, and the included
angle is 60° ; find the other side and angles.
11. If b = 1, c = √3-1 , and A = 60°, find the length of the side a.
A 17
12. If b = 91, c = 125 , and tan = prove that a = 204.
6
31
13. If a = 5, b = 4 , and cos (A -
– B) = 32 prove that the third side c will
be 6.
14. One angle of a triangle is 30° and the lengths of the sides
adjacent to it are 40 and 40/3 yards. Find the length of the third
side and the number of degrees in the other angles.
15. The sides of a triangle are 9 and 3, and the difference of the
angles opposite to them is 90°. Find the base and the angles, having
given
log 2 = 30103 , log 3 = 4771213,
log 75894 4.8802074, log 75895 =4.8802132 ,
L tan 26° 33' = 9.6986847,
and L tan 26° 34' = 9'6990006.
a--b C
16. If tan = cot
a+ b 2'
с
sin
2
prove that c = (a + b) cos o
If a = 3, b = 1, and C = 53° 7′48″, find c without getting A and B,
given
log 2 = 30103, log 25298 = 4.4030862,
log 25299 =4-4031034, L cos 26° 33′ 54″ = 9 · 9515452,
and L tan 26° 33′ 54″ 9.6989700.
[Exs. XXX.] AMBIGUOUS CASE. 201
17. Two sides of a triangle are 237 and 158 feet and the contained
angle is 66° 40' ; find the base and the other angles, having given
log 2 = 30103, log 79 = 1.89763,
log 22687 = 4.35578, L cot 33° 20′ =10-18197,
L sin 33° 20' 9.73998, L tan 16° 54′ - 9.48262,
L tan 16° 55'9.48308, Lsec 16° 54'10.01917,
and L sec 16° 55′ = 10·01921 .
B- C = b+c
[ Use either the formula cos sin or the formula of the
2 a 2
preceding question.]
In the following four examples, the required logarithms must be taken

from the tables.
18. If a 242.5 , b = 164.3 , and C 54° 36', solve the triangle.
19. If b = 130, c = 63 , and A = 42° 15′ 30″, solve the triangle.
20. Two sides of a triangle being 2265-4 and 1779 feet, and the
included angle 58° 17', find the remaining angles.
21. Two sides of a triangle being 237-09 and 130.96 feet, and the
included angle 57° 59′, find the remaining angles.
184. Case III. Given two sides b and c and the

angle B opposite to one of them.
The angle C is given by the relation

sin C sin B
C b
i.e. sin C-= sin B ...... (1). b
Taking logarithms, we determine C

a
C, and then A ( = 180 ° – B – C) is
found.
202 TRIGONOMETRY.
The remaining side a is then found from the relation

a b
=
sin A sin B'
sin A
i.e. α == b . (2).
sin B
185. The equation ( 1 ) of the previous article gives in

some cases no value, in some cases one, and sometimes
two values, for C.
First, let B be an acute angle.
(a) If b < c sin B, the right-hand member of ( 1 ) is
greater than unity, and hence there is no corresponding
value for C.
(B) If b = c sin B, the right-hand member of ( 1 ) is
equal to unity and the corresponding value of C is 90 ° .
(y) If b > c sin B, there are two values of C having
c sin B
as its sine, one value lying between 0° and 90°
b
and the other between 90° and 180°.
Both of these values are not however always admissible.
For if bc, then B >C. The obtuse- angled value of
C is now not admissible ; for, in this case, C cannot be
obtuse unless B be obtuse also, and it is manifestly
impossible to have two obtuse angles in a triangle.
If b < c and B be an acute angle, both values of C
are admissible. Hence there are two values found for
A, and hence the relation ( 2) gives two values for a. In
this case there are therefore two triangles satisfying the
given conditions.
Secondly, let B be an obtuse angle.
If b be < or = c, then B would be less than, or equal
AMBIGUOUS CASE. 203
to, c, so that C would be an obtuse angle. The triangle

would then be impossible.
If b be > c, the acute value of C, as determined from
(1), would be admissible, but not the obtuse value. We
should therefore only have one admissible solution.
Since, for some values of b, c and B, there is a doubt
or ambiguity in the determination of the triangle, this
case is called the Ambiguous Case of the solution of
triangles.
186. The Ambiguous Case may also be discussed

in a geometrical manner.
Suppose we were given the elements b, c, and B, and
that we proceeded to construct, or attempted to construct,
the triangle .
We first measure an angle ABD equal to the given

angle B.
We then measure along BA a distance BA equal to
the given distance c, and thus determine the angular
point A.
We have now to find a third point C, which must lie
on BD and must also be such that its distance from A
shall be equal to b.
To obtain it, we describe with centre A a circle whose
radius is b.
The point or points, if any, in which this circle meets
BD will determine the position of C.
Draw AD perpendicular to BD, so that
AD = AB sin B =c sin B.
One of the following events will happen.

The circle may not reach BD (Fig. 1 ) or it may
204 TRIGONOMETRY.
touch BD (Fig. 2) , or it may meet BD in two points C₁

and C, (Figs. 3 and 4).
A A
B D
B D
Fig. 1 Fig. 2
ల
b
b
B
C₂ C₁
B C₁
Fig. 3
Fig.4
In the case of Fig. 1 , it is clear that there is no

triangle satisfying the given condition.
Here b < AD, i.e. < c sin B.
In the case of Fig. 2 , there is one triangle ABD

which is right-angled at D. Here
b = AD = c sin B.
In the case of Fig. 3, there are two triangles ABC₁

and ABC . Here b lies in magnitude between AD and c,
i.e. b is > c sin B and < c.
In the case of Fig. 4, there is only one triangle ABC₁
satisfying the given conditions [ the triangle ABC, is
inadmissible ; for its angle at B is not equal to B but is
equal to 180° - B]. Here b is greater than both c sin B
and c.
AMBIGUOUS CASE. 205
In the case when B is obtuse, the proper figures

should be drawn. It will then be seen that when b < c
there is no triangle (for in the corresponding triangles
ABC, and ABC, the angle at B will be 180° - B and not
B). If b > c, it will be seen that there is one triangle,
and only one, satisfying the given conditions.
To sum up :
Given the elements b, c, and B of a triangle,
(a) If b be < c sin B, there is no triangle.
(B) If b = c sin B, there is one triangle right-angled.
(7) Ifb becsin B and < c and B be acute, there are

two triangles satisfying the given conditions.
(8) Ifb bec, there is only one triangle.
Clearly if bc, the points B and C, in Fig. 3 coincide
and there is only one triangle .
(e) If B be obtuse, there is no triangle except when

b >c.
187. The ambiguous case may also be considered

algebraically as follows.
From the figure of Art. 184 , we have

b² = c² + a² -— 2ca cos B.
.. a² - 2ac cos B + c² cos² B = b² — c² + c² cos² B

= b² — c² sin² B.
.. a -- c cos B = ± √b² — c² sin² B,
i.e. a = c cos B ± √b² -

– c² sin² B ……
.... …..(1 ).
Now (1 ) is an equation to determine the value of a
when b, c, and B are given.
206 TRIGONOMETRY.
(a) If b < c sin B, the quantity √b - c² sin B is

imaginary, and (1 ) gives no real value for a.
(B) If bcsin B, there is only one value, c cas B,
for a ; there is thus only one triangle which is right-
angled.
(7) If b > c sin B, there are two values for a. But,
since a must be positive , the value obtained by taking
the lower sign affixed to the radical is inadmissible unless
— √b² -— c² sin² B is positive ,

c cos B -
i.e. unless √b²- c² sin² B < c cos B,
i.e. unless b² -
– c² sin² B < c² cos² B ,
i.e. unless b2 < c².
There are therefore two triangles only when b is

> c sin B and at the same time < c.
(8) If B be an obtuse angle, then c cos B is negative,
and one value of a is always negative and the correspond-
ing triangle impossible.
The other value will be positive only when
c cos B + √√b² --
— c² sin² B is positive,
i.e. only when √b2 -c² sin² B > -c cos B,
i.e. only when b2 >c² sin² B + c² cos² B,

i.e. only when b >c.
Hence, B being obtuse, there is no triangle if b < c,
and only one triangle when b > c.
188. Ex. Given b = 16, c = 25, and B = 33° 15', prove that the triangle
is ambiguous and find the other angles, having given
log 2 = 30103 , L sin 33° 15′ = 9.7390129,
L sin 58° 56' = 9.9327616 ,
and L sin 58° 57' = 9.9328376.
We have
100 102
sin C = sin B =25 sin B= sin B =
16 64 26 sin 33° 15'.
Hence L sin C = 2 + L sin 33° 15′ – 6 log 2
= 9.9328329.
Hence L sin C - 9.9328329 L sin 58° 57' = 9.9328376
L sin 58° 56′ = 9.9327616 L sin 58° 56' = 9.9327616
Diff. = 713 Diff. for 1' = 760.
713
6
.. angular diff. = 718 × 60" 76) 4278 (56
= 56″ nearly. 380
478
456
.. C = 58° 56′ 56″ or 180° - 58° 56′ 56″ .

Hence (Fig. 3, Art. 186) we have
C₁ = 58° 56′ 56″, and C₂ = 121° 3′ 4″.
LBAC₁ = 180° 33° 15' - 58° 56′ 56″ 87° 48' 4",
and
LBAC =180° - 33 ° 15′ - 121 ° 3′ 4″ -25° 41′ 56″.
EXAMPLES. XXXI .
3
1. If a = 5, b = 7, and sin A = 4 is there any ambiguity ?
2. Ifa = 2, c = √√3 + 1 , and d = 45°, solve the triangle.

3. If a 100 ,
c = 100 /3, and A = 30°, solve the triangle .
4. If 2b = 3a, and tan² = 3, prove that there are two values to the
third side, one of which is double the other.
5. If A = 30°, b = 8, and a = 6, find c.
6. Given B = 30°, c = 150, and b = 50 /3, prove that of the two
triangles which satisfy the data one will be isosceles and the other right-
angled. Find the greater value of the third side.
Would the solution have been ambiguous had
B=30°, c = 150, and b = 75 ?
208 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XXXI.]
7. In the ambiguous case given a, b, and A, prove that the difference

between the two values of c is 2√a² – b² sin² 4 .
8. If a = 5, b = 4, and A = 45°, find the other angles, having given

log 2 = 30103 , L sin 33° 29′ = 9.7520507,
and L sin 33° 30'= 9.7530993 .
9. If a 9, b = 12, and A = 30°, find c, having given

log 2 = '30103, log 3 =' 47712,
log 171 =2.23301, log 368 =2.56635,
L sin 11° 48′ 39" = 9.31108, L sin 41° 48′ 39″ = 9.82391 ,
and L sin 108° 11' 21" = 9.97774.
10. Point out whether or no the solutions of the following triangles

are ambiguous.
Find the smaller value of the third side in the ambiguous case and
the other angles in both cases.
(1) A = 30°, c = 250 feet, and a = 125 feet ;
(2) A = 30°, c = 250 feet, and a = 200 feet.
Given log 2 = 30103, log 6 ·038937809601,
L sin 38° 41' = 9.7958800,
and L sin 8°41' = 9.1789001.
11. Given a = ?250, b = 240, and A = 72° 4′ 48″, find the angles B and C,
and state whether they can have more than one value, given
log 2.5 = 3979400, log 2.43802112 ,
L sin 72° 4' 9.9783702, L sin 72° 5′ = 9.9784111 ,
and L sin 65° 59′ = 9.9606739.
12. Two straight roads intersect at an angle of 30° ; from the point
of junction two pedestrians A and B start at the same time, A walking
along one road at the rate of 5 miles per hour and B walking uniformly
along the other road. At the end of 3 hours they are 9 miles apart.
Shew that there are two rates at which B may walk to fulfil this
condition and find them.
[Exs. XXXI. ] SOLUTION OF TRIANGLES. 209
For the following three examples, a book of tables will be required.

13. Two sides of a triangle are 1015 feet and 732 feet, and the angle
opposite the latter side is 40° ; find the angle opposite the former and
prove that more than one value is admissible.
14. Two sides of a triangle being 5374-5 and 1586.6 feet, and the
angle opposite the latter being 15° 11', calculate the other angles of the
triangle or triangles.
15. Given A = 10° , a = 2308.7, and b = 7903 2, find the smaller value
of c.
189. Case IV. Given one side and two angles, viz.
a, B, and C.
Since the three angles of a triangle are together equal

to two right angles, the third angle
is given also.
The sides b and c are now obtained

from the relations
b с a B a
= =
sin B sin C sin A
sin B sin C
giving b=α and ca
sin A' sin A
190. Case V. The three angles A , B, and C given.
Here the ratios only of the sides can be determined

by the formulae
α b C
= =
sin A sin B sin C
Their absolute magnitudes cannot be found.

L. T. 14
210 TRIGONOMETRY.
EXAMPLES. XXXII.
17 1
1. If cos A =;22 and cos C == find the ratio of a b : c.
14
2. The angles of a triangle are as 1 : 2 : 7 ; prove that the ratio of
- 1.
the greatest side to the least side is √5 + 1 : √5 –
3. If A = 45°, B = 75°, and C = 60° , prove that a + c√2 = 2b.
4. Two angles of a triangle are 41° 13′ 22″ and 71° 19′ 5 ″ and the side
opposite the first angle is 55 ; find the side opposite the latter angle,
given
log 55 1.7403627, log 79063 = 4.8979775,
L sin 41° 13′ 22″ -9.8188779,
and L sin 71° 19' 5" -9.9764927.
5. From each of two ships, one mile apart, the angle is observed
which is subtended by another ship and a beacon on shore ; these angles
are found to be 52° 25′ 15″ and 75° 9′ 30″ respectively. Given
L sin 75° 9′ 30″ = 9.9852635,
L sin 52° 25′ 15″ = 9.8990055 , log 1.2197 = 0862530 ,
and log 1.21980862886,
find the distance of the beacon from each of the ships.
6. The base angles of a triangle are 2210 and 11210 ; prove that the
base is equal to twice the height.
For the following five questions a book of tables is required.
7. The base of a triangle being seven feet and the base angles
129° 23' and 38° 36', find the length of its shorter side.
8. If the angles of a triangle be as 5 : 10 : 21 , and the side opposite
the smaller angle be 3 feet, find the other sides.
9. The angles of a triangle being 150°, 18° 20′ , and 11° 40′, and the
longest side being 1000 feet, find the length of the shortest side.
10. To get the distance of a point A from a point B, a line BC and
the angles ABC and BCA are measured, and are found to be 287 yards
and 55° 32′ 10″ and 51° 8′ 20″ respectively. Find the distance AB.
11. To find the distance from A to P a distance, AB, of 1000 yards is
measured in a convenient direction. At A the angle PAB is found to be
41° 18′ and at B the angle PBA is found to be 114° 38'. What is the
required distance to the nearest yard ?
CHAPTER XIV.
HEIGHTS AND DISTANCES.
191. IN the present chapter we shall consider some

questions of the kind which occur in land-surveying.
Simple questions of this kind have already been considered
in Chapter III.
192. To find the height of an inaccessible tower by

means of observations made at distant points.
Suppose PQ to be the tower and that the ground
passing through the foot Q of the
tower is horizontal. At a point A
on this ground measure the angle
of elevation a of the top of the
tower.
α B
Measure off a distance AB (= a ) A·
a
from A directly toward the foot of
the tower, and at B measure the angle of elevation B.
To find the unknown height x of the tower, we have
to connect it with the measured length a. This is best
done as follows :
14-2
212 TRIGONOMETRY.
From the triangle PBQ, we have

x sin ẞ ....
= .(1),
BP
and, from the triangle PAB, we have

PB sin PAB sin a
= = . (2) ,
a sin BPA sin (ẞ - a)
since BPA = < QBP - < QAP = ẞ ß- — α.

From ( 1 ) and (2), by multiplication , we have
Ꮳ sin a sin B
a sin (B - a)'
sin a sin B
i.e. x=α
sin(B - a)
The height x is therefore given in a form suitable for
logarithmic calculation .
Numerical Example. If a = 100 feet, a = 30° , and ẞ = 60°, then

sin 30° sin 60°
x=100 = 100 × ³ =86 ·6 feet .
sin 30°
193. It is often not convenient to measure AB
directly towards Q. P
Measure therefore AB in any
other suitable direction on the hori- x
zontal ground, and at A measure the
angle of elevation a of P, and also
A Q
the angle PAB (= ß).
At B measure the angle PBA
B
(= x)
In the triangle PAB, we have then
▲ APB = 180 ° – ≤ PAB - ¿ PBA = 180° − (ß + y).

AP sin PBA sin y

Hence
α sin BPA sin (B + y)
From the triangle PAQ, we have

sin a sin Υ
x = AP sin a = a
'sin(B +7)
Hence is found by an expression suitable for

logarithmic calculation.
194. To find the distance between two inaccessible points

by means of observations made at two points the distance
between which is known, all four points being supposed to
be in one plane.
Let P and Q be two points whose distance apart, PQ,
is required .
Let A and B be the two known
points whose distance apart, AB, is
given to be equal to a.
At A measure the angles PAB
and QAB, and let them be a and BAB a
respectively.
At B measure the angle PBA and QBA, and let them
be Υ and & respectively.
Then in the triangle PAB we have one side a and the
two adjacent angles a and y given, so that, as in Art. 163 ,
we have AP given by the relation
AP sin y sin y
= = .(1).
α sin APB sin (a + y)
In the triangle QAB we have, similarly,
AQ = sin d
.( 2).
α sin (B + 8)
214 TRIGONOMETRY.
In the triangle APQ we have now determined the

sides AP and AQ ; also the included angle PAQ (= a - B)
is known. We can therefore find the side PQ by the
method of Art. 181.
If the four points A, B, P, and Q be not in the same

plane, we must, in addition, measure the angle PAQ ; for
in this case PAQ is not equal to a - B. In other respects
the solution will be the same as above.
195. Bearings and Points of the Compass. The

Bearing of a given point B as seen from a given point
O is the direction in which B is seen from 0. Thus if
WeNobrtstyh.
NobyEarth
. st
Nboyrth
N.N.W.
1.W.
Norbtyh
N.E.
N.N.E.
.
.
N.W. by West.
N.E. N.E. by East.
M.W.
W.N.W.
E.N.E.
West by North. East by North
W E
West by South. East by South.
W.S.W. E.S.E.
S.W. by West. S.E. by East.
S.E.
S.W.
, outh
Soubtyh
S.W.
bS y
S.E.
.
S.S.W.
S.EaS.stEy.,
Soutb h
,Webyst
S
the direction of OB bisect the angle between East and

North, the bearing of B is said to be North-East.
If a line is said to bear 20° West of North , we mean
that it is inclined to the North direction at an angle of
20°, this angle being measured from the North towards
the West.
To facilitate the statement of the bearing of a point

the circumference of the mariner's compass-card is divided
into 32 equal portions, as in the above figure, and the sub-
divisions marked as indicated. Consider only the quadrant
between East and North. The middle point of the arc
between N. and E. is marked North-East (N.E.) . The
bisectors of the arcs between N.E. and N. and E. are
respectively called North- North-East and East-North-
East (N.N.E. and E.N.E.). The other four subdivisions,
reckoning from N., are called North by East, N.E. by
North, N.E. by East, and East by North. Similarly the
other three quadrants are subdivided .
It is clear that the arc between two subdivisions of
360°
the card subtends an angle of i.e. 111 , at the
32
centre 0.
EXAMPLES. XXXIII.
1. A flagstaff stands on the middle of a square tower. A man on

the ground, opposite the middle of one face and distant from it 100 feet,
just sees the flag ; on his receding another 100 feet, the tangents of eleva-
1
tion of the top of the tower and the top of the flagstaff are found to be 2
5
and Find the dimensions of the tower and the height of the flagstaff,
9'
the ground being horizontal.
2. A man, walking on a level plane towards a tower, observes that

at a certain point the angular height of the tower is 10°, and, after going
50 yards nearer the tower, the elevation is found to be 15°. Having given
L sin 15° 9.4129962, L cos 5° 9.9983442,
log 25.783 = 1.4113334 , and log 25.784 = 1.4113503,
find, to 4 places of decimals, the height of the tower in yards.
216 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XXXIII. ]
3. DE is a tower standing on a horizontal plane and ABCD is a

straight line in the plane. The height of the tower subtends an angle
at A, 20 at B, and 30 at C. If AB and BC be respectively 50 and 20 feet,
find the height of the tower and the distance CD.
4. A tower, 50 feet high, stands on the top of a mound ; from a
point on the ground the angles of elevation of the top and bottom of the
tower are found to be 75° and 45° respectively ; find the height of the
mound.
5. A vertical pole (more than 100 feet high) consists of two parts,
1
the lower being rd of the whole. From a point in a horizontal plane
through the foot of the pole and 40 feet from it, the upper part subtends
1
an angle whose tangent is 2' Find the height of the pole.
6. A tower subtends an angle a at a point on the same level as the

foot of the tower, and at a second point, h feet above the first, the
depression of the foot of the tower is ß. Find the height of the tower.
7. A person in a balloon, which has ascended vertically from flat
land at the sea level, observes the angle of depression of a ship at anchor
to be 30° ; after descending vertically for 600 feet, he finds the angle
of depression to be 15° ; find the horizontal distance of the ship from the
point of ascent.
8. PQ is a tower standing on a horizontal plane, Q being its foot ;

A and B are two points on the plane such that the 4 QAB is 90°, and AB
is 40 feet. It is found that
3
cot PAQ = and cot PBQ:= •
10
Find the height of the tower.
9. A column is E.S.E. of an observer, and at noon the end of the
shadow is North-East of him. The shadow is 80 feet long and the
elevation of the column at the observer's station is 45°. Find the height
of the column.
10. A tower is observed from two stations A and B. It is found to
be due north of A and north-west of B. B is due east of A and distant
from it 100 feet. The elevation of the tower as seen from A is the
complement of the elevation as seen from B. Find the height of the
tower.
[Exs. XXXIII . ] HEIGHTS AND DISTANCES. 217
11. The elevation of a steeple at a place due south of it is 45° and

at another place due west of it the elevation is 15°. If the distance
between the two places be a, prove that the height of the steeple is
a( 3-1)
24/3
12. A person stands in the diagonal produced of the square base of
a church tower, at a distance 2a from it, and observes the angles of
elevation of each of the two outer corners of the top of the tower to be
30°, whilst that of the nearest corner is 45°. Prove that the breadth of
the tower is a (√10 − √2).
13. A person standing at a point A due south of a tower built on a
horizontal plane observes the altitude of the tower to be 60°. He then
walks to B due west of A and observes the altitude to be 45°, and again
at C in AB produced he observes it to be 30°. Prove that B is midway
between A and C.
14. At each end of a horizontal base of length 2a it is found that
the angular height of a certain peak is 0 and that at the middle point it
is p. Prove that the vertical height of the peak is
a sin o sin
sin ( +0) sin (ø -
– 0)
15. A and B are two stations 1000 feet apart ; P and Q are two
stations in the same plane as AB and on the same side of it ; the angles
PAB, PBA, QAB, and QBA are respectively 75° , 30°, 45°, and 90° ; find
how far P is from Q and how far each is from A and B.
For the following seven examples a book of tables will be wanted .
16. At a point on a horizontal plane the elevation of the summit of
a mountain is found to be 22° 15' , and at another point on the plane, a
mile further away in a direct line, its elevation is 10° 12' ; find the height
of the mountain .
17. From the top of a hill the angles of depression of two successive
milestones , on level ground and in the same vertical plane with the
observer, are found to be 5° and 10° respectively. Find the height of the
hill and the horizontal distance to the nearest milestone.
18. A castle and a monument stand on the same horizontal plane.
The height of the castle is 140 feet, and the angles of depression of the
top and bottom of the monument as seen from the top of the castle are
40° and 80° respectively. Find the height of the monument.
218 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XXXIII. ]
19. A flagstaff PN stands on level ground. A base AB is measured

at right angles to AN, the points A, B, and N being in the same horizontal
plane, and the angles PAN and PBN are found to be a and ß respectively.
Prove that the height of the flagstaff is
AB sin a sin ß
sin (a- B) sin (a + B)
If AB = 100 feet, a = 70°, and ẞ = 50° , calculate the height.
20. A man, standing due south of a tower on a horizontal plane
through its foot, finds the elevation of the top of the tower to be 54° 16' ;
he goes east 100 yards and finds the elevation to be then 50° 8' . Find
the height of the tower.
21. A man in a balloon observes that the angle of depression of an
object on the ground bearing due north is 33° ; the balloon drifts 3 miles
due west and the angle of depression is now found to be 21°. Find the
height of the balloon.
22. From the extremities of a horizontal base-line AB, whose length
is 1000 feet, the bearings of the foot C of a tower are observed and it is
found that CAB = 56° 23 ', ▲ CBA = 47° 15', and that the elevation of
the tower from A is 9° 25′ ; find the height of the tower.
196. Ex. 1. A flagstaff is on the top of a tower which

stands on a horizontal plane. A person observes the angles,
a and B, subtended at a point on the horizontal plane bythe
flagstaff and the tower ; he then walks a known distance a
toward the tower and finds that the flagstaff subtends the
same angle as before; prove that the height of the tower
and the length of the flagstaff are respectively
a sin ẞ cos (a + B) and a sin a
cos (a + 2B) cos (a + 2B)*
Let P and Q be the top and foot of the tower, and let
PR be the flagstaff. Let A and B be the points at which
the measurements are taken, so that PAQ = B and
< PAR =/PBR = a. Since the two latter angles are
equal, a circle will go through the four points A, B, P,
and R.
To find the height of the flagstaff we have to connect

the unknown length PR with the known length AB.
This may be done by connecting each with the
length AR.
To do this, we must first
determine the angles of the
triangles ARP and ARB.
Since A , B, P, and R lie on a
circle, we have
▲ BRP = ▲ BAP = ß,
and < APB = < ARB = 0 (say).
Also ▲ APR = 90° + ≤ PAQ = 90 ° + B.
Hence, since the angles of the triangle APR are
together equal to two right angles, we have
180° = a + (90° + B) + (0 + B),
so that 0 = 90° -
− (a + 2ß)……
... . (1).
From the triangles APR and ABR we then have
PR AR AR a
= = (Art. 163).
sin a sin RPA sin RBA sin
[It will be found in Chap. XV. that each of these
quantities is equal to the radius of the circle.]
Hence the height of the flagstaff
a sin a a sin a
== PR = = by (1 ).
sin 0 cos (a + 2B) '
PQ
Again, = cos BPQ = cos ( a + ẞ) ……………. . (2),
PB
PB sin PAB = sin B
and (3).
α sin APB sin
Hence, from (2) and (3), by multiplication,
PQ__
= sin ẞ cos (a + B) _ sin ẞ cos (a + B) , by (1).
a sin cos (a + 2B)
220 TRIGONOMETRY.
Also, BQ = PQ tan BPQ = PQ tan (a + B)

sin ẞ sin (a + B)
= α
cos (a + 2,3)
cos (a +28) + sin ẞ sin (a + B)
and AQ = a + BQ = a
cos (a + 2,8)
cos B cos (a + B)
=a
cos (a + 2B)
If a, a, and ß be given numerically, these results are
all in a form suitable for logarithmic computation.
Ex. 2. At a distance a from the foot of a tower AB, of known height
b, a flagstaff BC and the tower subtend equal angles. Find the height of
the flagstaff.
Let O be the point of observation , and let the angles AOB and BOC
be each ; also let the height BC be x.
b
We then have tan 0 = 9 and tan 20 = b +y
a a
b +y . 2 tan 0 = a
Hence = tan 20 =;
a 1 - tan² 0 b2
b +y = 2ab
so that
a a²-b2
2a2b a²+b²
Then y = a² - b2 b= b a² -b²'
If a and b be given numerically, we thus easily obtain y.
197. Ex. A man walks along a straight road and

observes that the greatest angle subtended by two objects is a ;
from the point where this greatest angle is subtended he walks
a distance c along the road, and finds that the two objects are
now in a straight line which makes an angle B with the
road ; prove that the distance between the objects is
a+ß α -β
c sin a sin ẞ see sec
2 2
Let P and Q be the two points, and let PQ meet

the road in B.
B'
α
‫پر‬
A
If A be the point at which the greatest angle is

subtended , then A must be the point where a circle drawn
through P and Q touches the road.
[For, take any other point A' on AB, and join it to P
cutting the circle in B' , and join A'Q and B'Q.
Then < PA'Q << PB'Q (Euc. I. 16),
and therefore << PAQ (Euc. III. 21 ).]
Let the angle QAB be called 0. Then (Euc. III. 32)

the angle APQ is also.
Hence 180° sum of the angles of the triangle PAB

= 0 + (a + 0) + ß,
a+ ß
so that 0= 90° -
2
From the triangles PAQ and QAB we have

PQ sin a sin B sin B
= and AQ =
AQ 0
sin O sin AQB sin (0 + a)"
222 TRIGONOMETRY.
Hence, by multiplication , we have

PQ = sin a sin ß
с sin @ sin (0 + α)
sin a sin B
=
α +β α
COS COS
2 2
α +β a- B
.. PQ = c sin a sin ẞsec sec
2 2
EXAMPLES. XXXIV.
1. A bridge has 5 equal spans, each of 100 feet measured from the
centre of the piers, and a boat is moored in a line with one of the middle
piers. The whole length of the bridge subtends a right angle as seen
from the boat. Prove that the distance of the boat from the bridge is
100/6 feet.
2. A ladder placed at an angle of 75° with the ground just reaches
the sill of a window at a height of 27 feet above the ground on one side
of a street. On turning the ladder over without moving its foot, it is
found that when it rests against a wall on the other side of the street
it is at an angle of 15° with the ground. Prove that the breadth of the
street and the length of the ladder are respectively
27 (3-3) and 27 ( √6 - √2) feet.
3. From a house on one side of a street observations are made of the
angle subtended by the height of the opposite house ; from the level of
the street the angle subtended is the angle whose tangent is 3 ; from two
windows one above the other the angle subtended is found to be the
angle whose tangent is -3 ; the height of the opposite house being
60 feet, find the height above the street of each of the two windows.
4. A rod of given length can turn in a vertical plane passing through
the sun, one end being fixed on the ground ; find the longest shadow it
can cast on the ground.
Calculate the altitude of the sun when the longest shadow it can cast
is 3 times the length of the rod.
5. A person on a ship A observes another ship B leaving a harbour,
whose bearing is then N.W. After 10 minutes A , having sailed one mile
[Exs. XXXIV. ] HEIGHTS AND DISTANCES. 223
N.E., sees B due west and the harbour then bears 60° West of North.
After another 10 minutes B is observed to bear S.W. Find the distances
between A and B at the first observation and also the direction and rate
of B.
6. A person on a ship sailing north sees two lighthouses, which are 6
miles apart, in a line due west ; after an hour's sailing one of them bears
S.W. and the other S.S.W. Find the ship's rate.
7. A person on a ship sees a lighthouse N.W. of himself. After
sailing for 12 miles in a direction 15° south of W. the lighthouse is
seen due N. Find the distance of the lighthouse from the ship in
each position.
8. A man, travelling west along a straight road, observes that when
he is due south of a certain windmill the straight line drawn to a distant
tower makes an angle of 30° with the road. A mile further on the
bearings of the windmill and tower are respectively N.E. and N.W. Find
the distances of the tower from the windmill and from the nearest point
of the road.
9. An observer on a headland sees a ship due north of him ; after a
quarter of an hour he sees it due east and after another half-hour he sees
it due south-east ; find the direction that the ship's course makes with
the meridian and the time after the ship is first seen until it is nearest
the observer, supposing that it sails uniformly in a straight line.
10. A man walking along a straight road, which runs in a direction
30° east of north, notes when he is due south of a certain house ; when he
has walked a mile further, he observes that the house lies due west and
that a windmill on the opposite side of the road is N.E. of him ; three
miles further on he finds that he is due north of the windmill ; prove
that the line joining the house and the windmill makes with the road
the angle whose tangent is
48-25 /3
11
11. A, B, and C are three consecutive milestones on a straight road
from each of which a distant spire is visible. The spire is observed to
bear north-east at A, east at B, and 60° east of south at C. Prove that
7 +5 /3 miles.
the shortest distance of the spire from the road is
13
12. Two stations due south of a tower, which leans towards the
north, are at distances a and b from its foot ; if a and ẞ be the
224 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XXXIV. ]
elevations of the top of the tower from these stations, prove that its
inclination to the horizontal is
b cot a -- a cotB
cot-1
-a
13. From a point A on a level plane the angle of elevation of a
balloon is a, the balloon being south of A ; from a point B, which is at a
distance c south of A, the balloon is seen northwards at an elevation of
ß; find the distance of the balloon from A and its height above the
ground.
14. A statue on the top of a pillar subtends the same angle a at
1
distances of 9 and 11 yards from the pillar ; if tan a =: find the height
10'
of the pillar and of the statue.
15. A flagstaff on the top of a tower is observed to subtend the same
angle a at two points on a horizontal plane, which lie on a line passing
through the centre of the base of the tower and whose distance from one
another is 2a, and an angle ẞ at a point halfway between them. Prove
that the height of the flagstaff is
a sin a 2 sin ẞ
cos a sin (B- a)'
16. An observer in the first place stations himself at a distance a
feet from a column standing upon a mound. He finds that the column
1
subtends an angle, whose tangent is 2' at his eye which may be supposed
to be on the horizontal plane through the base of the mound. On
2
moving a feet nearer the column, he finds that the angle subtended is
unchanged. Find the height of the mound and of the column.
17. A church tower stands on the bank of a river, which is 150 feet
wide, and on the top of the tower is a spire 30 feet high. To an observer
on the opposite bank of the river, the spire subtends the same angle that
a pole six feet high subtends when placed upright on the ground at the
foot of the tower. Prove that the height of the tower is nearly 285 feet.
18. A person, wishing to ascertain the height of a tower, stations
himself on a horizontal plane through its foot at a point at which the
elevation of the top is 30°. On walking a distance a in a certain direction
he finds that the elevation of the top is the same as before, and on then
5
walking a distance 3 a at right angles to his former direction he finds the
[Exs. XXXIV.] HEIGHTS AND DISTANCES. 225
elevation of the top to be 60°. Prove that the height of the tower is
either 5 85
a or a.
√ 48
19. The angles of elevation of the top of a tower, standing on a
horizontal plane, from two points distant a and b from the base and in
the same straight line with it are complementary. Prove that the height
of the tower is ab feet, and, if ◊ be the angle subtended at the top of
a ~b
the tower by the line joining the two points, then sin @ =
a+ b
20. A tower 150 feet high stands on the top of a cliff 80 feet high.
At what point on the plane passing through the foot of the cliff must an
observer place himself so that the tower and the cliff may subtend equal
angles, the height of his eye being 5 feet ?
21. A statue on the top of a pillar, standing on level ground, is
found to subtend the greatest angle a at the eye of an observer when his
distance from the pillar is c feet ; prove that the height of the statue is
2c tan a feet, and find the height of the pillar.
22. Atower stood at the foot of an inclined plane whose inclination
to the horizon was 9°. A line 100 feet in length was measured straight
up the incline from the foot of the tower, and at the end of this line the
tower subtended an angle of 54°. Find the height of the tower, having
given log 2 = 30103, log 114-4123 = 2.0584726,
and L sin 54° - 9.9079576.
23. A vertical tower stands on a declivity which is inclined at 15° to
the horizon. From the foot of the tower a man ascends the declivity for
80 feet, and then finds that the tower subtends an angle of 30°. Prove
that the height of the tower is 40 (√6 - √2) feet.
24. The altitude of a certain rock is 47°, and after walking towards it
1000 feet up a slope inclined at 30° to the horizon an observer finds its
altitude to be 77°. Find the vertical height of the rock above the first
point of observation, given that sin 47° = • 73135.
25. A man observes that when he has walked c feet up an inclined
plane the angular depression of an object in a horizontal plane through
the foot of the slope is a , and that, when he has walked a further distance
of c feet, the depression is ẞ. Prove that the inclination of the slope to
the horizon is the angle whose cotangent is
(2 cot B - cota).
L. T. 15
226 TRIGONOMETRY . [Exs. XXXIV .
26. A regular pyramid on a square base has an edge 150 feet long,
and the length of the side of its base is 200 feet. Find the inclination of
its face to the base.
27. A pyramid has for base a square of side a ; its vertex lies on a
line through the middle point of the base and perpendicular to it, and at
a distance h from it ; prove that the angle a between the two lateral faces
is given by the equation
sin a= 2h2a2 +4h2
a² +4h2
28. A flagstaff, 100 feet high, stands in the centre of an equilateral

triangle which is horizontal. From the top of the flagstaff each side
subtends an angle of 60° ; prove that the length of the side of the triangle
is 50/6 feet.
29. The extremity of the shadow of a flagstaff, which is 6 feet high

and stands on the top of a pyramid on a square base, just reaches the
side of the base and is distant 56 and 8 feet respectively from the
extremities of that side. Find the sun's altitude if the height of the
pyramid be 34 feet.
30. The extremity of the shadow of a flagstaff, which is 6 feet high

and stands on the top of a pyramid on a square base, just reaches the
side of the base and is distant x feet and y feet respectively from the ends
of that side ; prove that the height of the pyramid is
x² +y2 tan a-
– 6,
√
where a is the elevation of the sun.
31. The angle of elevation of a cloud from a point h feet above

a lake is a, and the angle of depression of its reflexion in the lake is
sin (B+ a)
ß; prove that its height is h
sin (ẞ -
— a) *
32. The shadow of a tower is observed to be half the known height

of the tower and sometime afterwards it is equal to the known height ;
how much will the sun have gone down in the interval, given
log 2 = 30103, L tan 63° 26' = 10.3009994,
and diff. for 1' = 3159 ?
[Exs. XXXIV. ] HEIGHTS AND DISTANCES. 227
33. An isosceles triangle of wood is placed in a vertical plane, vertex

upwards, and faces the sun. If 2a be the base of the triangle, h its
height, and 30° the altitude of the sun, prove that the tangent of the angle
2ah /3
at the apex of the shadow is 3h2 - a²*
34. A rectangular target faces due south, being vertical and standing
on a horizontal plane. Compare the area of the target with that of its
shadow on the ground when the sun is p° from the south at an altitude
of aº.
35. A spherical ball, of diameter 8, subtends an angle a at a man's
eye when the elevation of its centre is ß ; prove that the height of the
α
centre of the ball is 10sin ẞ cosec 2
36. A man standing on a plane observes a row of equal and equi-

distant pillars, the 10th and 17th of which subtend the same angle that
they would do if they were in the position of the first and were
1 1
respectively 2 and 3 of their height. Prove that, neglecting the height
of the man's eye, the line of pillars is inclined to the line drawn to the
first at an angle whose secant is nearly 2·6.
For the following four examples a book of tables will be wanted.
37. A and B are two points , which are on the banks of a river and
opposite to one another, and between them is the mast, PN, of a ship ;
the breadth of the river is 1000 feet, and the angular elevation of P at A
is 14° 20′ and at B it is 8° 10'. What is the height of P above AB ?
38. AB is a line 1000 yards long ; B is due north of A and from B
a distant point P bears 70° east of north ; at A it bears 41° 22' east of
north ; find the distance from A to P.
39. A is a station exactly 10 miles west of B. The bearing of a
particular rock from A is 74° 19′ east of north, and its bearing from B is
26° 51' west of north. How far is it north of the line AB?
40. The summit of a spire is vertically over the middle point of a
horizontal square enclosure whose side is of length a feet ; the height of
the spire is h feet above the level of the square. If the shadow of the
spire just reach a corner of the square when the sun has an altitude 0,
prove that
h√2= a tan 0.
Calculate h, having given a = 1000 feet and 0 = 25° 15'.
15-2
CHAPTER XV.
PROPERTIES OF A TRIANGLE.
198. Area of a given triangle . Let ABC be any

triangle, and AD the perpen-
dicular drawn from A upon the A F
E
opposite side.
Through A draw EAF parallel
to BC, and draw BE and CF per-
B C
pendicular to it. By Euc. I. 41 , a D
the area of the triangle ABC
=
= rectangle BF = } BC.CF = a . AD.
But ADAB sin B = c sin B.
The area of the triangle ABC therefore = ca sin B.
This area is denoted by A.
Hence Aca sin B = ab sin C = bc sin A ...(1 ).
2
By Art. 169, we have sin A = √s (s− a) (s — b) (s — c),
bc
so that =
Abc sin A = √s (sa) (s — b) (sc)...(2).
This latter quantity is often called S.

AREA OF A TRIANGLE. 229
EXAMPLES. XXXV.
Find the area of the triangle ABC when

1. a = 13, b = 14, and c = 15. 2. a = 18, b = 24, and c = 30.
3. a = 25, b = 52, and c = 63. 4. a = 125, b = 123, and c = 62.
5. a = 15, b = 36, and c = 39. 6. a = 287, b = 816, and c = 865.
7. a = 35, b = 84, and c = 91.
√6 +√2
8. a = √3, b = √2, and c =' 2
9. If B =45°, C= 60°, and a == 2 (√3 + 1 ) inches, prove that the area

of the triangle is 6 + 2 /3 sq. inches.
10. The sides of a triangle are 119, 111 , and 92 yards ; prove that its
area is 10 sq. yards less than an acre.
11. The sides of a triangular field are 242, 1212, and 1450 yards ;
prove that the area of the field is 6 acres.
12. A workman is told to make a triangular enclosure of sides 50, 41 ,
and 21 yards respectively ; having made the first side one yard too long,
what length must he make the other two sides in order to enclose the
prescribed area with the prescribed length of fencing?
13. Find, correct to 0001 of an inch, the length of one of the equal
sides of an isosceles triangle on a base of 14 inches having the same area
as a triangle whose sides are 13.6 , 15, and 15.4 inches.
sin B sin C
14. Prove that the area of a triangle is a² sin A
If one angle of a triangle be 60°, the area 10/3 square feet, and the
perimeter 20 feet, find the lengths of the sides.
3
15. The sides of a triangle are in A.P. and its area is 5 ths of an
equilateral triangle of the same perimeter ; prove that its sides are in the
ratio 3 : 5 : 7 , and find the greatest angle of the triangle.
16. In a triangle the least angle is 45° and the tangents of the angles
are in A.P. If its area be 3 square yards, prove that the lengths of the
sides are 3/5, 6/2 , and 9 feet, and that the tangents of the other angles
are respectively 2 and 3.
230 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XXXV .]
17. The lengths of two sides of a triangle are one foot and √2 feet
respectively, and the angle opposite the shorter side is 30° ; prove that
there are two triangles satisfying these conditions, find their angles, and
shew that their areas are in the ratio
/3 +1 : √3-1.
18. Find by the aid of the tables the area of the larger of the two
triangles given by the data
A = 31° 15′, a = 5ins. , and b = 7ins.
199. On the circles connected with a given

triangle .
The circle which passes through the angular points of
a triangle ABC is called its circumscribing circle or, more
briefly, its circumcircle. The centre of this circle is
found by the construction of Euc. IV. 5. Its radius is
always called R.
The circle which can be inscribed within the triangle
so as to touch each of the sides is called its inscribed
circle or, more briefly, its incircle . The centre of this
circle is found by the construction of Euc. IV. 4. Its radius
will be denoted by r.
The circle which touches the side BC and the two
sides AB and AC produced is called the escribed circle
opposite the angle A. Its radius will be denoted by r
Similarly , denotes the radius of the circle which
touches the side CA and the two sides BC and BA
produced. Also r, denotes the radius of the circle touch-
ing AB and the two sides CA and CB produced.
200. To find the magnitude of R, the radius of the

circumcircle of any triangle ABC.
Bisect the two sides BC and CA in D and E respec-
tively, and draw DO and EO perpendicular to BC and CA.
RADIUS OF THE CIRCUMCIRCLE. 231
By Euc. IV. 5, O is the centre of the circumcircle.

Join OB and OC.
B C
B C
D
Fig. 1. Fig. 2 . Fig. 3.
The point O may either lie within the triangle as in

Fig. 1 , or without it as in Fig. 2, or upon one of the sides
as in Fig. 3.
Taking the first figure, the two triangles BOD and
COD are equal in all respects, so that
< BOD = COD,
.. ¿ BOD = } < BOC =/ BAC (Euc. III. 20),
= A.
Also BDBO sin BOD.
a
= R sin A.
2
If A be obtuse, as in Fig. 2 , we have

< BOD = < BOC = < BLC = 180° - A (Euc. III. 22),
so that, as before, sin BOD = sin A ,
α
and R
= 2 sin A '
If A be a right angle, as in Fig. 3, we have
R = OA = 0C =
2
α
since in this case sin A = 1 .
2 sin A '
232 TRIGONOMETRY .
The relation found above is therefore true for all

triangles.
Hence, in all three cases, we have
a b
R= =
2 sin A 2 sin B 2 sin C (Art. 163 ).
201. In Art. 169 we have shewn that
2 2.S
sin A = bc √s (s − a) (s — b) (s — c) =
bc >
where S is the area of the triangle .
Substituting this value of sin A in ( 1 ), we have
abc
R=
4S >
giving the radius of the circumcircle in terms of the sides.
202. To find the value of r, the radius of the incircle

of the triangle ABC.
Bisect the two angles B and C by the two lines BI
and CI meeting in I.
By Euc. III. 4, I is the
centre of the incircle. Join
IA, and draw ID, IE, and
IF perpendicular to the EG
three sides.
H
Then ID = IE= IF =r.

B
We have a
area of ▲ IBC = {ID . BC = ½r . a,
area of ▲ ICA = †IE . CA = ‡r . b,

and area of ▲ IAB = }IF . AB = ½r.c.
RADIUS OF THE INCIRCLE. 233
Hence, by addition, we have
fr.a + fr.b + fr.c sum of the areas of the triangles

IBC, ICA, and IAB
= area of the ▲ ABC,
a+b + c
i.e. r = S,
2
so that r . s = S.
S
..
203. Since the angles IBD and IDB are respectively

equal to the angles IBF and IFB, the two triangles IDB
and IFB are equal in all respects.
Hence BDBF, so that 2BD = BD + BF.
So also AE = AF, so that 2AE = AE + AF,
and CECD, so that 2CE = CE + CD.
Hence, by addition , we have
2BD + 2AE+2CE = (BD + CD) + (CE+ AE) + (AF + FB),

i.e. 2BD + 2AC = BC + CA + AB.
.. 2BD + 2b = a + b + c = 28.
Hence BD = 8 - b = BF;
SO CE = sc = CD,
and AF = 8 - a - AE.
ID B
Now = tan IBD = tan
BD 2
B B
.. r = ID = BD tan = (s - b) tan
2
234 TRIGONOMETRY .
C
So r = IE = CE tan ICE = (s — c) tan 2
A
= a) tan
and also r = IF = FA tan IAF = (s — •
2
A B
Hence r = (s- a) tan = (s - b) tan = - c) tan
204. A third value for r may be found as follows :

we have a = BD + DC = ID cot IBD + ID cot ICD
B C
= r cot + r cot
2 2
B C
COS COS
2 2
=r
sin sin
2
B C с B C B
.. a sin sin rin COS + cos sin
2 2 2 2 2
B C A A
= r sin + = r sin 90° = r cos
-41 44
2
B C
sin sin
2
.. r = a
A
COS
2
A A
Cor. Since a = 2R sin A = 4R sin 4
2 cos 4,
2
A · B C
we have r = 4R sin sin sin
2 2 2
205. To find the value of r₁ , the radius of the escribed

circle opposite the angle A ofthe triangle ABC.
RADII OF THE ESCRIBED CIRCLES. 235
Produce AB and AC to L and M.

Bisect the angles CBL and
BCM by the lines BI, and CI₁,
and let these lines meet in Ã .
Draw ID₁, IE₁, and I,F₁
perpendicular to the three sides D₁
B C
respectively. Fi
The two triangles I,D, B and
E1
IFB are equal in all respects,
so that I₁F₁ = ID₁.
M
Similarly IE₁ = I‚D₁.
The three perpendiculars
ÏD₁‚ Ï‚Е₁, and IF, being equal, the point I, is the centre
of the required circle.
Now the area ABIC is equal to the sum of the
triangles ABC and I,BC ; it is also equal to the sum of
the triangles IBA and ICA.
Hence
AABC + AI, BC = AICA + AJAB .
: . S + ½Ï¿D₁ . BC = ½Ï¿E₁ .• CA + ½Ï¿F₁ . AB,

i.e. S + r₁.a = tr₁ . b + tr₁ . c.
b+c [b + c + a
S = r₁
= n [b + c2 = a ] = n [ + 02 + " - a ] = n ( -a).
Similarly it can be shewn that
S S
and r3 =
b
236 TRIGONOMETRY .
206. Since AE, and AF, are tangents, we have,

as in Art. 203, AE₁ = AF₁.
Similarly, BF₁ = BD₁ , and CE₁ = CD₁.
.. 2AE₁ = AE₁ + AF₁ = AB + BF₁ + AC + CE₁
= AB + BD₁ + AC + CD₁ = AB + BC + CA = 28.
.. AE₁ = s = AF₁
Also, BD₁ = BF₁1 = AF₁- AB = 8 - c,
and CD, = CE, = AE, -AC - s - b.
.. I₁E₁ = AE₁ tan Ã¸AЕ₁,
A
i.e. r₁ = stan •
2
207. A third value may be obtained for r, in terms of

a and the angles B and C.
For, since IC bisects the angle BCE₁ , we have
C
<I₁CD₁ = (180 ° - C') = 90° - •
2
B
So LI,BD, = 90° -
2'
.: a = BC = BD₁ + D₁C
= ID, cot IBD₁ + I, D₁ cot I,CD,1
B
= r₁tan + tan
2 2
B
sin sin
2
= r1 +
COS COS
2
RADII OF THE ESCRIBED CIRCLES. 237
B C B C B
... a cos COS =ጎ COS + cos sin
2 2 (sin 2 2 2
B C
= r₁ sin - = r₁ cos
/ + 1) == r, sin ( 90°
(1
2 2 2
B C
COS COS
2 2
.. r₁ = a
A
COS
2
A A
Cor. Since a = 2R sin A = 4R sin COS
2 2
A B C
we have r₁ = 4R sin COS COS
2 2 2
EXAMPLES. XXXVI.
1. In a triangle whose sides are 18, 24, and 30 inches respectively,

prove that the circumradius, the inradius, and the radii of the three
escribed circles are respectively 15 , 6, 12, 18, and 36 inches.
2. The sides of a triangle are 13, 14, and 15 feet ; prove that
(1) R = 81 ft. , (2) r = 4 ft. , (3) r₁ = 10 ft.,
(4) r, = 12 ft. , and (5) r = 14 ft.
5
3. In a triangle ABC if a = 13, b = 4, and cos C : find
13
R, r, 71 , 72 , and rз .
4. In the ambiguous case of the solution of triangles prove that the
circumcircles of the two triangles are equal.
Prove that
5. T (8 - a) = r₂ (8 — b) = rg (8 −c) = rs = S.
rri = tan²
6. 4. 7. rr₁₂73 = S².
T2T3
8. T₁₂r = rs cot2cot2: cot2 2 ' 9. = S.

r, cots
238 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XXXVI. ]
1 1 1 1
10. 2 + 1 + 71r2 = s² . 11. + + = 0.
ጥ
12. a (rr₁ + r½˜³) = b (rr₂ + r3r1) = c (rr3 + r1r2) .
13. (~₁ + r,) tan === (r3

(r3− r) cot C.
14. S =2R2 sin A sin B sin C.

15. 4R sin A sin B sin C - a cos A + b cos B + c cos C.
A B C
16. S = 4Rr cos COS COS
2 2'
1 1 1 1 a² + b²+c²
17. + 2 + r² + 2 = S2
18. 1 + 2+ -r = 4R.
19. (r₁ - r) (r₂- r) (r3 − r) = 4Rr²2.

1 1 1 1 1
20. bc +- = 1 + 12 + T3 = -
21 . bc
ca + ab 2Rr ca ab * 2R
22. r² + r₁² + r₂² + r32 = 16R² - a² – b² — c² .
208. Orthocentre and pedal triangle of any

triangle .
Let ABC be any triangle , and let AK, BL, and CM be
the perpendiculars from A , B, and C
upon the opposite sides of the tri-
M
angle. It can be easily shewn, as
in most editions of Euclid, that L
these three perpendiculars meet in

B C
a common point P. This point P K
is called the orthocentre of the
triangle. The triangle KLM, which is formed by joining
the feet of these perpendiculars , is called the pedal
triangle of ABC.
209. Distances of the orthocentre from the angular

points of the triangle.
PEDAL TRIANGLE. 239
We have PK = KB tan PBK = KB tan (90° – C)

с
=
- AB cos B cot C = cos B cos C
sin C
= 2R cos B cos C (Art. 200).
Again APAL . sec KAC

= c cos A. cosec C
C
= • COS A
sin C
= 2R cos A (Art. 200).
So BP = 2R cos B, and CP = 2R cos C.
The distances of the orthocentre from the angular
points are therefore 2R cos A , 2R cos B, and 2R cos C' ; its
distances from the sides are 2R cos B cos C, 2R cos C cos A ,
and 2R cos A cos B.
210. To find the sides and angles of the pedal triangle.

Since the angles PKC and PLC are right angles, the
points P, L, C, and K lie on a circle.
.. ¿ PKL = < PCL (Euc. III. 21 )
- A.
== 90° —
Similarly, P, K, B, and M lie on a circle, and therefore

.
< PKM= 2 PBM
= 90° — A.
Hence MKL = 180° – 2A
= the supplement of 2A .
So < KLM = 180° – 2B,
and < LMK = 180° – 2C.
240 TRIGONOMETRY .
Again, from the triangle ALM, we have
LM AL ABcosA
= =
sin A sin AML cos PML
c cos A c cos A
= =
COS PAL sin C
с
:. LM= sin A cos A
sin C
= a cos A. (Art. 163.)
So MK = b cos B, and KL = c cos C.
The sides of the pedal triangle are therefore a cos A ,

b cos B, and ccos C ; also its angles are the supplements
of twice the angles of the triangle.
211. Let I be the centre of the incircle and I₁ , I₂, and

I, the centres of the escribed circles
which are opposite to A , B, and C Is
respectively. As in Arts. 202 and A
205, IC bisects the angle ACB, and
IC bisects the angle BCM.
.. LICI₁ = LICB + 2I,CB B
= 1 < ACB + 1 ≤ MCB
M
= } [ < ACB + < MCB]
= 1.180° = a right angle.
I₁
Similarly, ICI, is a right
angle.
Hence ICI, is a straight line to which IC is perpen-
dicular.
So IAI, is a straight line to which IA is perpen-
CENTROID AND MEDIANS. 241
dicular, and IBI,1 is a straight line to which IB is perpen-

dicular.
Also, since IA and IA both bisect the angle BAC,
the three points A, I, and I, are in a straight line.
Similarly BII, and CII, are straight lines. Hence Ï‚Ã‚Ã‚
is a triangle, which is such that A, B, and C are the feet
of the perpendiculars drawn from its vertices upon the
opposite sides, and such that I is the intersection of these
perpendiculars, i.e. ABC is its pedal triangle and I is its
orthocentre.
The triangle Ã‚Ã‚Ã‚ is often called the excentric triangle.
212. Centroid and Medians of any Triangle .
If ABC be any triangle, and D, E, and F respectively

the middle points of BC, CA , and
AB, the lines AD, BE, and CF are
called the medians of the triangle.
It is shewn in most editions of E
Euclid that the medians meet in a
G
common point G, such that B
D
AG = AD, BG = BE,
and CG = 3CF.
This point G is called the centroid of the triangle.
213. Length of the medians. We have, by Art. 164,

ADAC2 + CD2-2AC . CD cos C
a²
-
= b²+ 4+ ab cos C,
and c² = b² + a² - 2ab cos C.

L. T. 16
242 TRIGONOMETRY .
a²
Hence 2AD² — c² = b² -
2
so that AD = - a².
√2b² + 2c² —
Hence also AD = √b² + c² + 2bc cos A. (Art. 164. )
So also
BE√2c2 +2a2 - b² , and CF = √2a2 + 262 - c².
214. Angles that the median AD makes with the sides.
If the BAD = ẞ, and CAD = y, we have
sin y ᎠᏟ α
= =
sin C AD 2x*
a sin C a sin C
.. sin y =
2. √2b² + 2c² -
— a²
a sin B
Similarly, sin B =
√2b² + 2c² — a²
Again, if the ADC be 0, we have
sin 0 AC b
= = •
sin C AD Ꮳ
b sin C 2b sin C
.. sin 0:=
XC √2b2 + 2c² a²
The angles that AD makes with the sides are therefore

found.
215. The centroid lies on the line joining the circum-

centre to the orthocentre.
CIRCUMCENTRE AND ORTHOCENTRE. 243
Let O and P be the circumcentre and orthocentre

respectively. Draw OD and
PK perpendicular to BC. A
Let AD and OP meet in G.
The triangles OGD and F
PGA are clearly equiangular. 0
Also, by Art. 200 ,
OD = R cos A
K
and, by Art. 209 ,
AP = 2R cos A.
Hence, by Euc. VI. 4,

AG AP
= = 2.
GD OD
The point G is therefore the centroid of the triangle.

Also, by the same proposition,
OG OD 1
= =
GP AP 2
The centroid therefore lies on the line joining the

circumcentre to the orthocentre, and divides it in the ratio
1 : 2.
It may be shewn by geometry that the centre of the
nine-point circle (which passes through the feet of the
perpendiculars, the middle points of the sides, and the
middle points of the lines joining the angular points
to the orthocentre) lies on OP and bisects it.
The circumcentre, the centroid, the centre of the
nine-point circle, and the orthocentre therefore all lie on a
straight line.
216. Distance between the circumcentre and the ortho-

centre.
16-2
244 TRIGONOMETRY.
If OF be perpendicular to AB, we have

▲ OAF = 90° — ▲ AOF = 90° — C.
Also PAL = 90° - C.
.. ZOAPA - ZOAF - PAL
=A −- 2 ( 90° – C) = A + 2C -
− 180°
= A + 2C − ( A + B + C) = C −- B.
Also OAR, and, by Art. 209,

PA = 2R cos A.
.. OP² = OA² + PA2-20A . PA cos OAP

= R² + 4R² cos² A - 4R² cos A cos (C– B)
= R2 +4R² cos A [cos Acos (C– B)]

= R² - 4R² cos A [ cos (B + C) + cos (C – B)]
(Art. 72),
=
- R28 R2 cos A cos B cos C.
.. OP = R√1-8 cos A cos B cos C.
* 217. To find the distance between the circumcentre

and the incentre.
Let O be the circumcentre, and

A
let OF be perpendicular to AB.
Let I be the incentre, and IE F
E
be perpendicular to AC.
0
Then, as in the last article, B
ZOAF = 90° - C.
.. LOAI = LIAF - LOAF

A A A +B + C C-B
- - =
= 1 − (90 ° — C') = 4
2 + C- 2 2
CIRCUMCENTRE AND INCENTRE. 245
IE r B C
Also AI = = = 4R sin sin (Art. 204. Cor.).
A A 2 2
sin sin
2 2
.. OI² = OA² + AI² – 20A . AI cos OAI

B C B C C-B
= R² + 16 R2 sin² sin2 -
- 8R2 sin sin COS
2 2 2 2 2
012 B C
== 1 + 16 sin² sin2
R2 2 2
B B C B
- 8 sin COSsinCOS + sin sin
2 2 [ 2 2 2 2
B C B C B C
= 1-8 sin sin COS COS - sin sin
2 2 2 2 2
B C B +C
= 1-8 sin sin COS
2 2 2
B C A
= 1-8 sin sin sin (Art. 69) ......... ( 1 ).
2
B C A
.. 1 - 8 sin sin sin
/1
OI = R√√ 2
Also (1 ) may be written

A B C
O12 - R2-2R × 4R sin sin sin
2 2 2
= R2-2Rr. (Art. 204. Cor. )
In a similar manner it may be shewn that, if I be the

centre of the escribed circle opposite the angle A , we shall
have
A B C
OI, = R 1 + 8 sin COS COS
2 2 2'
and hence OI₁² = R² + 2Rr₁. (Art. 207. Cor.)
246 TRIGONOMETRY .
Aliter. Let OI be produced to meet the circumcircle of the triangle

in S and T, and let AII, meet it in H.
By Euc. III. 35, we have
SI. IT AI . IH….. . (2).
But SI.IT = (R + OI) (R -— OI) = R² – OI².
Also LHIC LICA + LIAC = LICB + ▲ HAB
= LICB+ LHCB
= LHCI.
.. HI= HC = 2R sin · (Art. 200.)
2
IE 7'
Also AI= =
sin
2
Substituting in (2), we have
R2-012-2Rr,
i.e. O12 R2-2Rr.
Similarly, we can shew that IH = I₁C, and hence that
1,02 - R² = I₁H.I₁A = 2Rr₁ ,
i.e. I₁0²= R² +2Rr₁ .
218. Bisectors of the angles.
If AD bisect the angle A and

A
divide the base into portions x and
y, we have, by Euc. vi. 3,
XC AB C
=
y AC b
α B Ꮖ C
=y = x + y = (1),
y
b b +c b + c
giving x and y.
Also, if be the length of AD and the angle it
makes with BC, we have
ΔABD + ΔACD = Δ ABC .
1 A 1 A 1
= bc
2
2 bô sin mở
2 tổ
ở côsin - 2 dosin A ,
[Exs. XXXVII.] PROPERTIES OF TRIANGLES. 247
bc sin A 2bc A
i.e. = = COS (2) .
b+c A b +c 2
sin
2
Α
Also 0 = 2. DAB + B = 4 + B ............
.... (3).
We thus have the length of the bisector and its

inclination to BC.
EXAMPLES . XXXVII.
If I, I , I , and I, be respectively the centres of the incircle and the

three escribed circles of a triangle ABC, prove that
1. AI= r cosec〇
B C
2. IA . IB . IC = abc tan12tan tan
2 2
A
3. AI₁ = r₁ cosec 2 4. II₁ = a sec ·
A
5. II =a cosec 2 • 6. II .II .II3 = 16R²r.
B +C
7. II =4R (r₂ +rg) . 8. LIII ="
2
9. II² + 1,1² = II² + I3I1² = IIg³ + I1I₂².
A B C abc
10. Area of AI₁₂I = 8R² cos14 COS COS =
2 2 2 2r
11. IIsin
.IIII
A
= .I3I1II3.
sin B
3
= 1112
sin C
If I, O, and P be respectively the incentre, circumcentre, and ortho-
centre, and G the centroid of the triangle ABC, prove that
12. 102 R2 (3-2 cos A - 2 cos B - 2 cos C).
13. IP2-2r2-4R2 cos A cos B cos C.
1
14. OG² = R² - 9
1; (a² + b² + c²) .
B- C C- A A- B
15. Area of AIOP = 2R2 sin sin sin
2 2 2
248 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XXXVII.]
4 B -C
16. Area of ▲ IPG:- R2 sin sin C -4 sin 4 -B
2
2 2
17. Prove that the distance of the centre of the nine-point circle from
R
the angle A is 2 √√1 +8 cos A sin B sin C.
18. DEF is the pedal triangle of ABC ; prove that

(1) its area is 2S cos A cos B cos C,
R
(2) the radius of its circumcircle is 2 9
and (3) the radius of its incircle is 2R cos A cos B cos C.
19. 01020, is the triangle formed by the centres of the escribed circles
of the triangle ABC; prove that
A B C
(1) its sides are 4R cos 4R cos and 4R cos
2' 2'
π A π B с
(2) its angles are 2 - 2 9 2 - " and
ភ្វូ- 2,
and (3) its area is 2Rs.
20. DEF is the triangle formed by joining the points of contact of
the incircle with the sides of the triangle ABC ; prove that
A B
(1) its sides are 2r cos 2 9 2r cos 2 ' and 2r cos 음,
π A π B π с
(2) its angles are 2 2 " 2 - 2 " and 2 - 2 ?
2.S$ 1r
and (3) its area is abcs " i.e. 2 R S.
21. D, E, and F are the middle points of the sides of the triangle
ABC ; prove that the centroid of the triangle DEF is the same as that of
ABC, and that its orthocentre is the circumcentre of ABC.
In any triangle ABC, prove that
22. The perpendicular from A divides BC into portions which are
proportional to the cotangents of the adjacent angles, and that it divides
the angle A into portions whose cosines are inversely proportional to the
adjacent sides.
23. The median through A divides it into angles whose cotangents
are 2 cot A + cot C and 2 cot A + cot B, and makes with the base an angle
1
whose cotangent is (cot C ~ cot B).
[Exs. XXXVII. ] PROPERTIES OF TRIANGLES. 249
24. The distance between the middle point of BC and the foot of the
b2 ~c2
perpendicular from A is 2a
25. O is the orthocentre of a triangle ABC ; prove that the radii of
the circles circumscribing the triangles BOC, COA, AOB, and ABC are
all equal .
26. AD, BE, and CF are the perpendiculars from the angular points
of a triangle ABC upon the opposite sides ; prove that the diameters of
the circumcircles of the triangles AEF, BDF, and CDE are respectively
a cot A, b cot B, and c cot C, and that the perimeters of the triangles DEF
and ABC are in the ratio r : R.
27. Prove that the product of the distances of the incentre from the
angular points of a triangle is 4Rr².
28. The triangle DEF circumscribes the three escribed circles of the
triangle ABC ; prove that
EF FD DE
= =
a cos A b cos B c cos C '
29. If a circle be drawn touching the inscribed and circumscribed
circles of a triangle and the side BC externally, prove that its radius is
tan2
a 2'
30. If a, b, and c be the radii of three circles which touch one another
externally, and r₁ and r₂ be the radii of the two circles that can be drawn
to touch these three, prove that
1 2 2 2
=
1 -- a ++ 을с
31. If A be the area of the triangle formed by joining the points of
contact of the inscribed circle with the sides of the given triangle, whose
area is A, and A1 , A2, and A, the corresponding areas for the escribed
circles, prove that
A1 + A2 + A3 - A。 = 24.
32. If the bisectors of the angles of a triangle ABC meet the opposite
sides in A', B', and C', prove that the ratio of the areas of the triangles
A'B'C' and ABC is
A B C A- B B-C C-A
2 sin 4 sin : COS COS COS
2 2 2 2 2
250 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XXXVII. ]
33. Through the angular points of a triangle are drawn straight

lines which make the same angle a with the opposite sides of the triangle ;
prove that the area of the triangle formed by them is to the area of the
original triangle as 4 cos²a : 1.
34. Two circles, of radii a and b, cut each other at an angle 0.
Prove that the length of the common chord is
2ab sin 0
√a²+b²+2ab cos
35. Three equal circles touch one another ; find the radius of the
circle which touches all three.
36. Three circles, whose radii are a, b, and c, touch one another
externally and the tangents at their points of contact meet in a point ;
prove that the distance of this point from either of their points of contact is
(a+b+c) *.
37. In the sides BC, CA, AB are taken three points A', B', C' such that
BA' : A'C = CB' : B'A = AC' : C′B = m : n ;
prove that if AA', BB' , and CC' be joined they will form by their inter-
sections a triangle whose area is to that of the triangle ABC as
(m - n)² : m² + mn + n².
38. The circle inscribed in the triangle ABC touches the sides BC,
CA, and AB in the points A₁ , B₁ , and C₁ respectively ; similarly the
circle inscribed in the triangle Â¸ÂÎС₁ touches the sides in A,, B2, C2 44
respectively, and so on ; if ABCn be the nth triangle so formed, prove
that its angles are
π
A
T +(- 2) - (4-5 ) , + (- 2)-- ( В
B- ) .
π
and + ( − 2)−n
( C- ).
Hence prove that the triangle so formed is ultimately equilateral.
39. A,B, C, is the triangle formed by joining the feet of the perpen-
diculars drawn from ABC upon the opposite sides ; in like manner
A,B,C, is the triangle obtained by joining the feet of the perpendiculars
from A₁ , B₁ , and C₁ on the opposite sides, and so on. Find the values of
the angles A , B , and C, in the nth of these triangles.
CHAPTER XVI.
ON QUADRILATERALS AND REGULAR POLYGONS.
219. To find the area of a quadrilateral which is

inscribable in a circle.
Let ABCD be the quadrilateral, the sides being a, b , c,

and d as marked in the figure.
The area of the quadrilateral
= area ofAABC+ area of ▲ ADC
d
= absin B + cd sin D ( Art. 198. )
= (ab + cd) sin B,
since, by Euc. III. 22,
< B = 180° - LD,
b
and therefore
B
C
sin B = sin D.
We have to express sin B in

terms of the sides.
We have
a² + b² - 2ab cos B = AC² = c² + d² -
— 2cd cos D.
-=
But cos D = cos (180 ° – B) cos B.
252 TRIGONOMETRY.
Hence
a² + b² - 2ab cos B = c + d + 2cd cos B,
a² + b² —c² -
— d²
so that cos B =
2 (ab + cd)
Hence
-
sin² B = 1 − cos² B = 1 − (a² + b² — c² — d³)²
{2 (ab + cd)}²
{2 (ab + cd) }² -
— {a² + b² — c² — d²} ²
4 (ab + cd)²
{2 (ab + cd) + (a² +b² — c² — d²)} { 2 (ab + cd) — (a² +b² —c² — d²)}
4 (ab + cd)²
{(a² +2ab + b²) — (c² − 2cd + d²) } { (c² + 2cd + d²) —(a² + b² −2ab)}
4 (ab + cd)²
- -
{(a + b)² − (c − d)²} { (c + d)² -
− (a - — b)²}
4 (ab + cd)²
= {(a + b + c − d) (a + b − c + d) } { (c + d + a − b) (c +d− a + b)}

4 (ab + cd)²
Let
a + b + c + d = 28,
so that
a + b + c - d = (a + b + c + d) − 2d = 2 (s — d) ,
a + b - c + d = 2 (s — c),
a - b + c + d = 2 (s - b),
and - a + b + c + d = 2 (sa).
Hence
-
2 (s -
− d) × 2 (s -
− c) × 2 ( s − b ) × 2 (s -
− a)
sin' B:=
4 (ab + cd)2
so that
(ab + cd) sin B = 2 √√(s − a) (s — - c) (s -
= b) (s − — d).
Hence the area of the quadrilateral
= (ab + cd) sin B = √(s -
− a) (s – b) (s -
— c) (s — d).
AREA OF A QUADRILATERAL. 253
a² + b²- c² - d²
220. Since cos B = >
2 (ab + cd)
we have AC2 = a² + b² - 2ab cos B
a² + b²- c² - d2
= a² + b² -— ab
ab + cd
(a² + b²) cd + ab (c² + d²)

ab + cd
= (ac + bd) (ad + bc)

ab + cd
Similarly it could be proved that
BD2 = (ab + cd) (ac + bd)

ad + bc
We thus have the lengths ofthe diagonals of the

quadrilateral.
It follows by multiplication that
AC . BD2 = (ac + bd)²,
i.e. AC . BD == AB . CD + BC . AD.
This is Euc. VI. Prop. D.
Again, the radius of the circle circumscribing the

AC
quadrilateral = 1 sin B
= (ac + bd) (ad + bc) (s — a) ( s — b) (s — c) (s — d)

÷4
ab + cd (ab + cd)²
(ab + cd) ( ac + bd) ( ad + bc) |

= 1. -
((s -
− a) (s — b ) ( s — c) ( s — d) { '
221. If we have any quadrilateral, not necessarily

inscribable in a circle, we can express its area in terms of
its sides and the sum of any two opposite angles.
254 TRIGONOMETRY.
For let the sum of the two angles B and D be denoted

by 2a, and denote the area of the A
d
quadrilateral by A.
Then D
a
▲ area of ABC + area of ACD
= ab sin B + cd sin D,
B C
so that b
4A2ab sin B + 2cd sin D... ( 1 ).

Also a² + b² - 2ab cos B = c² + d2-2cd cos D,
so that
— c² -
a² + b² - — d² = 2ab cos B - 2cd cos D ...... (2).
Squaring (1 ) and (2) and adding, we have
— c² -
16A² + (a² + b² - — d²)² = 4a²b² + 4c²d²
-8abcd (cos B cos D- sin B sin D)
= 4a²b² + 4c²d² — 8abcd cos (B + D)
=·4a²b² + 4c²d² - 8abcd cos 2a
— 8abcd ( 2 cos² a -
=· 4a²b² + 4c²d² - − 1)
=
= 4 (ab + cd)² – 16abcd cos² a,
so that
16A² = 4 (ab + cd)² — (a² + b² — c² — d²)² - 16abcd cos² a
. (3).
But, as in Art. 219, we have
- c² − d²)²
4 (ab + cd)² -
— (a² + b² —
= 2 (sa) . 2 (s - b) . 2 (sc ) . 2 (sd)
- c) (s -
= 16 (sa) (s — b) (8 — — d).
Hence ( 3) becomes
▲² = (s − a) (s -
— b ) (s — c) (s — d) — abcd cos² a,
giving the required area.
Cor. 1. If d be zero, the quadrilateral becomes a
triangle, and the formula above becomes that of Art. 198.
AREA OF A QUADRILATERAL. 255
Cor. 2. Ifthe sides of the quadrilateral be given in

length, we know a, b, c, d and therefore s. The area A is
hence greatest when abcd cos² a is least, that is when cos² a
is zero, and then a = 90°. In this case the sum of two
opposite angles of the quadrilateral is 180° and the figure
inscribable in a circle. (Euc. III. 22.)
The quadrilateral, whose sides are given, has therefore
the greatest area when it can be inscribed in a circle.
222. Ex. Find the area of a quadrilateral which can have a circle
inscribed in it.
If the quadrilateral ABCD can have a circle inscribed in it so as to
touch the sides AB, BC, CD, and DA in the points P, Q, R, and S, we
should have
AP= AS, BP= BQ , CQ = CR, and DR = DS.
:. AP+BP + CR + DR = AS + BQ + CQ + DS,
i.e. AB +CD = BC + DA ,
i.e. a + c = b + d.
a + b+c+d
Hence 8= ~ = a + c = b + d.
2
.. 8 - a = c, 8 - b = d, s - c = a, and s - d = b.
The formula of the last article therefore gives in this case
A2 = abcd - abcd cos² a = abcd sin² a,
i.e. the area required = √abcd sin a.
If in addition the quadrilateral be also inscribable in a circle, we have
2a - 180°, so that sin a = sin 90° = 1.
Hence the area of a quadrilateral which can be both inscribed in
a circle and circumscribed about another circle is abcd.
EXAMPLES. XXXVIII.
1. Find the area of a quadrilateral, which can be inscribed in a circle,
whose sides are
(1) 3, 5, 7, and 9 feet ;
and (2) 7, 10, 5, and 2 feet.
2. The sides of a quadrilateral are respectively 3, 4, 5, and 6 feet, and
the sum of a pair of opposite angles is 120° ; prove that the area of the
quadrilateral is 3/30 square feet.
256 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XXXVIII. ]
3. The sides of a quadrilateral which can be inscribed in a circle are

3, 3, 4, and 4 feet ; find the radii of the incircle and circumcircle .
4. Prove that the area of any quadrilateral is one-half the product of
the two diagonals and the sine of the angle between them.
5. If a quadrilateral can be inscribed in one circle and circumscribed
about another circle, prove that its area is abcd, and that the radius of
the latter circle is
2abcd
a + b + c + d'
6. A quadrilateral ABCD is described about a circle ; prove that
A B с D
AB sin sin = CD sin sin
2 2 2 2
7. a, b, c, and d are the sides of a quadrilateral taken in order, and a
is the angle between the diagonals opposite to b or d ; prove that the area
of the quadrilateral is
·(a² — b² +c² — d²) tan a.
8. If a, b, c, and d be the sides and x and y the diagonals of a

quadrilateral, prove that its area is
} [4x²y² - - c²)²jª .
− (b² + d² — a² —
9. If a quadrilateral can be inscribed in a circle, prove that the angle
between its diagonals is
sin-¹ [2√(s - a) (s − b) (s -− c) (8 -
− d) ÷ (ac + bd) ] .
If the same quadrilateral can also be circumscribed about a circle, prove
that this angle is then
ac - bd
COS -1
ac + bd'
10. The sides of a quadrilateral are divided in order in the ratio
m : n, and a new quadrilateral is formed by joining the points of division ;
prove that its area is to the area of the original figure as m² + n² to
(m +n)².
11. If ABCD be a quadrilateral inscribed in a circle, prove that
B (sa) (8 - b)
tan =
2 (sc) (sd) '
and that the product of the segments into which one diagonal is divided
by the other diagonal is
abcd (ac + bd)
(ab +cd) (ad + bc) *
[Exs. XXXVIII.] REGULAR POLYGONS. 257
12. If a, b, c, and d be the sides of a quadrilateral, taken in order,

prove that
d² = a² + b² + c² - 2ab cos a -2bc cos ẞ - 2ca cos y,
where a, ẞ, and denote the angles between the sides a and b, b and c,
and c and a respectively.
223. Regular Polygons. A regular polygon is a

polygon which has all its sides equal and all its angles
equal.
If the polygon have n angles we have, by Euc. I. 32 ,
Cor., n times its angle + 4 right angles = twice as many
right angles as the figure has sides = 2n right angles.
2n - 4 2n ― 4 π
Hence each angle := right angles :=
n n 2
radians.
224. Radii ofthe inscribed and circumscribing circles

of a regular polygon.
Let AB, BC, and CD be three successive sides of the

polygon, and let n be the
A D
number of its sides.
Bisect the angles ABC
and BCD by the lines BO R R
and CO which meet in 0,
and draw OL perpendicular
to BC. L
It is easily seen that O is the centre of both the

incircle and the circumcircle of the polygon, and that
BL equals LC.
Hence we have OB = OC = R, the radius of the circum-
circle, and OL = r, the radius of the incircle.
L. T. 17
258 TRIGONOMETRY.
The angle BOC is n th of the sum of all the angles
subtended at O by the sides,

4 right angles__
= 2π radians.
i.e. <BOC=
n n
π
Hence < BOL = < BOC =
= •
n
If a be a side of the polygon, we have

π
a = BC = 2BL = 2R sin BOL = 2R sin •
n
α α π
.. R= = cosec .(1).
П n
2 sin
n
Again,
π
a = 2BL = 20L tan BOL = 2r tan
n
α π
.. r = = cot ..... (2).
π 2 n
2 tan
n
225. Area of a Regular Polygon .

The area of the polygon is n times the area of the
triangle BOC.
Hence the area of the polygon
= nxOL.BC = n . OL . BL = n . BL cot LOB . BL
a² П
= n. cot ...... (1),
4 n
giving the area in terms of the side.
Also the area
π
= n.OL.BL = n . OL . OL tan BOL = nr² tan . (2).
n
REGULAR POLYGONS. 259
Again, the area

= n.OL.BL = n . OB cos LOB . OB sin LOB
π π n 2π
= nR² cos
= sin = R² sin .....
..(3).
n n 2 n
The formulae (2) and (3) give the area in terms of the
radius of the inscribed and circumscribed circles.
226. Ex. The length of each side of a regular dodecagon is 20 feet ;

find (1) the radius of its inscribed circle, (2) the radius of its circumscribing
circle, and (3) its area.
The angle subtended by a side at the centre of the polygon
360°
= = 30°.
12
Hence we have = tan 15° = R sin 15°.
10 =r
.. r= 10 cot 15°
10
=
2-3 (Art. 101)
= 10 (2 + 3) = 37.32 ... feet.
10
Also R= = 10 x 2/2 (Art. 106)
sin 15° -
√3
= 10.√2 (√3 + 1 ) = 10 (√6 + √2)
= 10 (2·4495... + 1.4142 ...) = 38.637... feet.
Again, the area = 12 x rx 10 square feet
= 1200 (2 + 3) = 4478 46 ... square feet.
EXAMPLES. XXXIX.
1. Find, correct to 01 of an inch, the length of the perimeter of a
regular decagon which surrounds a circle of radius one foot.
2. Find to 3 places of decimals the length of the side of a regular
polygon of 12 sides which is circumscribed to a circle of unit radius.
3. Find the area of (1 ) a pentagon, (2) a hexagon, (3) an octagon,
(4) a decagon and (5) a dodecagon, each being a regular figure of side
1 foot.
4. Find the difference between the areas of a regular octagon and a

regular hexagon if the perimeter of each be 24 feet.
17-2
260 TRIGONOMETRY. [ Exs.
5. A square, whose side is 2 feet, has its corners cut away so as to

form a regular octagon ; find its area.
6. Compare the areas and perimeters of octagons which are respec-

tively inscribed in and circumscribed to a given circle, and shew that the
areas of the inscribed hexagon and octagon are as 27 to 32.
7. Prove that the radius of the circle described about a regular
pentagon is nearly 17ths of the side of the pentagon.
8. If an equilateral triangle and a regular hexagon have the same
perimeter, prove that their areas are as 2 : 3.
9. If a regular pentagon and a regular decagon have the same
perimeter, prove that their areas are as 2 : √5.
10. Prove that the sum of the radii of the circles , which are respec-
tively inscribed in and circumscribed about a regular polygon of n sides, is
a π
cot
2 2n '
where a is a side of the polygon.
11. Of two regular polygons of n sides, one circumscribes and the

other is inscribed in a given circle. Prove that the three perimeters are in
the ratio
π π π
seccosec
n n - : 1,
n
π
and that the areas of the polygons are in the ratio cos² n : 1.
12. Given that the area of a polygon of n sides circumscribed about

a circle is to the area of the circumscribed polygon of 2n sides as 3 : 2,
find n.
13. Prove that the area of a regular polygon of 2n sides inscribed in a

circle is a mean proportional between the areas of the regular inscribed
and circumscribed polygons of n sides.
14. The area of a regular polygon of n sides inscribed in a circle is to
that of the same number of sides circumscribing the same circle as 3 is to
4. Find the value of n.
15. The interior angles of a polygon are in A. P.; the least angle
is 120° and the common difference is 5° ; find the number of sides.
XXXIX . ] REGULAR POLYGONS. 261
16. There are two regular polygons the number of sides in one being
double the number in the other, and an angle of one polygon is to an angle
of the other as 9 to 8 ; find the number of sides of each polygon.
17. Show that there are eleven pairs of regular polygons such that
the number of degrees in the angle of one is to the number in the angle of
the other as 10 : 9. Find the number of sides in each.
18. The side of a base of a square pyramid is a feet and its vertex is
at a height of h feet above the centre of the base ; if 0 and be respec-
tively the inclinations of any face to the base, and of any two faces to one
another, prove that
2h a2
tan 0 - and tan = 1+
a 2h2 '
19. A pyramid stands on a regular hexagon as base. The perpendi-

cular from the vertex of the pyramid on the base passes through the
centre of the hexagon, and its length is equal to that of a side of the base.
Find the tangent of the angle between the base and any face of the
pyramid, and also of half the angle between any two side faces.
20. A regular pyramid has for its base a polygon of n sides, each of
length a , and the length of each slant side is 7 ; prove that the cosine of
the angle between two adjacent lateral faces is
2π
412 cos + a²
n
412 -a2
CHAPTER XVII.
TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS OF SMALL ANGLES. AREA OF

A CIRCLE. DIP OF THE HORIZON.
227. IF 0 be the number of radians in any angle,

which is less than a right angle, then sin 0, 0, and tan 0 are
in ascending order of magnitude.
Let TOP be any angle which is less than a right

angle.
With centre O and any radius OP
describe an arc PAP' meeting OT P
in A.
Draw PN perpendicular to OA,
0 T
and produce it to meet the arc of the N
circle in P'.
Draw the tangent PT at P to
ρ
meet OA in T, and join TP'.
The triangles PON and P'ON are
equal in all respects, so that PN = NP' and
arc PA arc AP'.
Also the triangles TOP and TOP' are equal in all

respects , so that
TP = TP'.
SIN << TAN 8. 263
The straight line PP' is less than the arc PAP', so

that NP is < arc PA .
We shall assume that the arc PAP' is less than the
sum of PT and TP', so that arc PA < PT.
Hence NP, the arc AP, and PT are in ascending
order of magnitude.
NP arc AP PT
Therefore and are in ascending
OP' OP OP
order of magnitude.
NP
But = sin AOP = sin 0,
OP
arc AP
= number of radians in AOP = 0 (Art. 21 ) ,
OP
PT
and = tan POT = tan AOP = tan 0.
OP
Hence sin 0, 0, and tan 0 are in ascending order of

magnitude, provided that
π
0<
<
228. Since sin 0 < 0 < tan 0, we have, by dividing

each by the positive quantity sin 0,
1
1< <
sin cos 0
0 1
Hence always lies between 1 and
sin cos 0
This holds however small may be.
Now, when is very small, cos is very nearly unity,
and the smaller becomes, the more nearly does cos 0
1
become unity, and hence the more nearly does cos
become unity.
264 TRIGONOMETRY .
0
Hence, when is very small, the quantity sin lies
between 1 and a quantity which differs from unity by an

indefinitely small quantity.
In other words, when is made indefinitely small the
0 sin
quantity sin Ꮎ ' and therefore Ꮎ , is ultimately equal to
unity, i.e. the smaller an angle becomes the more nearly

is its sine equal to the number of radians in it.
This is often shortly expressed thus ;
sin 00, when is very small.
So also tan 0 = 0, when 0 is very small.
α
Cor. Putting =- = 2, it follows that, when ✪ is indefi-
n
nitely small, n is indefinitely great.
α
a
sin
n
Hence is unity, when n is indefinitely great.
α
n
α
So n sin = a, when n is indefinitely great.
n
a
Similarly, n tan - = a, when n is indefinitely great.
n
229. In the preceding article it must be particularly

noticed that is the number of radians in the angle
considered.
The value of sin a°, when a is small, may be found.
For, since = 180°, we have
a C
α =
=(π 180
πα с πα
.. sin a° = sin =
180. 180 '
by the result of the last article.
RATIOS OF SMALL ANGLES. 265
230. From the tables it will be seen that the sine of

an angle and its circular measure agree to 7 places of
decimals so long as the angle is not greater than 18'.
They agree to the 5th place of decimals so long as the
angle is less than about 2°.
231. If be the number of radians in an angle, which is less than a

03 02
right angle, then sin is >0 and cos 0 is > 1-- •
4 2
0 812 812
tan >
2
3/2
12
... sin COS

V
Hence, since sin 0 =2 sin cos

2 2
we have sin(>0 cos² 2, i.e. >01- sin2

But since, by Art. 227,
0
sin <
2
02
therefore
1 - ain > 1- () , i.e. > 1- 4
03
.. sin 0-0 (1-2), i.e.
4 Le. > 0 4.
Again, cos 0=1-2 sin²
2'
therefore, since sin2 <
sin ( ) ."
we have sin21-2
1-2 sin² 1-2 ( ) , i.e. > 1- ″.
It will be proved in Part II. that
03 02 01
sin 0>0- 9 and cos <1 + 24
6
232. Ex. 1. Find the values of sin 10' and cos 10'.
1° пс
Since 10':= =
6 180 x 6'
266 TRIGONOMETRY.
П
we have sin 10' = sin = П
( 180 x 63)° 180 x 6
3.14159265...
180 × 6 = 0029089 nearly.
Also cos 10'1 - sin² 10′
= [ 1 − · 000008468 ...]*
= 1- [ 000008468 ... ] ,
approximately by the Binomial Theorem ,

= 1-000004234...
= 9999958....
Ex. 2. Solve approximately the equation

sin 0.52.
C
π
Since sin is very nearly equal to
2' ✪ must be nearly equal to ·
π
Let then = +x, where x is small.
6
π π
...52 = sin =sin cos x + cos sin x
(1 + x)=
cos x +
=100 + sin x.
2 2
Ꮖ is very small, we have
Since x
cos x =1 and sin x = x nearly.
1
...52 = + √3 x.
2
2
.. x ='02 × radians = √3¢ = 1.32° nearly.
75
Hence 0 =31° 19′ nearly.
EXAMPLES. XL.
Taking equal to 3.14159265, find to 5 places of decimals the

value of
1. sin 7'. 2. sin 15". 3. sin l'.
4. cos 15'. 5. cosec 8". 6. sec 5'.
[Exs. XL.] EXAMPLES. 267
Solve approximately the equations

7. sin 0 = .01. 8. sin 048.
T
9. cos +0 = '49. 10. cos 0.999.
11. Find approximately the distance at which a halfpenny, which is

an inch in diameter, must be placed so as to just hide the moon, the
angular diameter of the moon, that is the angle its diameter subtends at
the observer's eye, being taken to be 30'.
12. A person walks in a straight line toward a very distant object, and
observes that at three points A, B, and C the angles of elevation of the
top of the object are a, 2a , and 3a respectively ; prove that
AB = 3BC nearly.
13. If be the number of radians in an angle which is less than

a right angle, prove that
04
cos @ is < 1 - 02 +16°
2
14. Prove the theorem of Euler, viz. that

Ө
sin 0=0.cos . Cos • COS .ad. inf.
2 22 23
Ө
We have sin 0=2 sin COS = 22 sin COS COS
[ We 22
0
= 23 sin COS COS COS
23 23
0
= 2n sin 2n X COS 2' COS 22. COS 23 COS
2n
Make n indefinitely great so that, by Art. 228 Cor. ,
2n sin
2n = 0.
0
Hence sin 00.cos • COS COS .ad inf.
15. Prove that
.ad inf.
(1 -tan³ ) (1 - tan² 22) (1 - tan? .......
= 0.cot 0.
268 TRIGONOMETRY.
233. Area of a circle.

By Art. 225, the area of a regular polygon of n sides ,
which is inscribed in a circle of radius R, is
2π
R² sin - •
2 n
Let now the number of sides of this polygon be inde-
finitely increased, the polygon always remaining regular.
It is clear that the perimeter of the polygon must more
and more approximate to the circumference of the circle.
Hence, when the number of sides of the polygon is
infinitely great, the area of the circle must be the same as
that of the polygon.
2π 2π
sin sin
n 2π n 2π N n
= R2 = πR² .
Now 22 R² sin n n 2π 2π
n n
sin 2π
TR2.
=π where 0 =
0 n
When n is made infinitely great, the value of becomes
sin
infinitely small, and then, by Art. 228, is unity.
Ꮎ
The area of the circle therefore = R2 = π times the
square of its radius.
234. Area ofthe sector of a circle.

Let O be the centre of a circle, AB the bounding arc
of the sector, and let ZAOB = a radians.
By Euc. vi. 33 , since sectors are to one another as the
arcs on which they stand, we have
area of sector AOB arc AB
=
area of whole circle circumference
Ra α
= =
2πR 2π
AREA OF A CIRCLE. 269
α
.. area of sector AOB := × area of whole circle
2π
α 1
= × πR² = R² . a.
2π
EXAMPLES. XLI.
1. Find the area of a circle whose circumference is 74 feet.
2. The diameter of a circle is 10 feet ; find the area of a sector whose

arc is 2210.
3. The area of a certain sector of a circle is 10 square feet ; if the

radius of the circle be 3 feet, find the angle of the sector.
4. The perimeter of a certain sector of a circle is 10 feet ; if the

radius of the circle be 3 feet, find the area of the sector.
5. A strip of paper, two miles long and 003 of an inch thick, is rolled
up into a solid cylinder ; find approximately the radius of the circular ends
of the cylinder.
6. A strip of paper, one mile long, is rolled tightly up into a solid

cylinder, the diameter of whose circular ends is 6 inches ; find the thick-
ness of the paper.
7. Given two concentric circles of radii r and 2r ; two parallel

tangents to the inner circle cut off an arc from the outer circle ; find its
length.
8. The circumference of a semicircle is divided into two arcs such
that the chord of one is double that of the other. Prove that the sum of
the areas of the two segments cut off by these chords is to the area of the
semicircle as 27 is to 55.
22
[ = ]
9. If each ofthree circles, of radius a, touch the other two, prove that
4
the area included between them is nearly equal to 25 a2.
270 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XLI.]
10. Six equal circles, each of radius a, are placed so that each
touches two others, their centres being all on the circumference of
another circle ; prove that the area which they enclose is
2a2 (3√3 - π).
11. From the vertex A of a triangle a straight line dD is drawn
making an angle with the base and meeting it at D. Prove that the
area common to the circumscribing circles of the triangles ABD and
ACD is
(b2y + c²ß - be sin 4) cosec² 0,
where ẞ and y are the number of radians in the angles B and C respec-
tively.
235. Dip of the Horizon.

Let O be a point at a distance h above the earth's
surface. Draw tangents, such as OT
and OT ", to the surface of the earth.
The ends of all these tangents all
clearly lie on a circle. This circle is
called the Offing or Visible Horizon .
The angle that each of these tangents
OT makes with a horizontal plane POQ
is called the Dip of the Horizon.
Letr be the radius of the earth,
and let B be the other end of the diameter through A.
We then have, by Euc. III. 36,
OT² = OA . OB = h (2r + h),
so that OT = √h (2r + h).

This gives an accurate value for OT.
In all practical cases, however, h is very small com-
pared with r.
[r = 4000 miles nearly, and h is never greater, and
generally is very considerably less, than 5 miles. ]
DIP OF THE HORIZON. 271
Hence he is very small compared with hr.

As a close approximation, we have then
OT = √2hr.
The dip = < TOQ
= 90° -COT = < OCT.
OT √2hr 2h
Also , tan OCT:= =
CT r r
so that, very approximately , we have
2h
< OCT = radians
r
2h 180 180 × 60 × 60 2h
=
r 18π0)° =[ π r
236. Ex. Taking the radius of the earth as 4000 miles, find the dip
at the top of a lighthouse which is 264 feet above the sea, and the distance
ofthe offing.
1
Here r=4000 miles , and h = 264 feet = mile.
20
Hence h is very small compared with r, so that
OT= × 4000 = √400 = 20 miles.
2h 1
Also the dip = radians - radian
200
1 180 x 60
X x60)' = (54)' == 17′11″ nearly .
200
=(2 π
EXAMPLES. XLII.
[ Unless otherwise stated, the earth's radius may be taken to be 4000
miles.]
1. Find in degrees, minutes, and seconds, the dip of the horizon from
the top of a mountain 4400 feet high, the earth's radius being 21 × 106
feet.
2. The lamp of a lighthouse is 196 feet high ; how far off can it be
seen ?
272 TRIGONOMETRY . [Exs. XLII.]
3. If the radius of the earth be 4000 miles, find the height of a

balloon when the dip is 1°.
Find also the dip when the balloon is miles high.
4. From the top of the mast'of a ship, which is 66 feet above the
sea, the light of a lighthouse which is known to be 132 feet high can
just be seen ; prove that its distance is 24 miles nearly.
5. From the top of a mast, 66 feet above the sea, the top of the
mast of another ship can just be seen at a distance of 20 miles ; prove
that the heights of the masts are the same.
6. From the top of the mast of a ship which is 44 feet above the
sea-level , the light of a lighthouse can just be seen ; after sailing for
15 minutes the light can just be seen from the deck which is 11 feet
above the sea-level ; prove that the rate of sailing of the ship is nearly
16.33 miles per hour.
7. Prove that, if the height of the place of observation be n feet, the

3n
distance that the observer can see is miles nearly .
8. There are 10 million metres in a quadrant of the earth's circum-

ference. Find approximately the distance at which the top of the Eiffel
tower should be visible, its height being 300 metres.
9. Three vertical posts are placed at intervals of a mile along a straight

canal, each rising to the same height above the surface of the water. The
visual line joining the tops of the two extreme posts cuts the middle post
at a point 8 inches below its top. Find the radius of the earth to the
nearest mile.
CHAPTER XVIII.
INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS.
237. IF sin 0 = a, where a is a known quantity, we

know, from Art. 82, that is not definitely known. We
only know that is some one of a definite series of
angles.
The symbol " sin-¹a " is used to denote the smallest
angle, whether positive or negative , that has a for its sine.
The symbol " sin-¹a " is read in words as " sine minus
1
one a,” and must be carefully distinguished from sin a
which would be written, if so desired, in the form (sin a)-¹.

It will therefore be carefully noted that " sin-¹a " is an
angle, and denotes the smallest numerical angle whose
sine is a.
So " cos-¹a " means the smallest numerical angle
whose cosine is a. Similarly " tan-¹ a," " cot-¹ a,” “ co-
sec-1 a," "sec-¹ a," 66 vers-¹a," and "covers-¹ a," are defined.
Hence sin¹a and tan-¹a (and therefore cosec¹ ɑ and
cot-¹a) always lie between - 90° and + 90°.
But cos¹a (and therefore sec¹a) always lies between
0° and 180°.
L. T. 18
274 TRIGONOMETRY .
238. The quantities sin¹ a, cos-¹ a, tan-¹a, ... are

called Inverse Circular Functions.
The symbol sin-¹a is often, especially in foreign
mathematical books, written as " arc sin a " ; similarly
cos-¹a is written " arc cos a," and so for the other inverse
ratios.
239. When a is positive, sin-¹ a clearly lies between

0° and 90° ; when a is negative, it lies between – 90° and
0°.
-
Ex. sin -11 = 30° ; sin - 1 √3 - 60°.
When a is positive, there are two angles, one lying

between 0° and 90° and the other lying between -90°
and 0°, each of which has its cosine equal to a. [ For
example both 30° and -30° have their cosine equal to
√3
case we take the smallest positive angle.
2 ] In this
Hence cos¹a, when a is positive, lies between 0° and 90° .´
So cos-¹a, when a is negative, lies between 90° and
180°.
EX. Cos-1 = 45° ; cos- = 120°.

√2 (- )
When a is positive , the angle tan-¹a lies between 0 °

and 90° ; when a is negative, it lies between - 90° and 0°.
Ex. tan-1 /3 = 60° ; tan-¹ ( -1) = -
− 45°.
3 12 16
240. Ex. 1. Prove that sin-1 5 cos-1 = sin-1
13 65
3 3
Let sin-1 = a, so that sin a =
5 5
3
9 a:
and therefore cos α = 1- · +
25
INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS. 275
12 12
Let Cos -1
13 = ß, so that cosẞ = 13
144 13
and therefore sin BA 1 = • 5
169 13 B:
12
16 16
Let sin-1 •
65 = y, so that sin y' = 65
We have then to prove that
a - B =Y,
i.e. to shew that sin (a -
— ß) = sin y.
Now sin (a -8) = sin a cos ẞ - cos a sin ß
3 12 - 4 5 36-20 16
== sin 7.
513 5 13 65 65
Hence the relation is proved.
π
Ex. 2. Prove that 2 tan-11 + tan-1 =
1+1
1
Let tan-1a, so that tan a =
3
and let -1
tan-¹ ==ß, so that tan ß
We have then to shew that
2a +B = 4
2 tan a
Now tan 2a =-
1- tan² a
213
314
6100
= = =
- 8
9
tan 2a +tanB
Also, tan (2a +8) =.
1- tan2a tan ß
314
1
+7 21 +4 25
= = = = = tan
31 28-3 25 1
1
47
π
:. 2a + B = 4
18-2
276 TRIGONOMETRY.
Ex. 3. Prove that

1 π
4 tan-1 - tan-1
239 4
Let tan-1 = a, so that tan a =

2
2 tan a 5 5
Then tan 2a = =
1- tan² a 12 "
1
25
10
12 120
and tan 4a =
25 119 '
1
144
π
so that tan 4a is nearly unity, and 4a therefore nearly 4
π
Let 4a= +tan-1x.
120 π 1+x
tan + tan-1x =
119 4 1 - x (Art. 100).
1
.. x =
239
1 π
Hence 4 tan-1 tan-1. =
239
Ex. 4. Prove that

a+ b
tan-1a +tan- 1b - tan- 1
1 - ab '
Let tan-¹a = a, so that tan a = a.
Let tan-1b -ß, so that tan ß = b.
a+ b
Also, let tan -1 = y, so that tan y =-1- ab
(a+b)=-
We have then to prove that
a + B =y.
tan a +tan ẞ a+ b
Now tan (a + 6) = 1 - tana tan ẞ =
-1- ab = tany,
so that the relation is proved.

The above relation is merely the formula

tan x + tan y
tan (x +y) = 1
tan xtan y
expressed in inverse notation.
For put tan xa, so that x =tan-la,
and tan y = b, so that y = tan-1b.
a+ b
Then tan (x +y) = 1- ab'
a+ b
.. x +y = tan-1
1- ab '
a+b
i.e. tan-1a +tan-1b -tan-1
1 - ab'
a+ b
In the above we have tacitly assumed that ab < 1, so that 1 - ab is posi-
a+ b
tive, and therefore tan-1 lies between 0° and 90°.
1- ab
a+ b
If, however, ab be > 1, then 1 - ab and therefore according to our defini-
a+ b
tion tan-1
1 - ab is a negative angle. Here y is therefore a negative angle
and, since tan ( +7) = tany, the formula should be
a+ b
tan-1 a +tan-1b + tan-1
1- ab '
Ex. 5. Prove that

63
CO8-1 65 +2 tan-1
Since 652-632 = 162, we have

cos-18 -tan-118. 65
16
Also, as in Ex. 1, sin-1 =tan- ¹§.
We have therefore to shew that 63
tan-18 +2 tan-¹ =tan- 12.
2 tan [tan-¹ }] =
Now tan [2 tan-¹ }] = 1 – tan² [tan¯¹
-1 }] 1-2 =
%
so that 2 tan-1 = tan-¹ 12.
278 TRIGONOMETRY .
Thus tan [tan-11 +2 tan-¹ ] = tan [tan-¹§ +tan-1 f]
= 18 +1/ 2 = 192 + 315

-1- 금융 . 756-80 -=풍무동 = 1,
i.e. tan-11 + 2 tan-¹ = tan-¹ 2.
Ex. 6. Solve the equation

x+1 + tan-1 X--1
tan-1
X-1 X = tan- 1 ( -7) ..
Taking the tangents of both sides of the equation, we have

x+ X-
tan tan-1 + tan tan-1
X--1 X
x+1 X-
1 - tan tan-1 ' tan tan-1
x- 1 X
= tan {tan-1 ( -7)}

- 7,
x+1 x 1 -
x-1 X
i.e.
- x + 1x- = -7,
1
x -1 x
2x2 - x + 1
i.e. -
1- x
so that x= 2.
This value makes the left-hand side of the given equation positive, so
that there is no value of x strictly satisfying the given equation ."
The value x = 2 is a solution of the equation
x+ 1 x-1
tan -1 + tan-1 =T +tan-1 ( -7) .
X--1 x
EXAMPLES. XLIII .
Prove that
3 8 77
1. sin-1 +sin-1 17 -sin-1 85 ·
5
5 253
2. sin-1. + sin-1 = cos
13 25 325
4 3 4 12 33
cos-1
3. 006-1 5 + tan-¹ 5 - tan -127 4. cos-1 + cos -1 = cos-1 ·
5 13 65
-x +x
5. cos-1x = 2 sin-1 = 2 cos-1
3 16 1 7
6. 2 cos-1 + cot-1 + CO8-1 = T.
√13 63 25
7. tan~ 2 +tan-1 =
- sin-1 +cot - 18-45 °,
№5
8. tan + tanta 9. tan - = tan - 12
2 1 3
10. tantan-¹ = COS-1
4 9 2 5'
1 π
11. 2tan-1 +tan-1 + 2 tan-1 =
7
8 π
12. tan-1 + tan-¹ tan- 1 = •
5 19
π
=
13. tan - 1 3 + tan + tan + tan~ | - }·
4
1 1 π 1
14. 3tan-1 +tan-1 = tan-1.
20 4 1985
1 1 π
15. 4 tan-1 --tan-170
70 +tan-1 99
120 5 m m -n - π
16. tan-1 = 2 sin-1 17. tan-1 tan-1
119 13' n m+n 4
2t 3t - t3
18. tan-¹t +tan-1 = tan-1
1. 12 1-312 ,
if 3t - t3
t< or > √3, and = π + tan-1 1-3t2 if t> and < /3.
√3
280 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XLIII.]
19. tan-1, a (a + b + c) +tan-1 b (a + b + c)

bc ca
+tan-1 c (a + b + c) = T.
√ ab
20. cot-1ab +1 + cot-1 bc +1 + cot-1 ca +1 = 0.

a-b b-C c- a
21. tan-¹n +cot-¹ (n + 1 ) = tan-¹ (n² + n + 1).
COS
22. ( 3 tan
oos (2 ) == sin (4 tan - 1 ).
sin 2a + cos B
23. 2 tantan (45° -– a) tan = COS-1
L1 +sin2a cosß.
24. tan-¹x= 2 tan-¹ [cosec tan-1x- tan cot-¹ x].
π β sin a cos B
25. 2 tan-1 = tan -1
[ tantan ( - 2 )] = sin ẞ + cos a
26. Shew that
α-x
COS -1 = sin-1 = cot-1
α- -b
√a-x
1 -
= sin-1 2√(à − x) (x − b)
a -b
x
27. If cos-1 -+ / =a, prove that
a cos-12
x2 2xy y2 - sin² a.
a² ab cos a + b2
Solve the equations
28. tan-1 √1 + x²- √1 − x² =B.

√1 + x² + √1 - x²
π x- 1 x+1 π
29. tan-12x + tan-¹ 3x = 4' 30. tan-1 + tan -1
x- 2 x+2 4
4
31. tan−¹ (x + 1) + cot-¹ (x -
− 1) = sin¹ + cos-1 •
8
32. tan-1 (x + 1) + tan-¹ (x -− 1 ) = tan-¹ 31
33. 2 tan-1 (cos x) = tan-¹ (2 cosec x) .

[Exs. XLIII.] INVERSE CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS. 281
2
34. tan-1 x + 2 cot- ¹ x = π. 35. tan cos-1x= sin cot-1127
3
36. cot-1x- cot-1 (x + 2) = 15°.
x² - 1 2x 2π
37. cos-1 =
x² +1 tan-1 x² - 1 3
+
38. cot- ¹x +cot-¹ (n² − x + 1) = cot-¹ (n -

− 1).
π
39. sin-1x + sin-12x = · 40. sin-1 + sin-1
8|s
x
။
a b с π
41. tan-1 +tan-1- + tan-1 + tan-1
x X X X
X
42. sec--1 -a Sec -1 -sec-1b - sec-1 a.
b
43. cosec-1x = cosec-1 a + cosec-1 b.
1 - a2 1 - b2
44. 2 tan-1x= cos-1 COS -1
1 + a2 1 +62 °
CHAPTER XIX.
ON SOME SIMPLE TRIGONOMETRICAL SERIES.
241. To find the sum of the sines of a series of angles,

the angles being in arithmetical progression.
Let the angles be
-
a, a + B, a + 2B, ...... { a + (n − 1 ) B}.
Let
-
S = sin a + sin (a + B) + sin ( a + 2ß) ... + sin {a + (n − 1 ) B}
By Art. 97 we have
B
2 sin a sin = COS -- cosa +
2 +2),
B - COS
2 sin (a + B) sin 2 = cos a +22
(a + 38),
B 38
2 sin (a + 2,8) sin 2 = cos
cos ((a
a + 320) - Cos ( a + 50 ),,
2
2 sin {a + (n −2),
8 } sing =cos {a + (n− { ) B} —cos { a + (n −} ) B},
and
2 sin {a + (n − 1 ) B} sin =cos {a + (n− } ) ,

B } −cos { a + (n − }) B } .
By adding together these n lines, we have

B Sc
2 sin os (a − B (a + (n -
2) —⋅ cos {a − 1) B} ,
2
SIMPLE TRIGONOMETRICAL SERIES. 283
the other terms on the right-hand sides cancelling one

another.
ηβ
2 sin . S= 2 sin {a + ( -
2 1) B
3}
} sin "2,
(1 β
2 ¹) 3} sin "B
-~~
+ (~
i.e. S = sin (a
sin
Ex. By putting ẞ= 2a , we have

sin a +sin 3a + sin 5a + ... + sin (2n - 1) a
sin { a + (n - 1) a} sin na sin² na
sin a sin a
242. To find the sum of the cosines of a series of

angles, the angles being in arithmetical progression.
Let the angles be
a, a + B, a +28, ... a + (n - 1) B.
Let
S= cos a + cos (a +B) + cos (a + 2ẞ) + ... + cos ( a + (n - 1 ) B} .
By Art. 97, we have

B- - sina
2 cos a sin sina +
2 ( 2),
(a – 8
B
+
2 cos (a + B) sin 2 ) - sin (a
= sin (a + 3 2
2 cos (a + 2,8) sin2 = sin (a +50).

2 sin (a + 38),
2
B
2cos {a + (n − 2) ẞ} sin2 = sin {a + (n − 3) B} —sin {a+(n − §)ß},
284 TRIGONOMETRY.
and
2 cos {a + ( n − 1 ) B} sin =sin { a+(n − } ) B} —sin {a +(n − } ) B}.
By adding together these n lines, we have

B -
25 × sin 2 = sin ({ a + (n − 1 ) B} – sin {a
8) —
{a- 2
the other terms on the right-hand sides cancelling one
another.
B n 1 nß
25 × sin = 2 cos a + B sin
2 {e} 2
cos (a + 1 = 16} sin 18

i.e. S
sin
243. Both the expressions for S in Arts. 241 and 242

ηβ
vanish when sin ηβ is zero, i. e. when is equal to any
2 2
multiple of π,
ηβ
i.e. when
2 = рп ,
where p is any integer,
2π
i.e. when B= p . n
Hence the sum of the sines (or cosines) of n angles ,

which are in arithmetical progression, vanishes when
the common difference of the angles is any multiple
2π
of
n
2π
EXS. cos a + còS to n terms = 0,
n ) + cos ( a + 1 ) +
(a + 2= ...
Απ
and sin a + sin a + + sin + to n terms = 0.
( n ( a + 1) +
244. Ex. 1. Find the sum of
sin a − sin (a + B) + sin (a + 2ß) -... to n terms.
sin (a + ẞ + ) = − sin (a +ẞ),
sin (a + 2ẞ + 2π) = sin (a + 2ẞ),
sin (a + 38 + 3π) = -- sin (a +38),
Hence the series
= sin a +sin (a +ß + π ) + sin { a + 2 (ß + π) }
+ sin { a + 3 (ẞ + π) } +
n- 1
sin a + (8+ ) sin n (B +π)
2 + T)} 2
= 9 by Art. 241 ,
sin β + π
n-1
sin a + sin n (B + π)
2 (8 + π) } 2
COS
Ex. 2. Find the sum of the series

cos³ a + cos³ 2a + cos³ 3a + ...... to n terms.
cos 3a =4 cos³ a - 3 cos a,
so that 4 cos³ a = 3 cos a + cos 3a.
So 4 cos³ 2a = 3 cos 2a + cos 6a,
4 cos³ 3a 3 cos 3a + cos 9a,
Hence, if S be the given series , we have

4S = (3 cos a + cos 3a) + (3 cos 2a + cos 6a) + (3 cos 3a + cos 9a) + ...
=3 (cos a + cos 2a + cos 3a + ...) + (cos 3a + cos 6a + cos 9a + ...)
n- 1 na n-1 n . 3a
COS a + • a sin COS 3a + . 3a sin
2 2 {3a 2 2
=3
α 3a
sin sin
2 2
n + 1 na 3 (n + 1) 3na
COS a sin COS a sin
2 2 2 2
=3
α 3a
sin sin
2
286 TRIGONOMETRY.
In a similar manner we can obtain the sum of the cubes of the sines
of a series of angles in A. P.
Cor. Since
2 sin2 a 1 - cos 2a, and 2 cos² a = 1 + cos 2a,
we can obtain the sum of the squares.
Since again 8 sin a =2 [1 - cos 2a]²
=2-4 cos 2a + 2 cos² 2a = 3-4 cos 2a + cos 4a,
we can obtain the sum of the 4th powers of the sines. Similarly for the
cosines.
Ex. 3. Sum to n terms the series

cos a sinẞ + cos 3a sin 2ẞ + cos 5a sin 38 + ... to n terms.
Let S denote the series.
Then
2S ={sin (a + B) - sin (a - ẞ)} + { sin (3a + 28) -
– sin (3a – 2ẞ) }
+ {sin (5a + 36) - sin (5a - 3ß) } + .. 11
= {sin (a +ẞ) +sin (3a +23) + sin (5a +38) + ...}
- {sin (a - ẞ) + sin (3a - 26) + sin (5a - 38) + ...}
n-1 2a +B
sin (a + B) + (2a + B) sin n 2
{(a+
2a +B
sin
2
n- 1 2a - B
sin { (a− 3) + 2 (2a - B) sin n 2
, by Art. 241 ,
sin 2a - B
2
sin {na + n+1 B sin n (2a + B)

2 2
sin 2a +B
2
n+ 1 n(2a- B)
sin na
2 B sin 2
2a - B
sin
+
Ex. 4. A142...An is a regular polygon of n sides inscribed in a circle ,
whose centre is O, and P is any point on the arc A„A₁ such that the angle
POA, is 0 ; find the sum of the lengths of the lines joining P to the angular
points of the polygon.
2π
Each of the angles A₁042 , 40A3 ,...A„ OA₁ is so that the angles
n "
POA₁ , POA2,... are respectively
2π 4π
0, 0+ n 0 + ...
n
Hence, if r be the radius of the circle, we have
POA1 0
PA₁ =2r sin 2 = 2r sin 2'
POA π
PA₂=2r sin =2r sin +
2 (8 n
POA3
PA, =2r sin 2 = 2r sin
(음+2 „)
Hence the required sum
=2r + ..to n terms

-2- [sin + sin ( + ) + sin ( + ). 1
n 1π n π
sin + 2 n sin
n
=2r (Art. 241)
π
sin
2n
π π π
=2r cosec
2n
• sin + 2 - 2n
π π
= 2r cosec COS
2n 992 2n •
EXAMPLES. XLIV.
Sum the series :
1. cos 0+ cos 30+ cos 50 + ... to n terms.
A 7A
2. cos + cos 24 + cos + to n terms.
2 2 ...
Prove that
sin a +sin 2a + sin 3a + + sin na n+1
3. = tan α.
cos a + cos 2a + ... + cos na
288 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XLIV. ]
sin a + sin 3a + sin 5a + ... + sin (2n - 1) a =tan na.

4. cos a + cos 3a + cos 5a + ... + cos (2n -
− 1) a'
sin a - sin (a +B) + sin (a + 2ẞ) + to n terms
5.
cos a- cos (a + ß) + cos (a + 2ß) + ... to n terms
n- 1
=tan
{a+ " ~-2 ¹ (x + B)} ·
Sum the following series :

π 3π 5п
6. cos 2n + 1 + cos 2n + 1 + cos 2n + 1 + ... to n terms.
7. cos a - cos (a +B) + cos (a +28) –- ... to 2n terms.
n- 4 n- 6
8. sin + sin n- 2 0+ sin n- 2 0+ . to n terms.
...
9. cos x +sin 3x + cos 5x + sin 7x + ... + sin (4n − 1) x.
10. sin a sin 2a + sin 2a sin 3a + sin 3a sin 4a + ... to n terms.
11. cos a sin 2a + sin 2a cos 3a + cos 3a sin 4a
+ sin 4a cos 5a + ... to 2n terms.
12. sin a sin 3a + sin 2a sin 4a + sin 3a sin 5a + ... to n terms.
13. cos a cos ẞ + cos 3a cos 2ẞ + cos 5a cos 38+ .... to n terms.
14. sin² a + sin2 2a + sin2 3a + ... to n terms.
15. sin² + sin² (0+ a) + sin² (0 + 2a) + ... to n terms.
16. sin³ a +sin³ 2a + sin³ 3a + ... to n terms.
17. sina + sin 2a + sin 3a + ... to n terms.
18. cos¹a + cos4 2a + cos¹ 3a + to n terms.
...
19. cos e cos 20 cos 30+ cos 20 cos 30 cos 40+ to n terms.
20. sin a sin (a +ß) -
− sin (a +ß) sin (a + 2ß) + ... to 2n terms.
21. From the sum of the series
sin a + sin 2a + sin 3a + ... to n terms,
deduce (by making a very small) the sum of the series
1 + 2 + 3 + ... +n.
22. From the result of the example of Art. 241 deduce the sum of
1 + 3 + 5... to n terms.
2π
23. If α=
17 ?
prove that 2 (cos a + cos 2a + cos 4a + cos 8a)
and 2 (cos 3a + cos 5a + cos 6a + cos 7a)
are the roots of the equation
x² +x - 4 = 0.
[Exs. XLIV.] SIMPLE TRIGONOMETRICAL SERIES. 289
24. ABCD... is a regular polygon of n sides which is inscribed in a

circle, whose centre is O and whose radius is r, and P is any point on the
arc AB such that POA is 0. Prove that
PA . PB + PA . PC + PA . PD + PB . PC + ...
π π
=r2 2 cos2 cosec² 2
r²[ ( 2n n n].
25. Two regular polygons , each of n sides , are circumscribed to and
inscribed in a given circle. If an angular point of one of them be joined
to each of the angular points of the other, then the sum of the squares of
the straight lines so drawn is to the sum of the areas of the polygons as
2π
2 : sin
n
26. 41 , 42 ,...A2n+1 are the angular points of a regular polygon in-

scribed in a circle, and O is any point on the circumference between A₁
and A2n+1 ; prove that
OA₁ + OA₂ +....+ 04.2n+1 = ОA₂ + OA₁4+ + 0Azn.
27. If perpendiculars be drawn on the sides of a regular polygon of n
sides from any point on the inscribed circle whose radius is a, prove that
2 2 3
n Σ ()' = 3, and ² n≥
; Σ () =
a -5.
L. T. 19
CHAPTER XX.
ELIMINATION.
245. IT sometimes happens that we have two equa-

tions each containing one unknown quantity. In this
case there must clearly be a relation between the
constants of the equations in order that the same
value of the unknown quantity may satisfy both. For
example, suppose we knew that an unknown quantity
x satisfied both of the equations
ax + b = 0 and cx² + dx + e = 0.
From the first equation, we have

b
Ꮳ --
and this satisfies the second, if

2
-
1).+ e = 0,
c (− 1)² + d (− a
i.e. if b2c - abd + a²e = 0.
This latter equation is the result of eliminating x

between the above two equations, and is often called their
eliminant.
ELIMINATION. 291
246. Again, suppose we knew that an angle

satisfied both of the equations
sin³ = b, and cos³ 0 = c,
so that sin 0 = b³ , and cos 0 = c³.
Now we always have, for all values of 0,
sin² + cos² 0 = 1 ,
so that in this case b³ + c³ = 1 .
This is the result of eliminating 0.
247. Between any two equations involving one

unknown quantity we can, in theory, always eliminate
that quantity. In practice, a considerable amount of
artifice and ingenuity is often required in seemingly
simple cases.
So, between any three equations involving two un-
known quantities, we can theoretically eliminate both
of the unknown quantities.
248. Some examples of elimination are appended.

Ex. 1. Eliminate o from the equations
a cos 0 +bsin 0 = c,
and d cos 0+ esin 0 =ƒ.
Solving for cose and sine by cross multiplication , or otherwise,
we have
cos e sin 0 1
=
bf- ce cd - af bd ae
.. 1 = cos20 + sin² 0 = (bf- ce)² + (cd - af)²

(bd - ae)2
so that (bf- ce)² + (cd - aƒ)² = (bd — ae)².
292 TRIGONOMETRY .
Ex. 2. Eliminate 0 between

ax by
= a2 - b2. (1),
COS sin 0
ax sin 0 by cos 0
and =0.... ............
cos2 0 + sin2 0 . (2) .
From (2) we have ax sin³ 0 = -

— by cos³ 0.
sin 0 cos 0 sin20 + cos2 0
= =
− (by)} (ax)} √(by)} + (ax)}
(Hall and Knight's Higher Algebra, Art. 12)
1
= √(by)* + ( ax)}*
1 (by)* + (ax)}
Hence
sin
(by)}
1 (by)3 + (ax)}
and
cos Ꮎ
(ax)
so that (1) becomes
1 1
a² – b² = √ (by)³ + (ax)} [ ax . -by
{ (by)})
(ax)}
== √ (by)³ + (ax) ³ { (ax) ŝ + (by)}}
= { (ax)} + (by)}} },
i.e. (ax)³ + (by)³= (a² – 12)3.
The student who shall afterwards become acquainted with Analytical
Geometry will find that the above is the solution of an important problem
concerning normals to an ellipse.
Ex. 3. Eliminate O from the equations

818
cos 0 sin 0=cos 20 (1).

a b
818
and sin 0 + cos 0 = 2 sin 20 . (2).

a
ELIMINATION. 293
Multiplying (1) by cos 0, (2) by sin 0, and adding, we have

x
==cos e cos 20 + 2 sin 0 sin 20
a
= cos +sin 0 sin 20 = cos 0 + 2 sin² 0 cos 0...……………. . (3).
Multiplying (2) by cos e, (1) by sin 0, and subtracting, we have
=2 sin 20 cos 0- cos 20 sin 0
=sin 20 cos 0+sin = sin +2 sin 0 cog² ........... (4).

Adding (3) and (4) , we have
218
= (sin + cos 0) [1 +2 sin cos 0]

a
== (sin @ + cos 0) [ sin² + cos² 0 + 2 sin cos 0]
= (sin + cos 0)³,
that sin +cos 0 = (5).

( +6)
Subtracting (4) from (3) , we have
X-
= (cos 0 -– sin 0) (1 - 2 sin cos 0)
a
= (cos - sin 0)³,
so that cos - sin 0 = (6).

(a -1
)*
Squaring and adding (5) and (6), we have
Ꮖ y
2=
· = ( + !) ² + (a
6-3) *·
EXAMPLES. XLV.
Eliminate from the equations

1. a cos 0 + b sin 0 = c, and b cos - a sin 0 =d.
2. xa cos (0− - a), and y = b cos (0 – ß).
3. acos 20 = b sin 0, and c sin 20 = d cos 0.
4. a sin a - b cos a = 2b sin 0, and a sin 2a - b cos 20 = a.
sin2 0 cos² 0 1
=
5. x sin - y cos 0 = √√x² + y², and a² + b2 x² + y²°
19-3
294 TRIGONOMETRY . [Exs. XLV.]
roos e ys
ysin e
6. + =1,
a b
and x sin 0 -
− y cos 0 = √a² sin² 0 + b² cos² 0.
7. sin cos 0 =p, and cosec - sin 0 =q.
8. x=a cos 0 + b cos 20, and y = a sin 0 + b sin 20.
9. If m =cosec - sin 0, and n = sec - cos 0,
prove that m³ + n³ = (mn) − }.
10. Prove that the result of eliminating from the equations
x cos (0+ a) + y sin (0 +a) = a sin 20,
and y cos (0+ a) -
— x sin (0+ a) = 2a cos 20,
is (x cos a + y sin a)ŝ + (x sin a − y cos a) ³ = (2a)³.
Eliminate and from the equations
11. sin +sin = a, cos 0 + cos & = b , and 0-4 = a.
12. tan 0 +tan = x, cot 0 + cot & = y, and 0 + 0 = a.
13. a cos² + b sin20 = c, b cos² + a sin² p = d,
and a tan 0= b tan p.
14. cos + cosa, cot 0 + cot pb, and cosec + cosec = c.
15. a sin 0 = b sin p, a cos 0 + b cos p = c, and x = ytan (0+ ).
X x
16. cos 0+У sin 0 = 1, cos + У sin = 1,
a a
and a² sin 2- sin 2 + cos 2 COS -

cosc.
CHAPTER XXI.
PROJECTIONS.
249. LET PQ be any straight line, and from its ends,
0
Q R
N N M A
M
A Z
U M NA
0 M R L
N
8
R
P and Q, let perpendiculars be drawn to a fixed straight

line OA. Then MN is called the projection of PQ
on OA.
296 TRIGONOMETRY.
If MN be in the same direction as OX, it is positive ;

if in the opposite direction, it is negative.
250. If be the angle between any straight line PQ

and a fixed line OA , the projection of PQ on OA is
PQ cos 0.
Whatever be the direction of PQ draw, through P,
a straight line PL parallel to OA and let it and QN, both
produced if necessary, meet in R.
Then, in each figure, the angle LPQ or the angle AUQ
is equal to 0.
Also MN = PR = PQ cos LPQ = PQ cos 0,
by the definitions of Art. 50.

Similarly, the projection of PQ on a line perpendicu-
lar to OARQ
=
= PQ sin LPQ = PQ sin 0.
The projections of any line PQ on a line to
which PQ is inclined at any angle 0, and on a
perpendicular line, are therefore PQ cos and
PQ sin 0.
251. We might therefore, in Art. 50 , have defined

the cosine as the ratio to OP of the projection of OP on
the initial line, and , similarly, the sine as the ratio to
OP of the projection of OP on a line perpendicular to
the initial line.
This method of looking upon the definition of the
cosine and sine is often useful.
252. The projection of PQ upon the fixed line OA

is equal to the sum of the projections on OA of any
broken line beginning at P and ending at Q.
PROJECTIONS. 297
Let PEFGQ be any broken line joining P and Q.

Draw PM, QN, ER, FS, and GT perpendicular to OA.
P
S/ R:
T
Σ
The projection of PE is MR and is positive.

The projection of EF is RS and is negative.
The projection of FG is ST and is positive.
The projection of GQ is TN and is negative.
The sum of the projections of the broken line PEFGQ
therefore
= MR + RS + ST + TN
= MR− SR + ST – NT
= MS + SN
= MN.
A similar proof will hold whatever be the positions of

P and Q, and however broken the lines joining them
may be.
Cor. The sum of the projections of any broken

line, joining P to Q, is equal to the sum of the projections
of any other broken line joining the same two points ;
for each sum is equal to the projection of the straight
line PQ.
253. General Proofs, by Projections, of the Addition

and Subtraction Theorems.
Taking the construction of Art . 88, the projection of OP

298 TRIGONOMETRY.
on OA is equal to the sum of the projections on OA of

ON and NP ; but ON and NP are the projections of
OP on OB and a perpendicular line.
B
R N R
B
B
A M
M
Hence the projection of OP on OA
= cos AOB × projection of OP on OB
+ cos (90° + AOB) x projection of OP on a perpen-

dicular to OB, [ since the direction NP is inclined to OA
at an angle 90° + AOB] .
.. OP cos AOP
= cos AOB × OP cos BOC - sin AOB × OPsin BOC. (Art. 250.)
i.e. cos (A + B) = cos A cos B - sin A sin B.
So, projection of OP on a line perpendicular to

OA
= sum of projections of ON and NP on a line perpen-

dicular to OA
== sin AOB × projection of OP on OB
+ sin (90° + AOB) × projection of OP on a perpendicular

to OB,
PROJECTIONS. 299
i.e. OP sin AOP

= sin AOB × OP cos BOC + cos AOB × OP sin BOC,
i.e. sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B.
B
A N
A
N
B
The above proof holds, as in the subjoined figures, for

all positions of the bounding lines OB and OC.
254. In the case of the subtraction theorem, taking

the construction of Art. 90 , the line OC is inclined to OB
at an angle which, with the proper sign prefixed , is -— B.
The projections of OP on OB and a perpendicular
to OB are therefore OP cos (- B) and OP sin (— B),
i.e. OP cos B and - OP sin B.
M A
Since OB and its perpendicular make angles AOB and

(90° + AOB) with OA, we thus have
300 TRIGONOMETRY .
OP cos (A – B)
= projection of OP on OA
= sum of the projections on OA of the projections of OP

on OB and a perpendicular
= OP cos B x cos AOB + (- OP sin B) × cos (90 ° + AOB)
== OP cos B cos A + OP sin B sin A ,
i.e. cos (AB) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B.
Similarly, projecting the same lines on a perpendicular

to OA, we have
OP sin (A - B) = OP cos B x sin AOB

+(- OP sin B) sin (90° + AOB)
= OP cos B sin A - OP sin B cos A,
i.e. sin (AB) = sin A cos B - cos A sin B.
These proofs hold whatever be the positions of the

N A
B B
bounding lines OB and OC, as, for example, in the sub-

joined figure.
ANSWERS .
I. (Page 5. )
2 301 45569
201
19
1. 2. 3.
3' 360 ' 64800 '
5. 2 3661 6. 43 388
4 120. 10800 3375
7. 338 33 33.3". 8. 90º. 9. 1538 88'88.8".
10. 39 76' 38.8 ". 11. 2618 34'44 ·4 “.
12. 528 333 ·3“. 13. 1 rt. 4 ; 108°.
14. 453524 rt. 4 ; 40° 49′ 1.776″.
15. 394536 rt. 4 ; 35° 30′ 29.664″.
16. 2.550809 rt. ; 229 ° 34′ 22 · 116 ″.
17. 7.590005 rt. 4 ; 683 ° 6 ' 1 · 62″.
28. 5° 33′ 20″ ; 66° 40'. 19 ; 4218 .
29. 477
31. 33° 20′ ; 10° 48'.
II. (Page 10. )

1. 25132.74 miles nearly.
2. 19.28 miles per hour nearly.
4. 3.14159 ... inches. 5. 581,194,640 miles nearly.
III. (Pages 13, 14.)

1. 60°. 2. 240°. 3. 1800°.
4. 57° 17' 44.8". 5. 458° 21' 58.4". 6. 160º.
L. T. 20
ii TRIGONOMETRY.
π 221
7. 233º 33' 33 ·3“. 8. 2000º. 9. • 10. π.
3 360
703 3557 79
11. π. 12. π. 13. π.
720 13500 36
3п 1103
14. 15. π. 16. 1.726268π.
10 ° 2000
17. 81° ; 9°. and 96°.
18. 24°, 60 °,
19. 132° 15′ 12.6". 20. 30°, 60°,
and 90°.
1 π 2π 1
21 . and -- radians.
2 ' 3' 3 2
3п 5п
22. (1) 5 ; 108°. (2) 7 ; 1284°.
3п 5π 15π
(3) ; 135°. (4) ; 150°. (5) 17 ; 15814°
4 6
23. 8 and 4. 24. 10 and 8. 25. 6 and 8.
П 5Пс
26. 27. (1) = 75° = 8338 ;
3' 12
7πc 5πc
(2) = 70° = 7738 ; (3) = 1121°= 125".
18 8
28. ( 1 ) At 7 and 36 minutes past 4 ; ( 2 ) at 28ΤΙ and
48 minutes past 7.
IV.
(Pages 17, 18.)
1
Take π = 3.14159... and = 31831.
π
3
1. 20.454° nearly. 2. radian ; 34° 22′ 38.9".
5
3. 68.75 inches nearly. 4. 05236 inch nearly.
5. 24.555 inches nearly. 6. 1° 25' 57" nearly.
7. 3959.8 miles nearly. 8. π ft. - 3.14159 ft.
9. 5 : 4. 10. 3.1416.
4п 9п 14п 19п 24π
11. and radians.
35' 35' 35 ' 35 35
12. 65° 24' 30.4". 13. 2062-65 ft. nearly.
14. 1.5359 ft. nearly. 15. 262.6 ft. nearly.
16. 32142.9 ft. nearly. 17. 38197.2 ft . nearly.
ANSWERS. iii
18. 19.099'. 19. 1105.8 miles.

20. 238,833 miles 21. 21600 ; 6875.5 nearly.
22. 478 x 10 miles.
VI. (Page 31.)

/15 1 12 8 11 60 61 3 4
5. etc. 6. 7. 8.
4 /15 ' 5'13' 60' 61 ' 60' 5'3
40 41 3 4 1 5 3
9. 10. 11.
9 40 དྷ་ོ དྷ་ 5 ་ 3 ་ 4'
15 17 1 3 3
12. 13. 15 ; 14. 1 or
17 8 2 5√5 . 5'
3 5 5 12 1
15. or 16. 17. 18.
5 13' 13 ' 13 '
a or 1 ,
1 1
19. 20. 21. 1+ √2.
2' √2
2x (x + 1) 2x + 1
22.
2x² + 2x + 1 2x² + 2x + 1 '
VIII. (Pages 44-46. )

1. 34.64 ... ft.; 20 ft. 2.160 ft. 3. 225 ft.
4. 136.6 ft. 5.146.4... ft.
6. 367-9... yards ; 454-3 ... yards. 7. 86.6... ft.
8. 115.359 ... ft. 9. 87.846 ... ft.
10. 43.3 ... ft.; 75 ft. from one of the pillars.
11. 94.641 ... ft.; 54.641 ... ft. 12. 1.366 ... miles.
13. 30°. 15. 13.8564 miles per hour.
16. 25.98 ... ft.; 70.98 ... ft.; 85.98 ... ft.
17. 32 /571-55 ... ft. 19. 10 miles per hour.
20. 86-6... yards. 21. 692.8... yards.
IX. (Page 63. )
2250 2500 81
1. π, Tand π radians .
6289 6289 331
20-2
iv TRIGONOMETRY.
2xy 2xy
2. 68° 45′ 17.8". 4.
x² + y² ' x² − y² *
1
8. tan¹ A. 9. 0 = 60°.
tan¹ A
10. In 1 minutes.
X. (Pages 74, 75.)

4. - 366 ... ; 2 ·3094 .... 5. -1.366 ... ; - 2 ·3094.
6. 0 ; 2. 7. 1.4142 ... - 2 .
8. 1 ·366 ... ; −2 ·3094 .... 9. 45° and 135°.
10. 120° and 240°. 11. 135° and 315°.
12. 150° and 330°. 13. 150° and 210°.
14. 210° and 330 °. 15. -- cos 25°.
16. sin 6°. 17. - tan 43 °. 18. sin 12°.
19. sin 17°. 20. - cot 24°. 21 . cos 33°.
22. cos 28°. 23. cot 25°. 24. cos 30°.
25. cot 26°. 26. - cosec 23°. 27. - cosec 36°.
28. negative. 29. negative. 30. positive.
31. zero. 32. positive. 33. positive.
34. positive. 35. negative.
1 1 and √2
36. and √2 ;
√3 √3 ' √3 √3
XI. (Pages 83, 84.)

π
1. nπ + ( -
− 1 )” T. 2. nπ - ( − 1 )” .
2π
3. nw + ( - 1) . 4. 2nπ ± ·
3
π 3π π
5. 2nπ ± 6. 2nπ ± • 7. nn + •
6' 4 3
3π π Π
8. nn + • 9. nn + · 10. 2nπ ±
4 3
π π
11. nπ + ( − 1 )" . 12. Nπ • 13. Nπ ± ·
2 3
ANSWERS.
π π π
14. Nπ ± 15. Nπ ± 16. Nπ =
6 3'
Τ π π
17. Nπ ± 18. (2n + 1 ) π + 19. 2nT
6
m π π
20. 105° and 45° ; 1 )m. and
(n + 1 ) + ± 7 + ( − 1 )” 12
—
52 ,
m π π
n F 6 + (− 1)™ 12 '
( - ) + (- 1 )
where m and n are any integers.
21. 187 and 1421° ;
m π π π
+k
and ㄓ
2 =
(n + 1) 8 12 (n- m) 8 12
22. (1 ) 60° and 120 ° ; ( 2) 120 ° and 240 ° ; (3) 30 °
and 210°.
23. (1 ) 2 ; ( 2) 1 ; (3) 1 ; (4 ) 1 ; (5) 1 .
XII. (Page 86. )

2π
1. nw + · ( -
− 1 )" T. 2. 2nπ ±
3
π √5-1
3. nπ + ( − 1)” . 4. COS Ө
2
5. sin 0 ± √5-1 = sin 18° or sin (-54°) (Art. 120).

4
π π π
6. Ө = 2NT + 7. 0== nn + or nπ +
3' 4 3*
2π 5п 1 1
8. 0:= Nπ + or NT + 9. tan 0 =- or
3 6' а.
π π
10. Ө = NT = • 11. 0 = 2nπ or 2nπ +
4'
π π
12 . Nπ ± 13. nπ or 2nπ
3'
1100
Τ
14. 2NT ± or 2nπ ± 15. sin = 1 or
3 6* 3.
vi TRIGONOMETRY.
Nπ π Nπ + π
16. + ( − 1)" 17. or (2n 1)
5 20 ' 4 10
27T 2TT
18. 2nπ or (2n + 1 )T 19. or
5 m -n m +n
π 2nT
21. 2nπ or
20. (2n + 1) 5 or 2ur- . 9
π π
•
22. (2x + 1) m²+n , or (2r - 1) m= -n
π π
23. n+ 24. m
( +1) 9 ( +1) n + 1
π
1+ 26. n+
25. 24 -√ /1-2² 16
= (n + 231) .
π α
27. n+ ㄓ ·
12) 3 3 28. ( + )4
Nπ a π π
29. ㄓ • 30. Nπ ±
3 3 6 31. ( +1 2) m n
2n + 1 + √4n² + 4n − 15
32. tan 0:=
4
π π n π π
0=
33. 6- (m + ) = 6 + ( - 1)* ; + = (m - 3) = +7 -(- 1 )* 12'
15
34.
} [ (6m4n) 2 3] ; } [ (6n – 4m ) = - = - 5]
35. 45° and 60°.
38. 3 or ૐ .
1 1
37. + /5 ;
√ + 2√/5 .
XIII. (Pages 91, 92. )

133 84 1596 3444
1. - 2.
205 205 ' 3445 3445
220 171 220
3.
221 221 ; 21
XIV. (Pages 96, 97.)
30. 2 sin (0+ no) sin 36 31. 2 sin (0 + no) cos

2.
ANSWERS. vii
XV. (Pages 98, 99.)

1. cos 20. cos 120. 2. sin 120 - sin 20.
3. cos 140+ cos 80. 4. cos 12° --- cos 120°.
XVI. (Page 102. )

9
1. 3; 13 3. 1.
XVII. (Pages 109, 110. )

24 120 2016
1. ( 1 ) ± 25 ;
(1 (2) ±
169 ; (3) 4225 '
161 7 119
2. ( 1 ) 289 ; (2) (3) 169 3. a.
25
XVIII. (Pages 123-126.)
1. 2√2√3 ± 7√3 ± 4√2

6 ; 18
13 √13 or √13 169
2. ±
12 ; 2 3 120 '
16 49 7 3
3. 4. 5. #
305 305 ' 5/2 4
3
6. +
4'
7. √4 − √2− √6 . √4 + √2 + √6
; √2-1 ;
2√2 2√2
− (√2 + 1 ) + √4 + 2 √√2.
4 - a² - b²
8. 23. + and 24. - and -
√ a² + b²
25. - and -
29. π 3π 3π 5п
(1 ) 2nπ + 4 and 2nπ + 4 ; (2) 2nπ + 4 and 2nπ + ;
4
π π 3π
(3) 2n − and 2nπ + 7 ; (4 ) 2nπ + 4 and 2nπ + 4
viii TRIGONOMETRY.
π π
30. (1) 2nπ- 4 and 2nπ + 4'
3π 5π
(2) 2NT + and 2nπ +
4 4 ;
5п 7π
(3) 2n + and 2n +
4 4
XIX. (Page 130.)

12. The sine of the angle is equal to 2 sin 18 ° .
Nπ π
13. 8 or ( 2 38
)
XXI. (Pages 143, 144.)
nn 1 π
2n
1. 4 or (2n ). 2. (~ + 2/4 1) ; or (2x + 1) 3 ·
π π π
3. (n + 1)
22 or 2nπ. 4. ( n + 2/3 1) or + (- 1 ) .
2nT
5. 213 or (n + 1 ) + or (2n - 1 ) =
Nπ π 2π
n+
6. 3 or (2 ) 7. (1 + 1)522 or 21+ 25 3.
π 2n 1
8. n3 n π. 9. 2nπ or + πT.
* or (~~ ) ~. 3 2
π 3π
·
10. 6 or w + ( - 1 ) 10 or n - ( - 1) 16
nʊ + ( - 1 ) 77 10°.
π
11. •
(n + 1) or (n + 122 ) .
1 4mT
12. mn or - 13. 2mπ or
n- 1 [m™ − ( − 1)™ 7] . n± 1
21T π π
14. 15. ( 2 + 1 )
m + n or (2r + 1 ) m -- n m ±n
Mπ π
16. Mπ or or m +
n 1 ( 2/ n
π 1
17. 2nT
21 ; (2 )
ANSWERS . ix
Τ π π
18. − 1 )n. — -
Nπ + ( - — — ·• 19. 2NT + ·
4
π π 21.
20. nnT + - T. 2nπ +4 A..
6 + ( − 1)" 4 4
22. -- 21 ° 48′ + n . 180 ° + ( − 1 )" [ 68 ° 12' ] .
23. 2n . 180° + 78°58 ′ ; 2n . 180 ° + 27 ° 18′.
27
24. n . 180° + 45 ° ; n . 180° + 26° 34'. 25. 2n or 2n +
3
π π π
26. 2n or 2nT + 27. 2nπ + or 2nπ
2' 2 3
π π
28. 2NT + or 2nπ - • 29. nn .
6 2
+ √17-1
30. sin = 31. COS Ө = √17-3
8 4
π π π
32. W ± 3 or #++ 33. 2nπ ± ~ ; 2NT ±
2 4
1\ π π π
34. n+ 35. Nπ = • 36. nn +
4/2 4°
8121
Nπ π 1
37. Ө= or nπ ± also 0 == Nπ = where cos a ==
2 3;
π π
38. n+ 39. Nπ ± •
33' 3
XXIII. (Pages 157, 158.)

1. I- 90309 ; 3.4771213 ; 2-0334239 ; I - 4650389 .
2. 1553361 ; 2-1241781 ; 5388340 ; I-0759623.
3. 2; 2 ; 0 ; 4 ; 2 ; 0 ; 3. 4. 312936.
5. 1.32057 ; 5.88453 ; 461791 .
6. (1 ) 21 ; (2 ) 13 ; (3) 30 ; (4) the 7th ; (5) the 21st ;
(6) the 32nd.
4b a + 26 4a + 7c
7. (1) ; (2) 4c - 3b- a ; (3) a + 36-2c
с b -α
2b (2a - b) 2ab
(4) 5ab + 3ac---262-2bc and 5ab + 3ac2b² - 2bc '
where a = log 2, b = log 3, and c = log 7.

X TRIGONOMETRY.
8. •22221 . 9. 8.6415. 10. 9.6192.

11. 1.6389. 12. 4.7162. 13. 41431 .
XXIV. (Pages 168-170. )
1. 4-5527375 ; 1-5527394 .
2. 4.7689529 ; 3-7689502 .
3. 478-475 ; 004784777. 4. 2.583674 ; 0258362 .
5. (1 ) 4-7204815 ; (2 ) 27220462 ; (3) 4-7240079 ;
(4) 5273.63 ; (5) 05296726 ; (6) 5.26064.
6. •6870417 . 7. 43° 23′45″ .
8. 8455104 ; ·8454509. 9. 32° 16′35 ″ ; 32° 16′21 ″.
10. 4.1203 060 ; 4.1218 748.
11. 4.3993263 ; 4.3976823. 12. 13° 8'47".
13. 9.9147334. 14. 34° 44′27″.
15. 9.5254497 ; 71 ° 27′43″. 16. 10.0229414.
17. 18°27'17". 18. 36° 52′12″.
XXV. (Pages 172, 173.)
1. 13°27′31 ″. 2. 22° 1′28″.

3. 1.0997340 ; 65° 24′ 12.5".
4. 9.6198509 ; 22° 36′28″.
5. 10° 15'34". 6. 44° 55'55".
7. (1 ) 9-7279043 ; (2) 9.9270857 ; (3) 10-1958917 ;
(4) 10-0757907 ; (5) 10-2001337 ;
(6) 10.0725027 ; ( 7 ) 9.7245162 .
8. ( 1 ) 57° 30′24 ″ ; ( 2) 57° 31'58" ; (3) 32° 31'15 " ;
(4) 57 ° 6′39″.
9. •5373602.
10. (1 ) cos (x − y) secx sec y , (2) cos (x + y) sec x sec y ;
(3) cos (xy) cosec x sec y ;
(4) cos (x + y) cosec x sec y ;
(5) tan² x ; (6) tan x tan y.
ANSWERS. xi
XXVI. (Pages 180, 181.)

1 1 9
1. and
5 ' 2' 7་
4 3 8 40 24 496
2. and and
√41 ' 5 ' 5√41 ' 41 ' 25 ' 1025
3 4
3. and 1 .
5' 5 "
5 12 4 56 12
4. and co. 5. and
12 5 5 ' 65 13'
7 287
6. and 7. 60°, 45°, and 75°.
41 816'
XXVII. (Pages 186-188.)

25. 2 313
23. 16 ft. 28.
5་ 338
XXVIII. (Page 191.)

1. 186.60 ... and 193.18.
2. 26° 33'54" ; 63° 26'6" ; 10/5 ft.
3. 48°35′25″, 36° 52′12 ″ and 94° 32′ 23″.
4. 75° and 15°.
XXIX. (Pages 194, 195.)

1. 90°. 2. 30°. 4. 120°.
5. 45°, 120° and 15° . 6. 45°, 60°, and 75°.
7. 58°59′33″. 8. 77° 19′11 ″. 9. 76° 39'5".
10. 104° 28'39".
11. 56° 15'4", 59° 51′10″ and 63° 53′ 46″ .
12. 38° 56′33 ″, 47 ° 41′7 ″ and 93° 22′20″ .
13. 130° 42′ 20.5", 23° 27'8.5 ", and 25 ° 50′31 ″.
XXX. (Pages 199--201 .)

1. 63° 13'2" ; 43° 58′28″. 2. 117° 38'45" ; 27° 38'45".
3. 8/7 feet ; 79° 6' 24" ; 40 ° 53'36".
4. 87° 27′25.5" ; 32° 32′ 34.5".
xii TRIGONOMETRY.
5. 40 ° 53′36 ″ ; 19° 6′24″ ; √7 : 2.

6. 71 ° 44′30″ : 48 ° 15′30″. 7. 78 ° 17′40 ″ ; 48 ° 36′20 ″.
8. 108° 12′26 ″ ; 49° 27′34″.
9. A = 45° ; B = 75° ; c = √6. 10. 6 ; 15 ; 105°.
11. .8965. 14. 40 yds.; 120° ; 30°.
15. 7.589467 ; 108 ° 26'6 " ; 18° 26'6" ; 53° 7'48".
16. 2.529823. 17. 226-87 ; 73° 34′50 ″ ; 39 ° 45′10″.
18. A = 83° 7′39″ ; B = 42 ° 16′21 ″ ; c == 199-099.
19. B = 110° 48′15″ ; C = 26° 56′15″ ; a = 93.5192.
20. 73° 1′51 ″ and 48 ° 41′9″.
21. 88° 30'1 " and 33° 30′59″.
XXXI. (Pages 207-209.)

1. There is no triangle.
2. B₁ = 30°, C₁ = 105°, and b₁ = 2 ; B₂ = 60°, C₂ = 75°,
and b₂ = √6.
3. B₁ = 30°, C₁1 = 120°, and b₁1 = 100 ; B, = 90°, C₂ = 60°,
and b₂ = 200.
5. 4√3 ± 2√5.
6. 100/3 ; the triangle is right-angled.
8. 33° 29′30″ and 101 ° 30′30″. 9. 17.1 or 3.68.
10. ( 1 ) The triangle is right-angled and B = 60 °.
(2 ) B₁ = 8 ° 41 ′ and C₁ = 141 ° 19′ ; B₂ = 111 ° 19′ and 38° 41 ′ .
11. 65° 59′ and 41 ° 56'12".
12. 5.988 ... and 2.6718 ... miles per hour.
13. 63 ° 2′12 ″ or 116 ° 57′48″.
14. 62°31′23″ and 102 ° 17′37 ″, or 117° 28′37″ and 47 ° 20′23″.
15. 5926-61 .
XXXII. (Page 210.)

1. 7 : 9:11 . 4.79.063.
5. 1 mile ; 1.219714 ... miles. 7. 20.97616 ... ft.
8. 6.85673 ... and 5 ·4378468 ... feet. 9. 404-4352 ft.
10. 233-2883 yards. 11. 2229 yards.
ANSWERS. xiii
XXXIII. (Pages 215-218.)

1. 100 ft. high and 50 ft. broad ; 25 feet.
2. 25.7834 yds. 3. 33.07 ... ft.; 17½ ft.
4. 18.3 ... ft. 5. 120 ft. 6. h tan a cot B.
7. 1939.2 ... ft. 8. 100 ft. 9. 61.224 ... ft.
10. 100/2 ft.
-
15. PQ = BP = BQ = 1000 ft.; AP = 500 ( √6 − √2) ft ;
AQ = 1000 /2 ft.
16. 32119 miles. 17. · 1736482 miles ; · 9848078 miles.
18. 119.2862 ft. 19. 132.266 ft.
20. 235.8034 yds. 21. 1.42771 miles.
22. 125.3167 ft.
XXXIV. (Pages 222-227.)

3. 20 ft ; 40 ft.
2
4. 7 cosec Y, where Y is the sun's altitude ; sin Y =
5. 3.732 ... miles ; 12 :342 ... miles per hour at an angle,

whose tangent is 3 + 1 , S. of E.
6. 10.2426 ... miles per hour.
7. 16.3923 ... miles ; 14.697 ... miles.
8. 2.39 miles ; 1.366 miles.
2 9
9. It makes an angle whose tangent is 3 ' hour.
52
13. c sin ẞ cosec (a + ẞ) ; c sin a sin ß cosec (a + ß).
a 2a
14. 9 yds.; 2 yds. 16.
3 3
375
20. At a distance ft. from the cliff.
√7
21. c(1 - sina) seca. 22. 114-4123 ft. 24. 1069.745645 ft.
1
26. The angle whose tangent is 2 . 29. 45°.
32. 18° 26'6". 34. tan a sec ẞ : 1 .

37. 91.896 ft. 38. 1960.95 yds.
39. 2.45832 miles. 40. 333.4932 ft.
xiv TRIGONOMETRY.
XXXV. (Pages 229, 230.)

1. 84. 2. 216. 3. 630. 4. 3720.
5. 270. 6. 117096. 7. 1470.
8. 1.183 .... 12. 35 yds. and 26 yds.
13. 14.941 ... inch. 14. 5, 7, and 8 ft. 15. 120°.
17. 45° and 105° ; 135° and 15°.
18. 17.1064 ... sq. ins.
XXXVI. (Pages 237, 238.)
3. 81 , 11 , 8, 2 , and 24 respectively.
XXXVII. (Pages 247-250.)
35. 2.1547 ... or 1547 times the radius of each circle.
π π
39. Ann = 3 + ( − 1 )n . 2n . A -
3
XXXVIII. (Pages 255-257.)

1. (1 ) 3/105 sq. ft.; ( 2) 10/7 sq . ft. 3. 1 and 21 ft.
XXXIX. (Pages 259-261 .)
.1. 77.98 ins. 2. ·5359.
3. (1 ) 1.720 .., sq. ft.; (2) 2.598 ... sq. ft.;
(3) 4.8284... sq. ft.; (4) 7-694... sq. ft.;
(5) 11.196 ... sq. ft.
4. 1.8866 ... sq. ft. 5. 3.3136 ... sq. ft.
6. 2 + √2 : 4; 2+ √2 : 2. 12. 3.
14. 6. 15. 9. 16. 20 and 10.
17. 6 and 5, 12 and 8, 18 and 10, 22 and 11 , 27 and 12 ,
42 and 14, 54 and 15 , 72 and 16 , 102 and 17 , 162 and 18,
2
342 and 19 sides respectively. 19. √3 ; √6.
XL. (Pages 266, 267.)

1. ⚫00204. 2. ·00007. 3. 00029.
4. .99999. 5. 25783-10077. 6. 1.0000011.
7. 34'23". 8. 28°41'7". 9. 39′42″.
10. 2° 33' 44". 11. 114.59 ... inches.
ANSWERS. XV
XLI. (Pages 269, 270.)

1. 435.77 sq. ft. 2. 4.9087 ... sq. ft.
3. 127° 19′26″. 4. 6 sq. ft.
5. 11.0004 inches. 6. 00044625 inch.
2
7. πη .
3
XLII. (Pages 271 , 272.)
1. 1° 10'22". 2. 17.14 miles.
3. 61 miles ; 1 ° 48' nearly.
8. About 61800 metres = about 38 miles.
9. 3960 miles.
XLIII. (Pages 279–281.)
1 1
28. + √sin 28. 29. 30. ㄓ 31. +4
6 √2'
1 π
32. - 8 or 33. nπ, or në + 4 34. √3.
4
35. + √5 36. - /3 or (2 + 3) . 37. √3.
3
1 3
38. n, or n² -
− n + 1. 39. 40. 13.
41. x is given by the equation
x¹ -
− x² (ab + ac + ad + bc + bx + cd) + abcd = 0.
42. There is no admissible value for x.
a -b
43. ab ÷ [√a² - 1 + √b² − 1 ]. 44.
1 + ab '
XLIV. (Pages 287-289.)
1
1. sin 2n0 cosec 0.
2
3n - 1 3n 3 1
2. COS A sin A cosec A. 6.
4 4 4 2
по
7. 8. - sin
sin [ a + (n - 1 ) ] sin n8 sec 2ཧྭ་ n- 2
9. sin 2nx (cos 2nx + sin 2nx) ( cos x + sin x) cosec 2x.
10. [(n + 1 ) sin 2a - sin (2n + 2) a] cosec a.
xvi TRIGONOMETRY.
12
11. sin ( 2n + 2) a . sin 2na cosec a.
n 1
12. cos 2a - cos (n + 3) a sin na cosec a.
2 2
13. cos (2na − a) cos (n + 1) B − cos ( 2na + a) cos nẞ + cos a (1 − cos ß)
2 (cos ẞ - cos 2a)
14. 1 - sin (2n + 1 ) a] cosec a.
[(2n + 1) sin a
n 1
15. -
2 2 cos [ 20+ (n - 1 ) a] sin na cosec a.
na α 1 3na 3a
16. sin n+ 1 a sin cosec - sin 3 + 1 a . sin cosec
4 2 2 4 2 2 2
-
17. · [ 3n − 4 cos (n + 1) a sinna cosec a + cos (2n + 2) a sin 2na cosec 2a].
18. [3n + 4 cos (n + 1) a sin na coseca + cos (2n + 2) a sin 2na cosec 2a].
1 no n 1 n+ 3 n+ 7 Ө
19. sin COS 0 + cos 0 + cos e cosec
4 2 [cos 2 2 2 •] . 2
1 3n0 3n + 9 30
+ sin COS O cosec •
4 2 2 2
1
20. - sisin (2a + 2nẞ) sin 2nẞsec ß.
XLV. (Pages 293, 294.)
1. a² + b² = c² + ď².
x² y² - 2xy
2. +
a² b2 ab cos (a - B) = sin² (a - B).
3. a (2c2 - d²) = bdc. 4. a sin a + b cos a = √2b (a + b).
x² y² хо y2
5. + 1. 6. + = a + b.
a² b2 a b
7. (p² + 1 ) + 2g
2q (p² + 1 ) (p + q) = 4 (p + q)² .
8. (x² + y² - b²) (x² + y² — a² — b²) = 2a²b (x + b).
11. a² + b² = 2 + 2 cos a. 12. xy = (y - x) tan a.
13. — c) (a -
a² (a - — d) = b² (b − c) (b − d).
14. 8bc = a {4b² + (b* -— c²) }.
15.
x(c² — a² —b³) =y√(a + b + c) (− a + b + c) (a − b + c) (a + b − c).
16. b² [x (b² - a²) + a (a² + b²) ]² = 4c¹ [ b²x² + a²y³] .
PART II.
ANALYTICAL TRIGONOMETRY .
CHAPTER I.
EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC SERIES.
1. IN the following chapter we are about to obtain

an expansion in powers of x for the expression a*, where
both a and a are real, and also to obtain an expansion for
loge (1 + x), where x is real and less than unity, and e
stands for a quantity to be defined.
when
2. To find the value of the quantity (1 + 1)" ,
n becomes infinitely great and is real.
1
Since < 1, we have, by the Binomial Theorem ,
n
1 n (n - − 1) 1 n (n - 1 ) (n - 2 ) 1
=1 + n• + + +
(1 + 1)" n 1.2 n² 1.2 . 3 n³
1
n n ( 1-2)
(1-4) ( 1-2 ) (1-2) (1–2)
= 1 +1+ + +
1.2 18
+ ... ....... (1).
This series is true for all values of n, however great.
Make then n infinite and the right- hand side
1
= 1+1+ + ad inf. ...... (2).
+++ 글4
L. T. II . 1
2 TRIGONOMETRY.
Hence the limiting value, when n is infinite, of ( 1 + 1 )"

is the sum of the series
1 1 1
1 +1 + + ... ad inf.
2+ 3+ 4
The sum of this series is always denoted by the

quantity e.
Hence we have
Lt 1+ = e,
n = 3 (1 + n
1)
where Lt stands for " the limit when n =
= ∞ ."
N=∞
1
Cor. By putting n == " it follows (since m is zero
m
when n is infinity) that
1
= e.
Lt
m =0(1 + m)= =nLt
= ∞ ( 1 + 1)" -
3. This quantity e is finite.

1 1 1
For since
1001
<
2.2 22 ,
1 1
< 23
2.2.2
we have
1 1 1
e< 1+1 + + 22 + 23 ad inf.
1
< 1+ 1=
< 1 + 2, i.e. < 3.

Also clearly e > 2.
THE QUANTITY e. 3
Hence it lies between 2 and 3.

By taking a sufficient number of terms in the series , it
can be shewn that
e = 2.7182818285 ....
The quantity e is incommensurable.

For, if possible, suppose it to be equal to a fraction 2 , where p and q
are whole numbers.
We have then
1
P= 1+1 + 1 1 + .... + 1 + 1 + ... ………..(1) .
q 9 +1
Multiply this equation by [q, so that all the terms of the series (1)
become integers except those commencing with 9 + 1 • Hence we have
9 19 19 +
P 9-1 =whole number + + + ....
9+ q + 2 9+3
1 1 1
i.e. an integer:= + ...... (2) .
q + 1 (q + 1) (g + 2) * (g + 1) ( q + 2) (g + 3)
1
But the right-hand side of this equation is > 9+1 , and
1 1 1
9 +1 (9 + 1)² + (q + 1)3 + ..
i.e. is
< +1+(1-1)
i.e. is •
Hence the right-hand side of (2) lies between 9 +1 and , and is there-
fore a fraction and so cannot be equal to the left-hand side.
Hence our supposition that e was commensurable is incorrect and it
therefore must be incommensurable.
5. Exponential Series. When x is real, to prove

that
+
ex = 1 + x++
13 + ... ad inf.,
1-2
4. TRIGONOMETRY .
and that
a² = 1 + x loge a + ... ad inf.

2 (loge a)² +
When n is greater than unity, we have

1\ nx
{ (1 + n
1)*}* = (1 + -
n)
1 nữ (n − 1 ) 1 nữ ( n − 1 ) ( n −2 ) 1
= 1 + nx
= + + +
n 1.2 n² 1.2.3 n³
2
OC
- 1 +- + - ---) n --3
- ( n
) (- - n
3
) .
= + +
1.2 1.2.3
In this expression make n infinitely great. The left-

hand becomes, as in Art. 2, ex.
The right-hand becomes
1+x+ + ...
+3
Hence we have
ex = 1 + x + + + ... ad inf. ...... (1).

2 3
Let a = ec, so that c = log, a.
C²x² C3x3
.. ax=== ecx = 1 + cx + + + ... ad inf.,
12 3
by substituting cx for x in the series (1).

x2
.. a = 1 + xlog.a + (log. a)² + (log.a) +... ad inf.
......
.. ( 2).
6. It can be shewn (as in C. Smith's Algebra, Art. 278) that the

series (1), and therefore (2) , of the last article is convergent for all real
values of x.
EXPONENTIAL THEOREM. 5
1 1
7. Ex. 1. Prove that 124 e-
1} ( − 1) = 1 + 2 + 3 + ... ad inf.
By equation (1) of Art. 5 we have, by putting r in succession equal

to 1 and -1 ,
1 1
+ ... ad inf.
e= 1+ 1 2+ 2 3 4
and 1 1 1
e-1=1 · + + ad inf.
4
Hence, by subtraction,
1 1
-e-¹ = 2 ( 1+
e -e-
6-6² = 2 (1 + 3 2 +3
5 +...),
i.e. 1 1
e- :1+ ... ad inf.
1 ( - 1) = 1. + +
Ex. 2. Find the sum of the series

1 +2 1 +2 +3 1 +2 +3 +4
1+ + + +... ad inf.
12 13 14
1
1 +2 + 3 + +n n (n + 1)
The nth term =
n In
1 n + 1 1 (n - 1) +2 2
= = = + n 1
2 In - 1 2 n-- 1] n-2
provided that n > 2.
Similarly
2
the (n - 1)th term =
n -- 3 n 2
the 4th term =

[ 41339
the 3rd term =
Also the 2nd term = 1+

[ ]
and the 1st term =;

100
6 TRIGONOMETRY.
Hence, by addition, the whole series

1
+ ... ad inf.
=글 [1+ 1++ 글
+1
+/-.22 [²+
[1+ 1+ + 1+
+ + .. ad inf ]
1 3e
1 .
8. Logarithmic Series. To prove that, when y is

real and numerically < 1, then
1 1
log. (1 + y) = y− = y² + — y
° —
-1— y + ... ad inf.
In the equation ( 2) of Art. 5, put

a = 1 + y,
and we have
(1+ y)* = 1 + x loge (1+ y) + {loge (1 + y)}² +….. ….. (1 ).

12
But, since y is real and numerically < unity, we have
x(x - 1) - 1 ) (x -
x (x − − 2)
(1 + y) = 1 + x.y + 1.2 ·y²+ -y³ + ...
1.2.3
... ..(2).
The series on the right-hand side of (1 ) and ( 2) are
equal to one another and both convergent, when y is
numerically < 1. Also it could be shewn that the series
on the right hand side of ( 2 ) is convergent when it is
arranged in powers of x. Hence we may equate like
powers of x.
Thus we have
y³ (− 1) (− 2) (−1 ) ( − 2) ( − 3)
loge (1+ y) = y - 1.2 + 1.2.3 ys + 1.2.3.4 ys
+ ...ad inf.,
1
i.e. log. ( 1 + y) = y - -
'+ y² — — y* +...ad inf.... (3).
LOGARITHMIC SERIES. 7
9. If y = 1, the series (3) of the previous article is equal to

1 1 1
1 - 2 + 3 - + .. ad inf
which is known to be convergent.
1
If y = -1, it equals - 1-- 2 - ad inf. which is known to be
divergent .
In addition therefore to being true for all values of y between -1 and
+1, it is true for the value y = 1 ; it is not however true for the value
y = -1.
10. Calculation of logarithms to base e.
In the logarithmic series, if we put y = 1 , we have
1 1 1
log, 2 = 1- + 3 - 4 + ... ad inf. ... (1 ).
1
If we put
2'
we have
3
loge 3 - loge 2 = loge 2 == loge ( 1+ 1)
12
1 1 1 1 1 1
=- - + - + ... ...(2).
2'22 3'23 4 24
1
If we put y = 3"
we have
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
- = - + - •
log. 4 — log, 3 = log . (1 + 1 ) 3 2'32 3' 33 4 34
. (3).
From these equations we could, by taking a sufficient
number of terms, calculate log, 2, log, 3, and loge 4.
It would be found that a large number of terms would
have to be taken to give the values of these logarithms to
the required degree of accuracy. We shall therefore
obtain more convenient series.
8 TRIGONOMETRY .
11. By Art. 8 we have

1 1
-
log. (1+ y) = y − + y² + 3 y² -1y + ….. ...... (1),
and, by changing the sign of y,

1 1
- - -
log. (1 − y) = —y — — y² — — y³ - 1y
4 + ... ...(2).
In order that both these series may be true y must

be numerically less than unity.
By subtraction, we have
1 +y
y 1 1
loge (1+ y) - loge (1 - y) = loge 1- = 2 y + 5 y³ +
3 5린 +...
플
.(3).
m -n
Let y=
m + n
where m and n are positive integers and m > n, so that
1+ y = m
1-y n
The equation (3) becomes

m 1 /m.-n 3 1 /m - n 5
loge -= 2 + + + ...
n [(mm) 3 \m + n/ 5m + n/
Put m2, n = 1 in (4) and we get log, 2.

Put m = 3, n = 2 and we get log, 3 - log, 2, and there-
fore loge 3.
By proceeding in this way we get the value of the
logarithm of any number to base e.
12. Logarithms to base 10. The logarithms of

the previous article, to base e, are called Napierian or
natural logarithms .
LOGARITHMS TO BASE 10. 9
We can convert these logarithms into logarithms to

base 10 .
For, by Art. 147 (Part I. ), we have, if N be any number,
loge N = log10 N × loge 10.

1
.. log10 N = loge N ×
loge 10
Now log. 10 can be found as in the last article and
1
then is found to be 4342944819 ....
loge 10
Hence log10 N = loge N × 43429448 ...,
so that the logarithm of any number to base 10 is found

by multiplying its logarithm to base e by the quantity
43429448 .... This quantity is called the Modulus.
EXAMPLES. I.
Prove that
1. {
} (e + c¯¹) = 1 ++ 2 + + + + ...
1 1 1
2. ... - +
3 2 ·.) = 1 .
2 1 2
3.
( +++++ ( ++ .....
2 4 4
4. 11+
4 + + + + - 5. + + ... = e-1 .
3 57
12
14
116
+
+
+
e-
6.
11010001001
1+
32
+
+
23 33 43
7. 1+ = 5e.
+ 2+ 3+ 4+
10 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. I.]
Find the sum of the series

1 1 1
8. 1 - 2 + 3 4+ ... ad inf.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
9. 2 - 222 3 ' 23 - 4 ' 24 + ... ad inf.
Prove that
- 1 a- 2 1 3
10. a = + ... log.a - log.b.
a b + 2 (a =a b ) ² + 3 (a-a b ) -
1
. 1 -x = 22 (
11. log =
+g
( x +++ ... ad inf. ) .
x+1 1 1
12. 108. =2
log x - 1- 2 +++ 3x3 5x5 ... ad inf .) , if x > 1.
5x2 9x3 17.x4
13. log. ( 1 + 3x + 2x²) = 3x ·- 2 + 3 ...
2n + 1
+ ( − 1)n−1 . n
provided that 2x be not > 1.
1 1
14. 2log.x - log. (x + 1 ) − log. (x - + if x > 1 .
− 1) : 2x4 + 3x6 ....
*
1 1 1
15. log. 2:= 1 • 2 + 3 · 4 + 5 6 + ... ad inf.
1 1 1 1
16. log.2 - = 2 • 3 + 3 · 4 • 5 5 6 • 7+
... ad inf.
COS
1 1 008 ( - ) T
25 , 0 <
17. tan 0 + tan30 + tan50 + ... log if
3 COS 0+
T
18. If be > and < , prove that
1 1
(1) sin 0+ sin³ 0 + sin5 0+ .... ad inf.
5
cot ++ cots
= 2000 cot³ + ... ad inf .] .
001 + 00
[cot 23
π
and, if be >0 and < 2, prove that
1
(2) 2 sin² + 4 sin* 0 + sinº 0 +...ad inf.
1 1
= 2 [ tax² + 3 tan + an +... ad inf. ]
[Exs. I.] LOGARITHMS TO BASE 10 11
19. If tan20-1, prove that

1
tan20 147tan* 0 + tanº 0 - ... ad inf.
1 1
= sin² 0 + 2 sin40 + sinº 0 + ...
. ad inf.
3
20. Prove that, if 20 be not a multiple of π,
1 1
log cot 0 = cos 20+ cos³ 20+ cos5 20 + ... ad inf.
3
21. Prove that the coefficient of x" in the expansion of
{loge (1 + x) }2
1 1
is 1+
[ 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n-1 ).
2 ( −n 1) " (
22. Use the methods of Arts. 11 and 12 to prove that
log102 = 30103...
and log103 = 47712....
23. Draw the curve y =log, x.
[If x be negative, y is imaginary ; when x is zero, y equals - ∞ ; when
x is unity, y is nothing ; when x is positive and > 1, y is always positive ;
when x is infinity, y is infinity also.]
24. Draw the curve y = log₁0 ≈ and state the geometrical relation
between it and the curve of the last example.
[Use Art. 147, Part I. ]
25. Draw the curve y = a*.
13. The two following limits will be required in the

next chapter but one.
14. To prove that the value of ( cosa)” , when n is

infinite, is unity.
We have COS - =
n (1—-sin³ ) *.
1 n
n 2 sina n
sins.
.. = 1 - sin2.
·. ( 2) * - (1 – min. 2) ² = [ (1 − sin :)~~
0: * :)
12 TRIGONOMETRY .
Now, by putting
α
- sin² = m,
n
we have
1
1
sina a m
n=
(Art. 2, Cor.)
nLt
= co {1 - sin ) mLt
=0 (1 + m ) = e
Also, by Art. 228 (Part I.),

n
sin2
2 n
2
sin
n a2
= 1x0 = 0,
α 2n
-
(+n)- =-
when n is infinite.
Hence, when n is infinite,
α n
= e⁰ = 1.
[cos 2]"
Aliter. This limit may also be found by using the

logarithmic series.
n
= u, we have
For , putting (cos 2)
a n
loge u = n log, cos n = 2 loge cos² n
n
=
- 2 log. (1 - sin¹ )
n α 1 4 1
-- ( sin + 2 sin + sin +...).
(Art. 8.)
TWO IMPORTANT LIMITING VALUES. 13
α
The series inside the bracket lies between sin and
n
the series.
α
sin + sin + sin ... ad inf.,
+ ...
+
n
i.e. lies between

α
sin²
n
sin2 and
1 - sin²
n
α α
i.e. lies between sin2 and tan2
n n
Hence - log u lies between
n n α
sin² a and tan² ..(1).
n 2 n
But
2
sin
α n a²
Lt sin2.- =
= Lt = 1x0 = 0,
n =∞ 2 n n=∞ 2n
n
and
2
sin
n α n 1 a²
Lt tan² == Lt X = 1x1x0 = 0.
n =∞ n N=∞ 2n
Cos²
(Art. 228, Part I.)
Hence in the limit both quantities (1) become 0, so

that log u becomes zero also, and therefore , in the limit,
u = 1.
14 TRIGONOMETRY .
81
2
sin
n
15. To prove that the limiting value of "
-
‫אן‬
n
when n is infinite, is unity.
We have shewn, in Art. 227 (Part I.), that sin 0, 0 and
tan @ are in ascending order of magnitude.
α α α
Hence sin 2 > and tan-
n'n n
are in ascending order.

α
n
Hence 1, and
α
sin COS
n
are in ascending order.

n
Therefore lies between 1 and , SO

sin COS-
(-)
n
sin
n
that lies between 1 and (cos ) .
) (
n
But, by the last article, the value of (cos )" is unity,

when n is infinite.
n
sin
n
812
Hence, when n is infinite, the value of
is unity.
TWO IMPORTANT LIMITING VALUES . 15
16. There is one point in Art. 2 that requires some examination.

We ought to shew rigidly that the value of the series on the right
hand of (1) is equal, when n becomes indefinitely great, to the series (2).
Take the pth term of the series (1), viz.
-
(1-2) (1-2) (1 )
...(1) .
P
When a,
b, c ...... are all positive quantities and less than unity, we
have
(1 − a) (1 -
− b) = 1 - a - b + ab > 1 - a - b,
and (1 - a) (1 - b) (1c) > (1 - a - b) (1 - c) >1 - a - b - c,
and so on, so that
(1 - a) (1 - b) (1c)...... > 1- (a + b + c + ......).
Hence the numerator of (1) lies between unity and

1 2 3
1 + +
n n n + ...... + P- 1) ,
i.e. between unity and 1 - P (p - 1)

2n
Therefore the quantity (1) lies between

1 1 1 1
and
P 2n p - 2°
Hence the whole series (1) of Art. 2 lies between

1 1
1 +1 + + ad inf. ,
12 B
2n) + (13- 2 ......

and 1 + 1 + ( -2 2n 2n 3) +
)+ ( - 2 ad inf
1 1
i.e. 1+1+ 12 + 13 + ad inf.
1
++
2n (1+ ...
끎(
- ++
3
+ ad inf .) .
16 TRIGONOMETRY.
1
Now the series 1+ + + ...ad inf. is, as in Art. 6 , convergent, so
12 13
1 1 1
1+ + + ...
that the quantity 2n (1-
12 13 . ) is, when n is made indefinitely
great, ultimately equal to zero.
Therefore, finally, the series (1) of Art. 2 is equal, in the limit, to
1 1 1
1 +1+ 2 + + +... ad inf.
13 |4
A similar argument will apply to the series in Art. 5.
1
CHAPTER II.
COMPLEX QUANTITIES. DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM .
17. Complex quantities. The quantity x + y√ − 1 ,

where x and y are both real, is called a complex quantity.
A complex quantity consists therefore of the sum of two
quantities, one of which is wholly real and the other of
which is wholly imaginary.
18. A complex quantity can always be put into the

form r (cos +1 sin 0), where r and are both real.
For assume that
x + y√ -
− 1 = r (cos - 1 sin 0)
+√−
= r cos 0 + √1.r sin 0.
Equating the real and imaginary parts on the two

sides of this equation, we have
r cos e = X .. (1 ),
and r sin 0 = y .. (2 ).
Hence, by squaring and adding, we have r² = x² + y²,

so that r = √x² + y².
L. T. II. 2
18 TRIGONOMETRY.
It is customary to take the positive square root of

x² + y² and hence r is known.
From (1) and (2) we then have
XC y
cos 0 = and sin =
√x² + y² √x² + y²
Whatever be the values of x and y, there is one value
of e, and only one value, lying between - π radians and
+ radians which satisfies these two equations.
The quantity + y√1 can therefore always be
expressed in the form r (cos + √− 1 sin 0).
Def. The quantity + √x² + y² is called the Modulus

of the complex quantity, and that value of (lying
between - π and + π) which satisfies the relations
OC У
cos = and sin @ ==
+ √x² + y² + √x² + y²
is called the principal value of the Amplitude of
- 1.
x+y √ −
19. Ex. 1. Express in the above form the quantity 1+ √ -1.

Here 1+ 1 = (cos +/-1 sin 0),
so that r cos 0 = 1 ,
and r sin 0 = 1.
We therefore have r= + N
√√√1 + 1 = + √2,
1
and then COS = and sin =
√2'
π
so that 0=
π - I sin
Hence 1+ √ =1 = √2 [ cos +
so that 2 is the modulus and is the principal value of the amplitude

4
of the given expression.
COMPLEX QUANTITIES. 19
-
Ex. 2. Quantity − 1 + √√ −3.
Here -1+ 13 = r (cos +1sin 0),
so that r cos 0-1 , and rsin 03.
:. r = + √1 + 3 = + 2,
and then 1
cos 0= and sin 0=
2
2π
so that = ·
--1 + 3 = 2 cos 3
-2 [cos 2+ √1 sin 23 ] .
Ex. 3. Quantity -1- √−3.

Here r cos = -1 , and r sin 0 = √3,
so that r = + √1 + 3 = + 2, cos 0 = 17 and sin @=
2 2
Hence (since we choose for that value which lies between -π and
2π
+ π) we have 0= -
3
-1 - √3 = 22 [cos
cos ( -27)
3 + i sin ( -23 ) ] .
20. In Art. 18 the equations
y
cos e = and sin 0:=
+ √x² + y² + √ x² + y²
are satisfied by more than one value of 0. For the cosine

and sine of an angle repeat the same values when the
angle is increased by any multiple of 2π radians, so that,
if denote the value between -π and + π satisfying the
above relations, the general solution is
2nπ + 0,
This is expressed by saying that the amplitude of a
2-2
20 TRIGONOMETRY.
complex quantity is many-valued . The principal value

is that particular value of the amplitude that lies between
- π and + π.
If to the principal value of 0 we add any multiple of
2π we obtain one of its many values.
- π.
To sum up ; If @ be that value, lying between
and + , which satisfies the equations
OC y
cos
==
= and sin ...... (1),
√x² + y² √x² + y²
then
x + y√ − 1 = √ x² + y² [ cos ( 2nπ + 0) + √ -
− 1 sin ( 2nπ + 0)] .
The quantity 2nπ +0 is called the amplitude and ◊ is

called its principal value.
For brevity we often write equations (1 ) in the form
tan 0 = 2 , i.e. 0 = tan-1 y >
but it must be understood that here the angle denoted is

the one that satisfies the conditions ( 1).
21. De Moivre's Theorem . Whatever may be the

value of n, positive or negative, integral or fractional, the
value, or one of the values, of
(cos -
+ √1 sin O)n is cos no + √—1 sin no.
Case I. Let n be a positive integer.
By simple multiplication we have
[cos a + √1 sin a] [cos B +√- 1 sin ẞ]
= cos a cos ß -
– sin a sin ß + √ − 1 [ sin a cos + cos a sin B]
- 1 sin (a + B).
= cos (a + B) + √ —
DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM. 21
So
- -
[cos a + √1 sin a] [ cos B + √ − 1 sinẞ] [ cos y + √ − 1 sin y]
-
= [ cos (a + ß) + √ −1 sin ( a + B) ] [ cos y + √ 1 sin y]
= [cos (a + B) cos y -
− sin (a + ẞ) sin y]
+ -1 [sin (a + B) cos y + cos (a + B) sin y]
-
= cos (a + B + y ) + √ − 1 sin (a + B + y).
This process may evidently be continued indefinitely,
so that
-
[cos a + √1 sin a] [ cos ẞ + √ − 1 sin ẞ] [ cos y + √1 sin y]
...... to n factors
= cos (a + B + y + ... to n terms) + √ - 1 sin [a + B + y +...

to n terms].
In this expression put
α == B = ~ = ...... == 0,
so that we have
[cos + √1 sin 0]" = cos n0 + √ —1 sin no.

Case II. Let n be a negative integer and equal to
-m.
We have, by the ordinary law of indices,
(cos +1 sin 0 )" = (cos + √ - 1 sin 0)-m
1 1
(cos +1 sin 0)m cos me + √ 1 sin mə ’
by Case I
cos me - √ - 1 sin me
(cos me + √1 sin me) (cos me -- 1 sin me)
cos me√ - - 1 sin m✪
= cos me - √ — 1 sin mə
cos² me + sin² me
= cos (— m) 0 + √ — 1 sin (− m) 0
= cos no + √ - 1 sin no.
22 TRIGONOMETRY.
Case III. Let n be fractional and equal to 2 , where

q
is a positive integer and p is an integer, positive or
negative.
By the previous cases, we have
Ꮎ Չ
COS - =I
[cos Չ + ~ -1 sin = cos (2. ) + sin (2.9
)
- sin 0.
= cos 0 + √1
0 0
Therefore cos - + - 1 sin - is such that when multi-
q q
plied by itself q times it gives cos 0 + √ − 1 sin 0.
Ꮎ Ꮎ
Hence cos + 1 sin is one of the qth roots of
q q
cos + √1 sin 0,
Ꮎ Ꮎ
i.e. COS - + √ - 1 sin -
q q
is one of the values of
1
(cos +1 sin 0)ª .
Raise each of these quantities to the pth power.
We then have that one of the values of
p
[cos 0]ª is ( cos - +
+ √1 sin 0 -1 sin >
9
po
i.e. is COS + √ − 1 sinpe
q
22. The quantity i is always used to denote -1

and will be often so used hereafter. The expression
cos +i sin therefore means cos + √1 sin 0.
DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM . 23
Ex. 1. Simplify
(cos 30+i sin 30)5 (cos 0 – i sin 0)3
(cos 50+ i sin 50)7 (cos 20 – i sin 20)5
We have cos 30+i sin 30 = (cos +i sin 0)³,
cos - i sin 0 = cos ( − 0) + i sin ( − 0) = (cos + i sin 0)−¹,
cos 50+i sin 50 = (cos 0 + i sin 0)³,
and cos 20 - i sin 20 = cos ( -20) + i sin ( -20) = (cos + i sin ◊)−2.
The given expression therefore
= (cos +i sin 0)15 (cos + i sin 0)-3
(cos + i sin 0)35 (cos @ + i sin 0)−10
= (cos + i sin 0)-13 = cos 130 - i sin 139.
1 1
Ex. 2. If 2 cos 0 =x +x and 2 cos p = y +
1
prove that one of the values of xmyn + xmyn
is 2 cos (mo + no).
We have x²- 2x cos 0 = −1.
• (x- cos 0)² = -1 + cos² = - siu² 0.
.. x=cos 0+ i sin 0,
so that xmcos me +i sin me,
1
and = cos me - i sin me.
xm
Similarly y=cos +i sin ø,
so that y"=cos no +i sin nø,
1
and =cos no - i sin no.
y"
1
:: xmyn +
xmyn
=·(cos me + i sin me) (cos nø+ i sin nø)
+ (cos me - i sin me) (cos nø – i sin nø)
= cos (mo +np) +i sin (m0 + nø)
+cos (mo +no) - – i sin (m0 + nø)
=2 cos (m0 +no).
Similarly it could be shewn that one of the values of
xm yn
is 2 cos (me -
– np).
yn + xm
24 TRIGONOMETRY.
Ex. 3. If sin a +sinß +sin y = cos a + cos ß + cos y = 0,

prove that cos 3a + cos 38+ cos 3y = 3 cos (a + B + y),
and sin 3a +sin 3ẞ + sin 3y = 3 sin (a + B + y).
This is an example of the many trigonometrical identities which are
derived from algebraical identities.
For we know that if a + b + c = 0,
then a³ + b3 + c³= 3abc.
Let a =cos a + i sin a, b = cos ẞ + i sin ẞ, and c = cos y + i sin y,
so that we have a + b + c = 0.
.. (cos a + i sin a)³ + (cos ẞ + i sin ß)³ + (cos y + i sin y)³
=3 (cos a + i sin a) (cos ẞ+i sin ß) (cos y + i sin y),
so that, by De Moivre's Theorem ,
(cos 3a + cos 3ẞ + cos 3y) + i (sin 3a + sin 3ß+ sin 3y)
=3 cos (a +B + y) + 3i sin (a + ß + q).
Hence, by equating real and imaginary parts, we have the required
results.
EXAMPLES . II.
Put into the form r (cos + i sin 0) the quantities

1. 1 + i. 2. -1 - i. 3. -√3 + i.
4. 3 + 4i. 5. 1 + 2 + i. 6. 2 - √3+ i.
Simplify
(cos - i sin 0)10 (cos a + i sin a) (cos ẞ +i sin ẞ)
7. 8.
(cos a +i sin a)¹2 (cos y+i sin y) (cos d +i sin d)
(cos 20 - i sin 20)7 (cos 30+ i sin 30)-5
9.
(cos 40+i sin40) 12(cos 50 - i sin 50)-6 °
COS π - i sin
(cos a + i sin a)*
10. π 11.
π (sin ẞ +i cos ẞ)5 °
cos +i sin
12. { (cose - cos p) + i ( sin 0 -

− sinø) } " + {cos - cosp - i (sin 0 -
– sin ø) } " .
[Exs. II.] DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM . 25
13. Prove that

π π
(sin x +i cos x)n = cos n (2 -x +isin n 2 -a
'1+ sin + i cos p` n Nπ Nπ
and that = COS
1 + sin ø -
− i cos 2 no») +i sin no).
If x, y, z and u stand respectively for
cos a + i sin a, cos ẞ+i sin ẞ, cos y+i sin y, and cos d + i sin d,
prove that
a-B a+B+y+ 8
14. (x +y) (z + u) = 4 cos 2 COS3220[COS 2
+ fsin +8 + y +8] .
1 1 α- a +B + y + 8
15. = - cosec cosec
(x − y) (z - u) 2 2 [ cos 2
- i sin
in a + B + y + d] .
a + B+ y + 8 +i sin
16. xy + zu 2 cos a+B=y= 0 [COS a+B 2+y +8] .
17. From the identity

(a² - b2) (c² - d²) = (c² —- b²) (a² - -d²)
— d²) + (a² —- c²) (b² —
prove, by putting a = cos a + i sin a and similar expressions for the other
letters, the identity
sin (a - ẞ) sin (y — d) = sin (a – d) sin (y − ß) + sin (a − y) sin (ẞ –- 8).
18. From the identity
(x- b) (x - c) , (x - e) (x - a) + (x− a) (x − b) _ 1
+
(a - b) (a - c) (b − c) (b - − a) (c - a) (c - b)
deduce, by assuming x = cos 20 + i sin 20 and corresponding quantities for
a, b, and c, that
sin (0 -
– ẞ) sin (0 -
− y)
sin 2 (0 - a) +two similar expressions = 0.
sin (a - B) sin (a− y)
Similarly, deduce identities from the identity
1 1 1
(x−- a) (x − b) = (a - b) (x -
− a) (a - b) (x − b) *
26 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. II.]
19. Prove that

m m m
(a + bi)n + (a −- bi)n = 2 (a² + b²)²n cos
(™ tan-12).
20. If 2 cos 0 =x + --
1
prove that 2 cos ro= x + •
21. If cos =x +
2005 cos + = y + ...
, 2008 y
1
prove that 2 cos (0 ++ ... ) = xyz….. + xyz... ·
π π
22. If Xp== COS 2r + 1 sin
2r'
prove that X1 · X2 • X3 . ... ad inf.coS π.
23. Using De Moivre's Theorem solve the equation
x²- x³ + x² - x + 1 = 0.
23. In Art. 21 we have only shewn that

Ꮎ.
COS + - 1 sin
q q
is one of the values of
(cos +1 sin 0)ª .

The other values may be easily obtained. For
1
- -
(cos +√1 sin 0) = [ cos (2nπ +0) + √− 1 sin ( 2nπ + 0)] ª ,
where n is any integer, and one of the values of the latter
quantity is
2nπ +0 2пп + 0
COS + -1 sin
q q
By giving n the successive values 0, 1, 2, 3, ... (q - 1 )
we see that each of the quantities
0 0
COS + √ − 1 sin
q
DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM . 27
2π +0 2π +0
COS + - 1 sin
q q
4π +0 4π + Ꮎ
COS + √-1 sin
q q
6п + 0 6п + 0
COS + √- 1 sin . (1),
q q
is equal to one of the values of
- sin 0)ª.
(cos Ꮎ + √1
The highest value that we need assign to n is q − 1 ;

for the values q, q + 1 , q + 2,... will be found to give the
same result as the values 0, 1 , 2,....
Also no two of the quantities ( 1 ) will be the same.
For all the angles involved therein differ from one another
by less than 27 and no two angles, differing by less than
2π, have their cosines the same and also their sines the
same.
To sum up; By giving to n the successive values
0, 1, 2, ... q - 1 in the expression
2пп + 0 2пп + 0
COS + √- 1 sin
q q
we obtain q, and only q, different values for
(cos +1 sin 0)
24. By the use of the last article we can now obtain

trigonometrical expressions for any root of a quantity
which is of the form x + yi.
28 TRIGONOMETRY.
For we proved in Art. 20 that
x +yi = p [cos (2nπ + 0) + √ −1 sin (2nπ + 0)],
where p = + √x² + ÿ²,

and is such that
OC
cos == and sin e = y
ρ Р
Hence
2пп + 0 2NT +
(x + yi) ² = p COS +√√1 sin
q q °
]
By giving n in succession the values 0 , 1 , 2 , ... q − 1,

we obtain the q required roots.
25. Ex. 1. Find the values of

π
COS + √-1 sin
We have
π
COS + √-1sin 2nr + ) ] ,
( cos ” + / 1sin ( 21+
sin ) + = [ cos ( 2n + ) + √
where n is any integer,
2nT π 2nT π
= COS - 1 sin
4 + 12 + ( 4
+ 12
Giving n in succession the values 0, 1 , 2, and 3 we have as our answers

the quantities
π 7π 7π
cos 12 +√1sin 12, cos 12 + √1 sin 12 '
13π 13π 19π 19π

COS3137++ √√1 sin and cos
12 12 " 12 + √√-1sin 12 •
The student will note that the value n = 4 will not give us an additional
value. For it gives
COS
cos (2 + 12)+ √-Isin (2+ ).
DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM. 29
π π
which is the same as COS + √-1 sin 12 "
12
and this is the first of the quantities already found . Similarly the values
n= 5, n = 6, and n = 7 would only give respectively the remaining three
quantities, and so on.
Ex. 2. Find all the values of( − 1) ³.
Since cos T1, and sin = 0,
we have / -1sin )
( −1 ) ³ = ( cosπ + √√
= [cos (2nπ + π) + √1 sin (2n + ) ]
2NT + π 2nπ + π
= COS +1sin
3 3
Giving n the values 0, 1, and 2, the required values are
π 5п 5п
COS +/- 1sin , cos + √ - 1 sin , and cos 3 +√√√-1sin 3
i.e. 1 + √3-1, and 1-3
Ex. 3. Solve the equation x9 - x5 + x4 −1 = 0 .

The equation is (x + 1) (x -− 1) = 0.
Taking the first factor, we have
25-1 = cos (2r + 1 ) + √ − 1 sin (2r + 1) π,
2r + 1 2r + 1
so that x= cos T + √- 1 sin π.
5 5
Giving r the values 0, 1, 2, 3 , 4 successively we have as solutions
cos 36° + √ -1 sin 36°, cos 108° + √√-1 sin 108°, cos 180° + √1 - sin 180° ,
cos 252° + √1 sin 252°,
and cos 3240 +/-1 sin 324°.
Taking the second factor, we have
x4 =1 = cos 2nπ + √ - 1 sin 2nπ,
NT пп
so that x=COS
2 + √-1 sin 2
Giving n the values 0, 1, 2, and 3 we have as solutions 1, √- 1, -1,
and - √√ - 1 .
Hence all the roots are known.
30 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. III. ]
EXAMPLES. III.
Find all the values of
1. 1 . 2. ( −1)³. 3. (-i) .
4. ( −1)r . 5. (1 + √√ − 1)³. 6. (1 +/-3)
7. (1-3) . 8. (√√3 +/-1) . 9. (√3 - √√1) .
10. 16 . 11. 32 . 12. (1 + 3)10+ ( 1-3)10.
2π 2π
13. Simplify (cos 3 +isin 27)++
3
and express the results in a form free from trigonometrical expressions.
14. Find the continued product of the four values of
π
(cos +isin ) .
15. Prove that the roots of the equation x¹º + 11x5 – 1 = 0 are
√5-1 [0821353 2rT
COS + i sin
5
16. Solve the equation x¹² - 1 = 0 and find which of its roots satisfy
the equation x² +x² + 1 = 0.
Solve the equations
17. x² + 1 = 0. 18. x² + x² + x³ + 1 = 0 .
19. Prove that Na + bi + a - bi
has n real values and find those of
/1 + √√ − 3 + / 1 - √ −3.
3
20. Prove that the n nth roots of unity form a series in G. P.
21. Find the seven 7th roots of unity and prove that the sum of their
nth powers always vanishes unless n be a multiple of 7, n being an integer,
and that then the sum is 7.
26. Binomial Theorem for Complex Quantities.

It is known that for any real values of n and z, provided
that z be less than unity, we have
- - -
n (n − 1 ) z² + n (n − 1 ) (n − 2) 23 +
(1 + z)" = 1 + nz + 1.2 1.2.3
.........(1).
BINOMIAL THEOREM. 31
When z is complex ( = x + y √−- 1 ) and n is a positive

integer, the ordinary proof applies and the theorem ( 1 ) is
still true.
When z is complex, and n is a fraction or negative, it
can be shewn that
1+ nz + n (n - 1) 2² + ....... (2)
1.2
is one of the values of (1 + z)", provided that the modulus

of z, i.e. √x² + y², is less than unity. When this modulus
is equal to unity, the theorem is only true ( 1 ) when n is
positive, and ( 2) when n is a negative proper fraction and
-
z is not equal to — 1.
The proof is difficult and beyond the range of the
present book. We shall therefore assume the result.
The student may hereafter refer to Hobson's Trigo-
nometry, Arts. 211 and 212, or Chrystal's Algebra, Vol. II.,
page 262,
CHAPTER III.
EXPANSIONS OF sin ne AND cos ne. SERIES FOR sin

AND COS IN POWERS OF 0.
27. By the use of De Moivre's Theorem we can

obtain the expansion of cos no and sin ne in terms of the
trigonometrical functions of 0.
For we have
cos no + i sin ne = ( cos 0 + i sin ()".

Since n is a positive integer, the Binomial Theorem
holds for (cos 0 + i sin 0)".
Hence, by expanding, we have
cos no + i sin n✪ = cos² 0 + n cos"-10 . i sin
n(n - 1 ) n (n - 1 ) (n - 2 ) -3
+ cos"-20.2sin²0+ cos^-³0.¿³ sin³ 0 ………
1.2 1.2.3
Hence, since
¿² = -1 , ¿³ - i, i = 1, ii, ...
we have
cos no + i sin ne = cos" - n (n - 1) cos"-20 sin² 0

1.2
-
n (n − 1 ) (n − 2) (n −3 )
+
1.2.3 • 4 cosn-40 sin¹ 0 + ...
+ incosn-¹ Ø sin 0 -- n (n - 1 ) (n - 2) cos- sin³ 0+.

1.2.3 2+...] .
TANGENT OF A SUM OF ANGLES . 33
By equating real and imaginary parts, we have

ww
cos no cos - n (n − 1 ) cos"-20 sin20 + ...... (1),
1.2
and
sin no = n cosn-¹ sin - n (n - 1) (n - 2 ) cos - s 6 sin Ꮎ

1.2.3
− 3 ) (n -
n (n - 1 ) (n - 2) (n - − 4)
+ cos"-50 sin50.- ......
...(2).
1.2.3.4.5
The terms in each of these series are alternately

positive and negative . Also each series continues till one
of the factors in the numerator is zero and then ceases.
28. From equations (1 ) and ( 2) of the last article

we have, by division ,
sin no
tan no =
cos no
n cos"-10 sin - n(n - 1 ) (n - 2) COS -30 sin³ 0+

1.2.3
cos" Ꮎ n(n - 1) cosn-20 sin2 0 + n(n -− 1) (n − 2) (n -− 3) cos"-40 sin 0......
1. 2 1.2.3.4
Divide the numerator and denominator of the right-
hand member of this equation by cos" 0, and we have
tan ne =
n tan e -n(n- 1)(n - 2) tan³0 + n(n- 1 ) (n - 2) (n − 3 ) (n− 4),tane

1.2.3 15
- 3)
1- n (n − 1 ) tan20 + n (n − 1 ) (n − 2) (n tan¹ ......
1.2 14
29. The values for cos no and sin ne in Art. 27 may also be obtained.
by Induction, without the use of imaginary quantities.
For assume (1) and (2) to be true for any value of n. Then, since
cos (n + 1) = cos ne cos 0 - sin no sin 0,
L. T. II. 3
34 TRIGONOMETRY .
we obtain the value of cos (n + 1) 0, which, after rearrangement, is found

to be obtained from (1) by changing n into (n + 1) .
Similarly for sin (n + 1) 0 .
Hence, if the formulæ (1) and (2) are true for one value of n, they are
true for the next greater value.
But it is easy to shew that they are true for the values n = 2 and n = 3.
Hence, by Induction, they can be proved to be true for all values of n.
30. From De Moivre's Theorem may be deduced

expressions for the sine, cosine and tangent of the sum of
any number of unequal angles in terms of the tangents of
these angles .
For we have
cos (a + B + y + ... ) + i sin ( a + B + y + ... )
= (cos a + i sin a) (cos + i sin ẞ) (còs y + i sin y) ...(1).

Now cos a + i sin a = cos a [ 1 + i tan a],
cos B+i sin ẞ = cos B (1 + itan B),

....
Hence ( 1 ) may be written
cos (a + B + y + ... ) + i sin ( a + B + y + ... )
= cosa cos ẞ cos y ... ( 1 + i tan a) ( 1 + i tan ẞ) ( 1 + i tany) ...

=
= cosa cosẞcosy ... [ 1 + i (tan a + tan B + tan y + ... )
+2 (tan a tan B +tan ẞ tan y + ...).
+ (tan atanẞtany+tanßtan ytan d...)

...... .. (2).
Using the notation of Art. 125 (Part I. ) , this equation

may be written
cos (a + B + y + ... ) + i sin ( a + B + y + ... )
= cos a cos ẞ cos y ... [ 1 + is₁ - -
− 82 − is3 + §4 + i§5 − 86 ...].
EXPANSIONS OF SIN no AND COS ne. 35
Hence equating real and imaginary parts, we have

sin (a +B + y ...)= cos a cosẞcos y... [81-83 + 85-87 ... ]... (3 ),
and
cos (a + B + y ...) = cos acos B cos y ... (1-82 +886 )...(4).
Hence, by division,
S1 - S3 + Sg -
- Sy ...
tan (a + p + y + ...) =
1 - S₂ + S4 - Se... ... (5).
The signs in the expressions on the right hand of ( 3)
and (4) are alternately positive and negative.
The relation (5) was shewn, by Induction, to be true
in Part I., Art. 125.
31. Ex. Prove that the equation

a² cos20 + b²sin20 + 2ga cos 0 + 2fb sin 0 + c = 0
has 4 roots, and that the sum of the values of 0 which satisfy it is an even
multiple of radians.
Let t tan 0
2'
2 tan 1- tan2
2
Then since (Art. 109, Part I.) , sin 0:= and cos 0 =
1 +tan2 1 + tan?
2
the equation above becomes
1212 2 1-12 2t
a2 +62 +2ga 1 + 12 + 2fb 1 + 12 + c = 0,
+ 1- (1 )
or, on reduction and simplification ,
t¹ (a² - 2ga + c) + 4ƒbt³ + t² (4b2 -
− 2a² + 2c) + 4fbt + a² + 2ga + c = 0 ...... (1).
This is an equation having 4 roots.
Also 81 =sum of the roots =
=- 4fb
a² - 2ga + c '
4b2-2a2 + 2c
82== sum taken two at a time =
a2-2ga +c '
8 =sum taken three at a time = 4fb
a² - 2ga +c '
and 84 sum taken four at a time = a²+2ga + c
a² - 2ga + c '
3-2
36 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. IV. ]
Since 8 , it follows, by the last article, that

tan ( 0₁ + 032 + 0 + 0+ ) = 1 81-83+86
= 82 + ==0 = tan nπ.
2 1-82 84
[ The denominator 1-8₂ + 84 does not vanish unless a² = b². ]
:: 01 + 0₂ + 03 + 04 = 2 . nπ radians
=an even multiple of π radians.
[The student who is acquainted with Analytical Geometry will see that
this is a solution of the problem " If a circle and an ellipse intersect in
four points, prove that the sum of the eccentric angles of the four points
is equal to an even multiple of two right angles. "]
EXAMPLES. IV.
Prove that
1. cos 40 = cos40-6 cos2 0 sin² 0 + sin4 0.
2. sin 60 = 6 cos5 0 sin 0 - 20 cos³ 0 sin³ 0 + 6 cos 0 sin5 0.
3. sin 70 =7 cos 0 sin 0 - 35 cos¹ 0 sin³ 0 +21 cos² 0 sin5 0 - – sin? 0.
4. cos 90 cos⁹ 0-36 cos7 0 sin² 0 + 126 cos5 0 sin¹ 0
- 84 cos³ sin60 + 9 cos 0 sin³ 0.
5. cos 80 = cos80-28 cos6 0 sin² 0 + 70 cos¹ 0 sin¹0
- 28 cos20 sin" + sin³ 0.
Write down, in terms of tan 0, the values of
6. tan 50. 7. tan 70. 8. tan 90.
9. Prove that the last terms in the expressions for cos 110 and
sin 110 are
- 11 cos e sin¹º and - sin¹¹ 0.
10. Prove that the last terms in the expressions for sin 80 and sin 90
are - 8 cos e sin? 0 and sinº 0 respectively.
11. When n is odd, prove that the last terms in the expansions of
sin no and cos no are respectively
n- 1 n-1
2
(-1) 2 sin" and n ( -1) cos e sin"-10.
12. When n is even, prove that the last terms in the expansion of
sin no and cos no are respectively
n-2 n
2
n (-1) cos e sin^-10 and ( -1 ) ²sin" 0.
13. If a, ẞ, and y be the roots of the equation
x³ +px² + qx +p = 0,
prove that tan-¹a +tan-¹ß +tan - ¹y = në radians
except in one particular case.
SIN α AND COS a EXPANDED IN A SERIES. 37
14. Prove that the equation

sin 30 a sin 0 +b cos 0 + c
has six roots and that the sum of the six values of e, which satisfy it, is
equal to an odd multiple of π radians.
15. Prove that the equation
ah sec - bk cosec = a2 - bª
has four roots, and that the sum of the four values of 0 , which satisfy it ,
is equal to an odd multiple of radians.
16. If a, ß, y, ... be the roots of the equation
sin mxnx cos mx = 0,
x x x
e
prov that tan -1 -+tan-1 + + tan-1 = 0.
α
EXPANSIONS OF THE SINE AND COSINE OF AN ANGLE IN

SERIES OF ASCENDING POWERS OF THE ANGLE.
32. As in Art. 27 we have

-
cos no = cosn -n (n − 1 ) cos"-20 sin20
1.2
n (n - 1) (n - 2) (n - 3 )
+ cos" -40 sin 0 —....
1.2.3.4
Put no = a, and we have
α α
- 1
Ꮎ Ꮎ
cos a = cos" - cos"-20 sin² 0
1.2
α α α-
-1 2 3
00 1) ( Ꮎ
+ 1.2.3 . 4 cos"-40 sin¹0 — …..
a (a - 0) sin 02
= cos" -- Cosn-20
1.2
- 30)
a (a − 0) (a -
— 20) (a — -
+ Cosn-40 (sin ®
) *— ... .. (1).
1.2.3.4
38 TRIGONOMETRY.
In equation ( 1 ) make @ indefinitely small , a remaining

constant and therefore n becoming indefinitely great. simp
sin
Then the limit, equal to unity and so is
8 is , in
every power of (sin®) . TO

(Art . 15. )
Also cos & is, in the limit, equal to unity and so also is
every power of cos 0. (Art. 14. )
Hence (1 ) becomes
a²
cos a = 1 - + + ... ad inf.
2 4 6
33. To expand sin a in terms of a.

As in Art. 27, we have
n (n - 1 ) (n - 2 )
sin n = n cos”—¹ Ø sin 8 · cos"-30 sin³0 + ....
1.2.3
As before put n✪ = a, and we have

ανα
-1 α -
010 0
sin a = cos"-10 sin - cos"-30 sin³
0 1.2.3
ανα - a
- - -
00 1) (~
3 − 2) (~ 3) (3 – 4)
+ cos"-50 sin5 0 + ...
1.2.3.4 . 5
a (a- 0)(α- 20)

= a cos"-10 . (sin ) - 1.2.3 COS"-30 ' (sin ®)*....
+
As in the last article make ◊ indefinitely small , keeping

a finite, and we have
as α απ
sin a = a + - + ... ad inf.
3 5 7
TAN EXPANDED IN A SERIES. 39
34. There is no series, proceeding according to a

simple law, for the expansion of tan in terms of 0,
similar to those of Arts. 32 and 33.
We shall find the series for tan @ as far as the term
involving 05.
03 Өз
+
sin 3 5
:
For tan e =
cos e t2 04
1-
12 4
03 05 ᎾᏎ
- + - ... - 0² - +
= (0 6 120 24
03 65 02 04
- + ... 1+ + ... )
= (0 6 120 2 24
04
2 - 12
+ (1 24-- ) ---
]
by the Binomial Theorem ,
63 05 02 04
+ ... 1+ ... +
= (0 6 120 2 24 4
neglecting 0 and higher powers of 0,

02
= - f3 + 05 - 1+ +
5
64
6 120 ... ) (1 2 24 ....
)
03 2
= 0+ + 05,
3 15
on reduction and neglecting powers of 0 above 0³.

A similar method would give the series for tan to
as many terms as we please. The method however soon
becomes very cumbrous and troublesome.
35. In Arts. 32 and 33 we tacitly assumed that a

was equal to the number of radians in the angle con-
40 TRIGONOMETRY.
sin 0
sidered. For, unless this be the case, the limit of
8
not unity when is made indefinitely small.
When the angle is expressed in degrees we proceed as
follows.
Let a = x radians, so that
α Ꮳ
=
180
π
and hence X = α.
180
Then Cos a = cos xc
хв
=1 + +
6
1 π²α² πα
= 1- + - 1 + ... ad inf.
2 1802 4 1804 6 1806
So also
sin a = sin x =
3 15
πα 1 πα 8 1 πα
= - ... ad inf.
180 3180 + 15 (150)°
36. Sines and cosines of small angles. The

series of Arts. 32 and 33 may be used to find the sines
and cosines of small angles.
For example, let us find the values of sin 10″ and
cos 10".
1
Since 10":= X 180) radians
(6x60
π c
= •
64800
SINES AND COSINES OF SMALL ANGLES. 41
we have
π 1 π 8 1 π 5
sin 10" = + ...
64800 13 (64800, ‫رة‬
1564800
1 π 2 1 π 4
and cos 10" = 1 - +
2 64800, 4 64800,
π
Now = 000048481368...,
64800
2
= '0000000023504 ...,
(64800)
3
and 0 0 = '000000000000113928 ....
(648 )
Hence, to twelve places of decimals, we have
sin 10" = ' 000048481368,
0000000023504
and cos 10" = 1
2
- 1-000000001175
= 999999998825.
37. Approximate value of the root of an

equation. The series of Art. 33 may also be used to
find an approximate value of the root of an equation.
The method will be best shewn by examples.
sin 0 1349
Ex. 1. If 1350 ' prove that the angle 0 is very nearly equal to
1
15th radian.
sin
We know that, the smaller is, the more nearly is equal to
unity . Conversely in our case we see that is small.
42 TRIGONOMETRY .
In the series for sin @ (Art. 33) let us omit the powers of above the
third, and we have
03
3 1349 1
= =1.
1350 1350
6 1
02= =
1350 225
Hence = 1 " so that the angle is 1 of a radian nearly.
15 15
If we desire a nearer approximation , we take the series for sin and
omit powers above the 5th. We then have
05
- 03
15 1
•
1350
This gives 04-2002 = 120 20
1350 225
Hence, by solving,
22480 150 149.933312 ... ⚫066688
02 =10 ±
15 15 15
= 1.00032
152
1.00016
.. 0= radian.
15
1
This differs from the first approximation by about th part.
6000
Ex. 2. Solve approximately the equation
COS = 49.
( +0)=
1100
Since 49 is very nearly equal to 9 which is the value of cos it

2 ğ'
follows that must be small.
1 √3 sin 0= 49 = 1 1
cos ; ..... (1).
2 2 100
For a first approximation omit squares and higher powers of 0. By
Art. 33 this equation then becomes
1 1
• 1- 8= -
100 9
INDETERMINATE EXPRESSIONS. 43
so that
2 1
0= = 2/3 = 3.4641 ... 011547 ... radian.
№3 100 300 300
For a still nearer approximation , omit cubes and higher powers of 0.
The equation (1) then becomes
1 1 1
= -
2 (1-0 )- 100'
4
i.e. 02 +2 /30 == 100
304
0= -√3 + 10 = 0115086 ... radian.
The first approximation is therefore correct to 4 places of decimals .

The angle is therefore very nearly equal to 0115 radian, i.e. to
about 40'.
The accurate answer is found, from the tables, to be 0115075 ...
radian.
38. Evaluation of quantities apparently inde-

terminate . We often have to obtain the value of quan-
tities which are apparently indeterminate.
Suppose we required the value of the expression
3 sin - sin 30
(cos - cos 30) '
when is zero .
If we substitute the value 0 for 0, we have
0-0
0 × 0'
which is apparently indeterminate.

The expression however, for all values of 0,
3 sin 0 - (3 sin 0 - 4 sin³0) = 4 sin³0

- -
{cos (4 cos³0 – 3 cos 0)} {4 cos 0 - 4 cos³0}
sin³0 sin 1 sin
= = = X
e cos e sin' e cos e cos θ
44 TRIGONOMETRY .
Now, the smaller Ø is, the more nearly do both

1 sin
and
cos e Ө
approach to unity. Hence, when is actually zero, the

given expression = 1x1 = 1 .
Such an expression as the one we have discussed is
said to be indeterminate . We should more properly say
that the expression is " at first sight " indeterminate.
39. In many cases the real value is very easily

found by using the series for sin @ and cos 0. The method
is shewn in the following examples, of the first of which
the example in the preceding article is a particular case.
Ex. 1. Find the value of

n sin - sin no
e (cos - cos no)*
The expression
n 8 - no n303 + n505
B
3+ B5 -...) [3 15
==
02 04 n202 404
1 +
• [( 1. [
4 12 4
n³ - n n5 - n
03 +higher powers of
13 15 05
0 04 +higher powers of
14
n³-- n n5 -n
02 +higher powers
B 5 •
n 1 n4-1
02 +higher powers
12 14
When is zero , this expression
113 - n n² - 1 n
2
INDETERMINATE EXPRESSIONS. 45
Ex. 2. Find the value, when x is zero, ofthe expression

cos x −- log. (1 + x) + sin x − 1
ex - (1 + x)
1 1
Since = x- x² + x3 - x4 ....
log. ( 1 + x) =
x2
and ex= 1 + x + ... (Arts. 5 and 8),
2+ 3
this expression
1 12
x3
x- x2 + X-
x3 x5
1
3 · ).
x3
1 +x + + + ... − (1 + x)
13
x
+higher powers of x + powers of x
1
+higher powers of x + powers of x
When x is zero, this latter expression

0
=
Ex. 3. Find the value, when x is zero, of

1
tan x
X
When x is zero, this expression is of the form (

9
).
1
x+ +
But it also = (Art. 34).
Ꮖ
Now, by Art. 2, Cor., the value of
3
+
is e, when x is zero.
20
Hence the expression = e3 =eº = 1.
The value of the expression may be also found by finding the value of
its logarithm .
46 TRIGONOMETRY.
EXAMPLES. V.
sin 0 1013
1. If
1014 '
prove that is the number of radians in 4° 24′ nearly.
sin 863
2. If 864 '
prove that is equal to 4° 47' nearly.
sin 5045
3. If 0 5046 '
prove that the angle 0 is 1° 58' nearly.
sin 2165
4. If =
0 2166 '
prove that is equal to 3° 1' nearly.
sin 0 19493
5. If
19494'
prove that is equal to 1° nearly.
6. If tan 0 =
15
find an approximate value for 0.
Find the value, when x is zero, of the expressions
x - sin x x2 sin a.r
8. - cos mx 9.
ཨ.
x3 sin br
tan x - sin x tan 2x - 2 sin x versin ax
10. sin³ x 11. 12. versin ba
x3
m sin x- sin mx a2 sin ax - b2 sin bx
13. 14.
m (cos x - cos mx) b'tan axa'tan bx
b2 sin2 ax - a² sin2 bx
15. 16. x log. (1 + x)
1- cos x
b2tan2 ax - a2 tan2 bx *
e≈ − 1 + loge ( 1 − x) ¸ x+2 sin x - sin 3x
17. sin³ x 18. x +tan x- tan 2x
sin x +sin 6x - 7x sin2nx - sin2mx
19. · 20. •
1 - cos px
[Exs. V.] INDETERMINATE EXPRESSIONS . 47
1 ex - e-x sin2 mnx - sinmx sin nx

21. [sin * + *- *-* - 2 ] . 22.
(1 - cos mx) (1- cos nx)
3 sin x - sin 3x
23.
x - sin x
2
sin x - 2 sin + (1 - cos x)3
24.
x-4
sin x sin 2x - 8 cos x sin² sin¹ x
2 3
at- bx
25. x 26. (tanx) +
X 3x
27. (cos m +sin m
π
Find the value, when x equals of
28. (cos x + sin 2x + cos 3x)2

(sinx +2 cos 2x - sin 3x)³ °
29. (sin x)tan x 30. sec x - tan x.
Find the value, when n is infinite, of
32 .
31. (cos )". (008 ) . 33. (cos ) .
n
34. If n be > 1 and 0 = nearly, prove that (sin )" is very nearly
equal to
(n - 1) + (n + 1) sin
(n +1) + (n - 1) sin e
35. In the limit, when ẞ = a, prove that
a sin ẞ - ẞ sin a
= tan (a - tan-¹a).
a cos B - ẞ cos a
36. Prove that
1
4tan-1 - π= tan-1 1 9
239
and deduce that in a triangle ABC, in which C is a right angle and CA is
five times CB, the angle A exceeds the eighth part of a right angle by
3' 36", correct to the nearest second.
48 TRIGONOMETRY . [Exs. V. ]
37. Find a and b so that the expression a sin x + b sin 2x may be as
close an approximation as possible to the number of radians in the angle
x, when x is small.
38. If y = x - e sin x, where e is very small, prove that
X
tan = tan
2 (1- e + e² sin³ 2),
and that
X
tan = tan 1 + e + e² cos2 •
2
where powers of e above the second are neglected .
39. If in the equation sin ( w -– 0) = sin w cos a, e be very small, prove
that its approximate value is
a
2 tan w sin2
(1 – tan² w sin²
40. If be known by means of sin & to be an angle not > 15°, prove
that its value differs from the fraction
28 sin 24+ sin 40
12 (3 +2 cos 24)
by less than the number of radians in 1'.
40. Ex. Prove that the roots of the equation

8x34x² - 4x + 1 = 0 (1)
are cos ' COS 3π and cos 5π
π
7" 7
π 3π 5π 1
and hence that COS + cos + cos = (2)
7 7
1/2
3π 5п 5п Τ
COS cos 3+ cos COS + cos COS == .(3)
7 ī 7 7 7
π 3π 5п 1
and COS COS COS = - . (4).
7 7 7
First Method. Let y = cos 0+ i sin 0, where has either of the values
π 3π 5π 9π 11T 13π
and
7' 7 9 7 ' T, 7 2 7 7'
Then -
y =cos 70+ i sin 70 = − 1,
i.e. (y + 1) (y - y5 + y* —y³ + y² −y + 1) = 0.
Now the root y = -1 corresponds to the value 0 =π.
EXAMPLES. 49
The roots of the equation

yö — y5 + y¹ − y³ + yª −y + 1 = 0 (5)
are therefore cose +i sin 0, where @ has either of the values
π 3п 5п 9п 11T 13π
or •
7' 7 9 7 " 7' 7 7
1 1
Put 2x =y + cos +i sin 0 +
y cos 0+i sin e
=cos 0+i sin 0 +cos 0 - − i sin 0 =2 cos 0,
2
so that y²+ = y+ -2 = 4x² - 2,
y2 (
and y+ = 8x3-6x.
On dividing equation (5) by y³ it becomes
+ (x + 3 ) + (y + ) - 1 = 0,
i.e. 8x³- 4x² - 4x + 1 = 0......... (6).
The roots of this equation are
3п 13π
COS晓 COS COS 5п COS 9п " COS 117 and cos •
7" 7' 7 7
13п π 11T 3п
Since COS =COS 7. COS = COS
7 7 ‫י‬ 7 7'
9п 5п
and DOS 7 -CONT 7 ‫י‬
the roots of (6) are therefore
π
COS 77 COS 3п and cos 5п
7 7
We then have
π 3п 5п 4 1
COS + cos + cos = =
7 8 2
3π 3п 5п 5п π 1
COS
oooos COS + cos COS COS =
7 7 cos 7 +coscos 7 7 ,
π 3п 5π 1
and COS COS COS = - •
7 7
Second Method. The equation
............ ......
(cos + i sin 0) = − 1 .......... (7),
i.e. cos 70+i sin 70 = -1
L. T. II. 4
50 TRIGONOMETRY .
is clearly satisfied when has either of the values

π Зл 5π 9п 11T 13π
and
7 , 7 " 7 " π, 7 " 7 (8).
Writing c for cos and s for sin 0, the equation (7), on being ex-
panded by the Binomial Theorem, becomes
c7 + 7ics - 21c582 – 35ic¹s³ + 35c³s4 + 21ic²s5 – 7cs6 — is7 =
— — 1.
Equating the real parts on each side, we have
c7-21c5s² + 35c³s¹ — 7cs6 = - 1.
Putting s = 1 - c², we see that the cosine of each of the angles (8)
satisfies the equation
64c7-112c5 + 56c³ − 7c + 1 = 0 ...... . (9),
i.e. -
(c + 1) { 8c³ — 4c² – 4c +1 } ² = 0 …………….. (10).
But
13π π 11T Зп 9п 5л
COST = -1, cos 7 = cos , COS 7 = Cos 7 and cos 7 = cos 7'
‫י‬
π 3π 5п
so that the roots of ( 10) are -1 and cos7 COS ‫ יך‬and cos 7' the
latter three being twice repeated.
3п 5п
Hence cos π COS and cos are the roots of the equation
‫יך‬ 7 7
8c3-4c2-4c + 1 = 0.
But this is equation (6).
The equation (9) may also be obtained by putting n = 7 in equation (2)
of Art. 49, which is in the next chapter.
Third Method. When only a small number of angles are introduced
the equation (6) may be easily obtained without using imaginary quan-
tities.
Let denote any of the angles (8).
Then 70 -an odd multiple of π.
..cos 40 = - cos 30,
i.e. if cos 0 = c, we have
2 {2c2-1 } 2-1 = − { 4c³ – 3c } ,
i.e. 8c4-8c2 + 1 = 3c - 4c³,
i.e. 8c4 + 4c3-8c2-3c + 1 = 0,
i.e. (c + 1) (8c³ — 4c² — 4c + 1) = 0.
EXAMPLES. 51
Hence as in the Second Method the roots of

8c3-4c2-4c + 1 = 0
π Эп 5п
are COS " COS and cos
7' 7'
41. From the preceding article we can obtain an equation giving
3п 5π
sec2 sec2 9 and sec²
7 7'
1
In equation (6) of that article put = y, and therefore x = It
Ny
then follows that the quantities
Эп 5π
sec² , sec² 7 " and sec² 7
1 4-
+ 1 = 0,
У
or, on rationalizing,
y³ - 24y² +80y - 640 ....... (1).
Again, putting y = 1 +z, then, since sec20 =1 + tan20, it follows that
T 3r 5п
tan2 tan2 and tan2
7' 7' 7
(1 +2)3 - 24 (1 + z)² + 80 (1 + z ) − 64 = 0,
i.e. 23 – 21z² + 35z - 7 = 0 (2).
The equation (2) may be easily obtained directly.
For, if stand for either of the angles
T 2π Эп 4π 5п 6П and T
,
7' 7 7 7 ‫ י‬7' 7
then tan 70 = 0,
i.e. by Art. 30,
7t - 7C . t³ +7C . to -7C, t7 = 0,
or t7-21t5 + 35t³ - 7t = 0,
i.e. t {t − 21t* + 35t2-7} = 0 (3).
But
6п 5п 2π 4π 3п
tan T =0, tan 7 = - tan , tan 7 = - tan 7 and tan 7 = - tan 7
4-2
52 TRIGONOMETRY .
The roots of (3) are therefore

π 3п 5п
0, tan , + tan 7 and tan
7
Hence, putting t2 = 2, the quantities
π 3π 5п
tan² , tan² 7 and tan2 7
are the roots of (2).
EXAMPLES. VI.
1. Prove that
6T 8π
x- cos x- cos x- cos
( -20 5) ( -200 5 ) ( -2008 5 ) ( -2 cos )
= x + 2x³ − x² - 2x + 1.
2. Prove that the roots of the equation
2π 4π 6п
8x + 4x² - 4x - 1 = 0 are cos COS and cos
79 7 7'
2π 4π 6п
3. Prove that sin sin and sin are the roots of the equation
7
x3 √7 =0.
ཨཱལཾ– ཀིཾ' ' ཀྑསཾ +ཀིཾ ? – ॰,
Prove that
1 1. 1
4. 2π 6π
4- sec² 4- sec² 4- sec²
7 7 7
π 27 3п 4π 19
5. cos + cos4 + cost =
+ cos4.
9 9 9 16
П 2π 3п 4π =
6. sec4 + sec¹ + sec¹ + sec4 = 1120.
9 9
3п 5п 7π 9п - 1
+ cos + cos + cos
7. cos 11+ 11 11 11 + cos 11
8. Form the equation whose roots are
π 2π 3п 4π 5п
tan2 tan2 tan2 tan2 and tan2. ·
11' 11 11 " 11 11
[Commence with equation (3) of Art. 30. ]
[Exs. VI. ] EXAMPLES . 53
Prove that
π 2π 3п 4π 5п
9. cot 11 + cot² 11 + cot2 11 + cot2 11 + cot2 11 = 15.
π 2π 3π 4π 5π
10. sec² + sec² + sec² + sec² sec² =60.
11 11 11 11 + 11
2π 6п 18π 13-1
11. cos + cos =
13 13 + cos 13
10π 14π 22π 13-1
12. COS + cos + cos =
13 13 13
π 7π 11T 13π 1
13. COS 15+ cos + cos 15 + cos 15 ·
15
14. Prove that sin is a root of the equation

14
64x6-80x¹ + 24x² - 1 = 0.
CHAPTER IV.
EXPANSIONS OF SINES AND COSINES OF MULTIPLE ANGLES,

AND OF POWERS OF SINES AND COSINES.
[On a first reading of the subject the student is recommended

to omit from the beginning of Art. 48 to the end of the chapter. ]
42. In this chapter we shall shew how to expand

powers of cosines and sines of an angle in terms of cosines
and sines of multiples of that angle, and also how to
express cosines and sines of multiple angles in terms of
powers of cosines and sines.
Throughout the chapter n denotes a positive integer.
43. Let x = cos 0 + i sin 0, so that

1 1 cos - i sin
= cos - i sin 0.
XC cos + i sin e cos20 + sin20
1
Hence x + -- 2 cos 0,
1
and OC - - = 2i sin 0.
Also, by De Moivre's Theorem , we have

x = cos no + i sin no,
1
and = cos ne - i sin no,
xcn
1
so that xn + = 2 cos no,
xn
-18
= 2i sin no.
I
and xn
EXPANSION OF COS" 0. 55
44. To expand cos" in a series of cosines of multiples

of 0, n being a positive integer.
From the previous article we have
1\n
x+-
(2 cos 0)” = ( x
1. n (n - 1) 1
= n + non - 1 + xn-2 +
XC 1.2
n (n -
− 1) 1 1 1
+ x² . + nx . +
1.2 x n-2 xn-1 xn
-
n (n − 1)
= x + nn - 2 + + ...
1.2
n (n - 1 ) 1 1 1
..... (1).
+ 1.2 xn-s + n . xn-2 + xn
Taking together the first and last of these terms, the

second and next to last, and so on, we have
1
x² + 1-1/2)
(2 cos 0)" = ((an n(xn−2 +
n (n --1)
+
1.2 1 ) ( 2 + 2 ) +
...
But by the last article we have
1 1
xn + =
xn 2 cos no, x²-2 + xn-s = 2 cos (n - 2) 0,....
Hence
2n cosn = 2 cos no + n . 2 cos (n --2) 0
n (n - 1 )
+ 2 cos (n -4) 0 + ...... ,
1.2
i.e. 2n-¹ cos" = cos no + n cos (n -
− 2) 0
-
n (n 1) -
+
1.2 cos (n − 4) 0 + ... ... (2).
If n be odd, there are an even number of terms on the

right-hand side of ( 1 ) , so that the terms take together in
pairs and the last term contains cos 0.
56 TRIGONOMETRY.
If n be even, there are an odd number of terms on the

right-hand side of ( 1 ) , so that after all the possible pairs
have been taken there is a term left not containing x.
This term will, when divided by 2, form the last term on
the right-hand of (2).
It could easily be shewn that the last term is cos e if n be
In - 1 n + 1
2 2
1 In
odd, and if n be even.
2 n 2
E2
45. Ex. 1. Expand cos³ 0 in a series of cosines of multiples of 0.

8
We have (2 cos 0)8 = ( x + 1)
1 1
= x8 + 8x6 + 28.x² + 56x² + 70 + 56 . 2728 . +8 . 26 +
x
+70
28+
= (28 ·8 (2² + 1 ) + 28 ( 2² + 1 ) + 56 ( x² + 21) +
= 2.cos 80 +8.2 cos 60 + 28 . 2 cos 40 + 56 . 2 cos 20+ 70,
.. 27 cos80 =cos 80 +8 cos 60+ 28 cos 40 +56 cos 20+ 35.
Ex. 2. Expand cos? 0 in a series of cosines ofmultiples of 0.
7
We have (2 cos 0)7 = ( x + ==
1
= x² + 7.x5 + 21x³ + 35x + 35 . +21 . +7. +
x
1
+35 x
= (2 + 2 ) +7 (2 + 2) + 21 (~ + x3)+ 86 ( + )
= 2.cos 70 + 7 . 2 cos 50 +21 . 2 cos 30 + 35 . 2 cos 0,
.. 26 cos? 0 = cos 70 + 7 cos 50 +21 cos 30 +35 cos 0.
46. To express sin" O in a series of cosines or sines of

multiples of 0 according as n is an even or odd integer.
By Art. 43 we have
2i sin = x-
1\n
so that - …………………. (1).
2n in sin” 0 = ( a
EXPANSION OF SIN" . 57
Case I. Let n be even, so that the last term in the

expansion is
n
1
+ xn ' and in
i" = (-1)³.
The equation (1 ) is therefore

n
1 n (n - 1) xn-2 . 1
n — nên
2” (−1)³ sin” 0 = x² +
1.2
n (n -
− 1) ·
1
-•nx .
1 1
.... (2)
+ +
1.2 xn- xn-1 xn
1 n (n
xn・ xn−4 +
= (a + 1 ) − n (an−2 + + 1.2
-
== 2. cos no - n . 2 cos (n − 2) 0 + n (n − 1 ) . 2 cos (n −
-
4) 0
1.2
as in Art. 44.
n
.. 2-1 (-1 ) sin" = cos non cos (n - − 2) 0
-
n (n − 1 )
+
1.2 cos (n - 4) 0- ... ...(3).
Since n is even, there are an odd number of terms in

(2 ), so that there will be a middle term which does not
contain x. This term, on being divided by 2, will be the
last term in equation (3).
This last term could easily be shewn to be (-1)
Case II. Let n be odd, so that the last term in the

expansion (1 ) will be
1 n- 1
and ini.in-1 = ¿
i (− 1) 2
xn ,
58 TRIGONOMETRY .
The equation ( 1 ) then becomes

n- 1 -
2 1 n (n − 1 ) xn-2 . 1
2″ . i . (− 1 )™½³ . sin” 0 = a” — nan-ı -
OC
+
1.2
n (n − 1) x2 1 1 1
+ nx . -
1.2 x n-2 xn
1 1 - 1
-n xn--2 + n(n - 1) ( xn- ...
xn 1.2
.. (4).
1
- = 2i sin no,
Now, by Art. 43, an—
1
xn -2 - = 2i sin (n - 2) 0,
Hence (4) becomes

n-1
-
2.i . (- 1 ) 2 sin” 0 = 2i sin n0 — n . 2i sin (n − 2) 0
-
+ n (n − 1 ) •, 2i sin (n -
− 4) 0 — ...,
1.2
n- 1
so that 2n-1(-1) 2 sin"
n (n - 1 )
= sin n -
− n sin (n − 2) 0 + sin (n -
− 4) 0 -
– ......
1.2
.. (5).
Since n is in this case odd, there are an even number
of terms in ( 4) , so that (4) can be divided into pairs of
terms, and there is no middle term . The last term in ( 5 )
therefore contains sin 0.
n- n
This last term could easily be shewn to be ( -1) sin 0.
[n - 1 ] n + 1
2 2
47. Ex. 1. Expand sin 0 in a series of cosines of multiples of 0.
6
We have 26 ¿6 sin6 0 =
= (x − X1) °
1
= x6-6x + 15x2 - 20 + 15 . - 6. + "
EXPANSION OF SIN" . 59
so that -26 sin60 = ( x6.

- 2'sin ' 0 = (2 + 2 ) - 62+
( + 2 ) +15 + ) - 20
= 2 cos 60-6.2 cos 40 + 15.2 cos 20 - 20.
-25 sin50 = cos 60-6 cos 40 + 15 cos 20-10.
Ex. 2. Expand sin² 0 in a series of sines of multiples of 0.

7
We have 27 17 sin7 0 = ( x −
x
1 1
= x7-7x5 + 21x³- 35x + 35 . - 21. +7 25
x x3 27
= 7x5 + 21x3 35x-
-(~ - ) - 7 (~ - ~ ) + 2 (~~~ ) - 36 ( -1).
- 27.i.sin7 0 = 2i sin 70-7.2i sin 50 +21 . 2i sin 30-35 . 2i sin 0.
-26 sin70 =sin 70-7 sin 50+ 21 sin 30 - 35 sin 0.
Ex. 8. Expand cos5 0 sin? 0 in a series of sines of multiples of 0.

We have
25 27 i7 0
2 cos² 0= ( x + 1) " , and 25′ sin² = (x - 1) .
5 2
Hence 212.17 . cos sin? 0 = ( x² .
=(a (-- ) '
5
210-5x6 + 10x2 10 +1/16- 11][2² - 2 +1/3]
=[210 210
= -2 4 x8 - + 10x6
10
+5
+ 5 ( - ) - 20 ( - ).
Hence, as before, we have
- 211 cos³ / sin? 0 =sin 120-2 sin 100 - 4 sin 80 + 10 sin 60+ 5 sin 40
- 20 sin 20.
EXAMPLES. VIL
Prove that
1
1. sin50 =; [sin 50-5 sin 30 + 10 sin 0].
16
1
2. co89 0 =
256 [cos 90 +9 cos 70 +36 cos 50 + 84 cos 30 + 126 cos 0].
60 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. VII.]
3. cos¹00 =
1
[cos 100 + 10 cos 80 +45 cos 60 + 120 cos 40 + 210 cos 20 + 126].
512
1
4. sin³ 0 = 128 [cos 80-8 cos 60 + 28 cos 40-56 cos 20 + 35].
1
5. sin⁹ 0 = 256 [sin 90-9 sin 70 + 36 sin 50 -84 sin 30 + 126 sin ].
6. 25 sin¹0 cos20 = cos 60 - 2 cos 40 – cos 20 +2.

7. 26 sin50 cos20 =sin 70-3 sin 50+ sin 30 + 5 sin 0.
8. -210 sin³ 0 cos80 = sin 110 + 5 sin 90+ 7 sin 70-5 sin 50 - 22 sin 30
- 14 sin 0.
sin no
**48. To express in a series of descending
sin
powers of cos 0.
If a be < 1, we have
sin
sin 0+ sin 20 + x² sin 30 + ...
1-2x cos 0 + x²
+ xn-¹ sin no + ... ad inf. ....... (1).
This may be shewn by multiplying each side by

1- 2x cos 0 + x²,
when it will be found that the right-hand member will
reduce to sin 0.
A more rigorous proof will be found in Chap. VIII.
Equating coefficients of n-1 in ( 1 ), we have
sin no
= coefficient of an-¹ in [ 1 - − 2x cos 0 + x²]−¹
sin
= coefficient of x²-¹ in [1 − -x (2 cos 0 -− x)] −¹
= coefficient of x²-1 in
-
1 + x (2 cos 0 - x) + x² (2 cos 0 − x)² +
-2 -
- - x)n −³ + xn−² ( 2 cos 0. x)n-2
+ xn−8(2 cos
+ xn−1 (2 cos 0 - -
− x)n −¹ + x² (2 cos 0 − x)" + ...... (2).
SIN no
SIN IN DESCENDING POWERS OF COS 0. 61
Now coefficient of
-1 in n-1 (2 cos - x) -1-

= (2 cos )n-1,
coefficient of xn-1 in x- (2 cos - x)n-2
= coefficient of x in (2 cos 0 - x)n-
=- − (n − 2 ) ( 2 cos 0)n▬³,
coefficient of x -¹ in xn-³ (2 cos 0 - — x)n–3
= coefficient of x in (2 cos 0 -x)n-s

- -
= (n − 3) (n − 4) (2 cos 0)n-5,
1.2
and so on.
Hence, from (2), picking out in this manner all the
coefficients of x -¹, we have
sin no
= (2 cos 0) -1- (n
sin - 2) (2 cos 0)n-s
(n - 3) (n - 4)
+ (2 cos 0)n-
1.2
- -
(n − 4) (n − 5) (n − 6)
1.2.3 (2 cos 0)n−7 +
n- 1
If n be odd, the last term could be proved to be (-1) 2 ; if n be even,
n -1
it could be shewn to be ( -1) (n cos 0).
**49. To express cos no in a series of descending

powers ofcos 0.
If x be < 1 , we have
1 - x²
- 1 + 2x cos 0 + 2x² cos 20 + 2x³ cos 30 + ...
1-2x cos 0 + x²
... + 2xn cos no + ... ad inf. ...... (1 ) .
This may be shewn by multiplying both sides by
1-2x cos + x²,
62 TRIGONOMETRY.
when it will be found that all the terms on the right-hand

side will reduce to 1 - x².
A more rigorous proof will be found in Chap. VIII.
Equating coefficients of an on the two sides of (1 ), we

have
2 cos no = coefficient of x in ( 1 -
− x²) [ 1 − 2x cos 0 + x²]−¹
1 coefficient of an - coefficient of x -2 in
- -
[1 − x (2 cos 0 − x)]¯¹
= coefficient of x" - coefficient of x²-² in
1 +x(2 cos 0 - x) + x² (2 cos 0 − x)² + ...

... + xn-2 (2 cos - x) ² + x -1 (2 cos 0 - x)n -1
+ x² (2 cos 0 − x)n + x² +¹ (2 cos 0 -

− x)n+¹ + ....
……..
Picking out the required coefficients as in the last

article, starting with the term
xn (2 cos 0 - x)",
we have 2 cos no
(n - 2)(n - 3)
=· (2 cos 0)" -
— (n − 1 ) (2 cos 0)n−2 + (2 cos 0)n-
1.2
- -
(n − 3) (n − 4) (n − 5)
(2 cos 0) + ......
1.2.3
(2 cos 0)n▬² — (n − 3) (2 cos 0)n→

- [(2.
-
(n − 4) (n − 5)
+ (2 cos 0)n-6
1.2
=( 2cos ()” — n ( 2 cos ()n- ² + [ (n − 2)(n

1.2 − 3) +(n −3) ] (2cos @)" →
-
(n − 3) (n − 4) (n − 5 ) +
, (( nn -
− 4)
1) (n
( − 5) ]
-5)
1.2.3 1.2 (2 cos 0)”~* +...,
-[n
COS NO IN DESCENDING POWERS OF COs 0. 63
so that, finally,
- n (n - 3)
2 cos no = (2 cos 0)" — n ( 2 cos 0)2-3+ 1.2 (2 cos 0)n→
- -
n (n − 4) (n − 5)
1.2.3 ......... (2).
(2 cos 0)n- + ..
The last term could be shewn to be

n-1 n
(-1) .n . (2 cos 0) or ( -1) . 2,
according as n is odd or even.
sin no
**50. To expand in a series of ascending
sin Ө
powers of cos 0.
As in Art. 48, we have
sin no
= coefficient of x^-1 in [1 - 2x cos 0 + x²] −¹
sin
= coefficient of x²-¹ in [ 1 + x (x -
− 2 cos 0)] -¹
= coefficient of an-¹ in
-
1 - x (x − 2 cos 0) + x² (x − 2 cos 0)² — .
...... + (− 1 )” x¹ (x -
− 2 cos 0)" + ... ... (1 ) .
Case I. Let n be odd , so that (n - − 1 ) is even.
The lowest term in (1) which gives any coefficient of
- is then that for which
n - -1
r= -
2
sin no
= coefficient of x²-1 in 1 - x (x -
− 2 cos 0) +....
sin
n-1 n - 1 n-1 n+1 n+ 1 n+ 1
+(- 1 ) 2 Ꮳ 2 (x− 2cos 0) 2 + (− 1 ) 2 Ꮳ 2 (x -− 2 cos 0) 2
n+3 n+3 n+3
2 2 -
+ (− 1) ² x ² (x − 2 cos 0) 2 +......
+ (− 1 )n-¹ xn−1 (x - 2 cos 0) -¹ + .......
64 TRIGONOMETRY.
Picking out the required coefficients as in Art. 48 , we

have
n+ 1 n - 1
n-1 n+1
sin no 2 2
(-2 cos 0)
sin e = (− 1) + (− 1)*** 1.2
n+3 n+1 n- 1 n - 3
n +3
+ (- 1) 2 , 2 · 2· 2 2
1.2.3 . 4 (-2 cos 0) + ...
+ (2 cos 0)n-¹.
Hence, finally, when n is odd, we have
n-1
(−1 ) 2 sin no - 1 - n² - 12 cos² + (n² — 1³) (n² — 3³) Cos
.
sin 1.2
(n² — 1²) (n² — 3²) (n² — 5²) cos - ......

6
n-1
+ (- 1 ) 2 (2 cos 0)n-1.
0)~~¹ ……………………. ( 2).
Case II. Let n be even, so that n - 1 is odd.
The lowest term in ( 1 ) which gives any coefficient of

-1 is then that for which
22
=
2
sin no
= coefficient of an-1 in 1 - x (x − 2 cos 0) + ...
sin
n n n n
+ (− 1 ) x ( x − 2 cose) + (− 1)3 +1 3 +1 (x - 2 cos10) +1
n n n
+2 +2
.
+ (− 1 ) 3 +² x + (x − 2 cos 0)2+2 + ...
+ (− 1 )n−¹ xn−¹ (x − 2 cos 0)n −¹ + .......

SIN no
IN ASCENDING POWERS OF COS 0. 65
SIN
Picking out the required coefficients, we have

n
sin no
17 0 = (-1) 3.2 (− 2 cos 0)
sin
(2 +1) ) (2 -1)
+ (- 1) +1 (-2 cos 0)³
1.2.3
n n
n -
+2 2 2 1) 2 2 1)
² ++ G + ²) ( + ¹) ¦ G − ¹) ( − ²) (-2000)
+ (− 1)2 cos
1.2.3.4.5
+ ........ + (2 cos 0)n-¹.
Hence, finally, when n is even, we have
n
(− 1) +1 sin no
sin
-
= n cos 0.- n (n² - 2²)·Cos³ + n (n² — 2²) (n² — 42) cos
15
7) ,
"+1
....... + (− 1 ) +¹ (2 cos 0) -¹.....………………. (3) .
0)n−1.
N.B. It will be noted that equations (2) and (3) of this article are
simply the series of Art. 48 written backwards. This is clear from the
method of proof, or the statement could be easily verified independently.
**51. To expand cos no in a series of ascending

powers of cos 0.
As in Art. 49 , we have
2 cos no = coefficient of xn - coefficient of x²-2 in
(1 - 2x cos 0 + x²)−1
= coefficient of an - coefficient of x²-2 in
-
1 - x (x − 2 cos 0) + x² (x − 2 cos 0)² - ......
+ (− 1)” xº (x − 2 cos 0) + ...... ( 1 ) ,
as in Art. 49.
L. T. II. 5
66 TRIGONOMETRY.
Case I. Let n be odd, so that n - 1 is even.

The lowest term in (1 ) which will give any of the
coefficients we want is that for which
n-
r == 1 .
2
Hence 2 cos ne coefficient of x" - coefficient of xn-2
in
n -1 n-1 n-1
1 - x (x- 2 cos ) + ... +(- 1) 2 x 2 (x - 2 cos 0) 2
n +1 n+1 n+1 n+3 n + 3 n+3
2
+(- 1) x (x- 2 cos 0) + (- 1 ) 2 x 2 (x - 2 cose)
+ ..... + (− 1 )¹ x¹ (x − 2 cos 0)”.
= (-1) 2 cos ()
[-11-20
n+ 1 n- 1 n - 3
n+1
2 2 2
+ (- 1) 2 (− 2 cos 0)-—
n +¹-(— (-2 cos 0)³
2 1.2.3
n + 3 n + 1 n -1
n+3 ·
2 2 2
+ (- 1) 2 (-2 cos 0)³
1.2.3
n + 3 n + 1 n - 1n - 3n - 5
2 2 2 2 2
(-2 cos 0)5
1.2.3.4.5
+ ..... + (2 cos 0)".
n-1
.. ( 1 ) 2.2 cos no
-
=cos @[ (n − 1) + (n + 1 ) ] _ ( n + 1 ) (n − 1 ) cos³ @ [ ( n − 3 ) +(n + 3) ]
3
-
(n + 3) (n + 1 ) ( n - 1 ) (n − 3 )
+ cos³ 0 [ (n − 5) + (n + 5 ) ] + ....
15
n -1
+ (- 1 ) 2 (2 cos 0)"
COS ne IN ASCENDING POWERS OF Cos e. 67
Hence, finally, when n is odd,

n- 1
1) = cos ne
-1)
(−
= n cos 0 - n (n² - 1²) cos³ +

n (n² — 1²) (n² — 3²)
Cos
B
n-1
(-1) 2 2n-1 cos" 0......(2).
Case II. Let n be even .
The lowest term in (1 ) which will give any of the

required coefficients is that for which
n -2
r=
2
Hence we have
2 cos no = coefficient of x¹ - coefficient of x²-2 in

n 2 n- 2 n-2
1 - x (x - 2 cos 0) + ... + ( -
− 1 ) 2 x 2 (x - 2 cos 0) 2
n n n n+2 n + 2 n+2
-
x² (x - 2 cos 0) + ( - 1) 2 x2 (x - 2 cos 0)
+ ( − 1 ) ²x² )2
+ ... + (− 1)n x² (x − 2 cos 0)" + ......
nn - 2
n- 2 n
2 2' 2
= ( −1 ) ² [ −1 ] + ( -
− 1)² | 1 - cos 0)²
1.2 (-2
n+2 n
n+2
2 2
+(- 1) 2
1.2 (-2 cos 0)²
n + 2 n n-- 2 n --4
·
2 2 2 2
(-2 cos 0)
1.2.3.4
5-2
68 TRIGONOMETRY.
n+4 n + 2 n n -2
n+4 •
2 2 2 2
+ (− 1) 2 (-2 cos 0)
1.2.3.4
n +4 n + 2 n n − 2 n - 4 n - 6
2 2 2 2 2 2
-2 cos 0)6
16
+ + (2 cos 0)".
n
.. ( -1 )².2 cos no
cos²
= [1 + 1] - ·[n (n − 2) + (n + 2) .n]
12
Cos¹
+ ·[(n + 2) .n . (n -
− 2 ) ( n − 4 ) + ( n + 4) (n + 2) .n . (n − 2 ) ]
4
n
+ ....... + (− 1) .( 2 cos 0 )” .
Hence, finally, when ŉ is even,
n
n² cos² 9 n² (n² - 2³)
(-1 ) cos no = 1- + Cos¹
2 4
-
n² (n² — 2²) (n² — 4³) cos + ...
16
n
+(- 1) 2n-1 cos" .............. .... (3).
N.B. As before, the equations (2) and (3) of this article are only the
series (2) of Art. 49 written backwards.
** 52. From equation ( 2 ) of Art. 50 and equation (2)

of Art. 51 we have, if n be odd ,
n- 1 sin n² - 12 - 3²)
2 sin no = 1 cos² +
(n²— 1²) (n²—
Cos¹
(-1) sin Ꮎ 2 4
(n² — 1²) (n² — 3²) (n² — 5²) cos 0 +
n-1
+ ( - 1) 2 (2 cos 0)n-¹ + ......(1) ,
EXPANSIONS IN POWERS OF SIN 0. 69
n -1
cos n = n cos 0 _ n (n² — 1º) Cos³
and ( -1 ) 2 cos n✪ = n cos 0 -
3
n- 1
n (n − 13) (n −3) cos + ...... + (- 1 ) 2 2n-1 cos” (
+
...... (2).
π
In these equations change ✪ into -0, and therefore
cos e into sin 0.
Then sin ne will become
Nπ n- 1
sin 2- 2
— no) , i.e. ( − 1) cos no,
and cos ne will become

ηπ n- 1
COS 2
2 no) , i.e. ( −1 ) sin no.
On making these substitutions we shall have, if n be

odd,
- 12
cos ne = cos @ {1 - n² = 10 sin20 + (n² — 1²)(n² — 3²) sin¹ 0 —….
2 4
n-1
+ ( − 1) 2. 2n-¹ sinn−1 . (3),
-20}
and
si
sin non= sin - n(n² — 1³) n³ 0 + n (n² — 1²) (n² — 3²) sin'
3 15
n-1
+ ...... + ( −
- 1 ) 2 2n−¹ sin” 0 ……………. (4).
**53. Again from equation (3) of Art. 50 and
equation (3 ) of Art. 51 we have, if n be even,
n +1 sin no
(−1 )3+1 sin n (n² - 2²)
= n cos 0 -cos³
sin B
n
n (n² - 2²) (n² - 42) +1
+ cos + .... + ( − 1)3 + ¹ ( 2 cos 0)n−1
......(1),
70 TRIGONOMETRY.
and
n
22
n² n² (n² - 2²)
(-1 )² cos ne = 1– cos² 0 + cos¹ 0- .....
4
n
+ ( − 1)ễ 2n−¹ (cos" 0) ...... (2).
π
In these equations change 0 into –0 , and therefore
2
cos into sin 0.
Then sin ne will become
n+1
sin (TT - n9) , i.e. ( -1) சீ t ain ne ,

and cos ne will become
ηπ
COS -
(2T — no) , i.e. ( − 1)² cos ne.
On making these substitutions we have, if n be even,

sin no -
= n sin 0- n(n² — 2²) sin³0 + n(n² — 2²) (n² — 4²) sin 0 ...
cos 13
n
+1
+ (− 1)2 +¹ (2 sin 0)~~¹ ......
…………..(3) ,
and
n² n (n² -
— 2²) sin' 0
cos no = 1- sin20 + ²
14
n
+...... (- 1 )³ 2n -1 sin" 0 ...... (4).
**54. Equations (1 ) and ( 2 ) of Art. 52 and equa-

tions (1 ) and (2) of Art. 53 give the expansions of sin ne
and cos ne in ascending powers of cos e for the cases when n
is even or odd. Equations (3) and ( 4) of the same two
articles give the expansions of the same two quantities in
terms of sin 0.
EXPANSIONS OF SIN ne AND COS no. 71
EXAMPLES. VIII.
– 56 sin³ 0 + 112 sin³ 0 -

1. sin 70 = 7 sin 0 - − 64 sin7 0.
2. cos 70-64 cos? 0-112 cos5 +56 cos³ 0-7 cos 0.
3. sin 80 =sin @ [ 128 cos? - 192 cos³ 0 + 80 cos³ 0 - 8 cos 0] .
4. cos 80= 1-32 sin20 + 160 sin¹ 0-256 sinº 0 + 128 sin³ 0.
5. sin 90 =sin @ [256 cos 0-448 cos 0 + 240 cos¹ 0 - 40 cos² 0 +1].
6. Express cos 60 in terms of cos e only and verify for the cases
π
0=1, 0===
respectively.
7. Prove the algebraic identity
n(n - 3)
p" + q" = (p + q)" − n (p + q) "− 2pq + 1. 2 (p + q) -4p2q2 + ....
Deduce that
n(n - 3)
2cos no =(2 cos 0)" - — n (2 cos 0)n−2 + 1.2 (2 cos 0)n-4 -...
** 55. Ex. Find the value of
+ - + sec
sec 0+sec0 + + ... to n terms,
(0 2 %) + (0 +1n ) +
sec20 +sec² + sec²0 + + ...

.. to n terms.
(+ ) (0 + 1 ) +
From equations (2) and (3) of Art. 51 , we know that
n- 1
- 1²) (n² —- 3²) 2
nc -n (n² - 12) n (n² – + ( - 1) ² 2n-1 cn
[B 5
n-1
2
= ( - 1 ) ² cos no…... ...(1),
when n is odd,
and that
n
n2 n² (n² - 2²)
1- 'cª +... + ( − 1 ) 2n−1 cm − ( − 1) ª cos ne ...... (2),
14
when n is even,
where in each series c stands for cos 0.
72 TRIGONOMETRY .
If cos no be now given, the equations (1) and (2) give cos 0.
But since cos no:= cos (n0 + 2π) = cos (n0 +4π)
=..........
these equations would also give
COS -
coa (0+ 2 ), cos ( + )....
Hence, in each case, the roots are
cos e, cos COS ...... to n terms.

( 0 +2=) (0 + 1 ) .
1
In (1 ) and (2) put c = - and multiply by y".
y
We have then the equations
n-1
2 n (n² - 1²)
(-1) cos no x yn - — n.yn-1
n. + ・yn-8_. = 0........ (3) ,
13
when n is odd,
n
and COS n2 4-2
1]y +123
[( − 1) . no - 1]yn =
when n is even.
The roots of these equations are respectively
4π
sec (0+ )
sec 8, sec (0 + 2 ), 100 ....
Call these C1 , 2 , .... Yn .
Then
Y₂ + Y₂+ ... + Y = sum of the roots
n n
= n-1 == ( - 1) n sec no, when n is odd,
2
(−1) cosno
and = 0, when n is even.
Also
Y₁² + Y₂² + ... + Yn² = (Y1 + Y2 + ... + Yn)² - 2 (Y1Y2 + Y₂Ys + ...)
n2
cos2 no = n2 sec2 no, when n is odd,
n2
and n2
= -2 . n n 9 when n is even.
-1 cos no - 1 1 - (- 1) cos no
EXAMPLES. 73
EXAMPLES. IX.
Find the value of
COS
1. cos e cos ( +2n) 000
0.8 (9 + n)
...... + (n
( - 1) ) .
2. sin 0 sin ( 0+ sin

(0 + 2 ) sin (0 + 1 ). n .
{0 + (n − 1) 2=}
3. cosec² + cosec² ( 0 + 2 ) + cosec² ( 0 + 1 ) . to n terms.
to n terms.
4. tan² 8+ tan³ (0 + 2 ) + tan² (89+
+ )
.....
[For the following 5 questions commence with equation (5) of Art.
30.]
5. tan 0 +tan ( 0+ n + tan ( 0+ to n terms.

(0+ 2=)
6. cot 0+ cot ( 0 + 1) + cot to n terms.

n ot (0+ 2
„ )....
to n factors.
......
7. tan 9tan (6+ ) tan (0+ 2 )
· to n terms.
8. tan ' + tan² (9 + ) + tan² (0 +
+2-
n)+
9. If n be odd , prove that S = 3C = n² −1, where
π 2π 3п
S sec² + sec². + sec² . to n - 1 terms ,
n n n
and π 2π 3п
C=cosec² + cosec² + cosec² + to n- 1 terms.
n n n ......
10. Find the sum of the products, taken two at a time, of expressions
of the form sec ( 0 + - where r has all values from zero to n - 1.
(0+ 2TH) ,
CHAPTER V.
EXPONENTIAL SERIES FOR COMPLEX QUANTITIES. CIRCU-

LAR FUNCTIONS FOR COMPLEX ANGLES. HYPERBOLIC
FUNCTIONS.
56. WHEN x is a real quantity we have proved in

Art. 5 that
ex = 1 + x + + + ad inf....... .. (1).
12
When x is not real but is complex, i.e. of the form

a +b = 1, the expression e has no meaning at present.
Let us so define it that for all values of a (whether
real or complex) it shall mean the series
хо
1 +x+ + + ad inf........ .(2) .
12 3
57. We can easily shew that this series is convergent

when x is complex.
For let x = r (cos 0 + √ — 1 sin ◊).

COMPLEX QUANTITIES. EXPONENTIAL SERIES. 75
XC3
Then ex = 1 + x + + +……………. ad inf.
2 3
r² (cos 20+ i sin 20)
= 1 +r (cos + i sin 0) +
2
(cos 30+ i sin 30)
+...... ad inf.
3
r² cos 20 3cos 30
= 1 + rcos + + + ......
3
12
r² sin 20 r³ sin 30
+√ =1 [ rain @ + +
13
The quantity
p2 роз
1 + r cos 0 + cos 20 + cos 30 + ...... ad inf.
12
p3
is < 1 +r+ + ad inf.
3
and is therefore convergent since this series is convergent

for all real values of r. (Art. 6.)
Similarly the quantity
p2
r sin 0 + sin 20+ ......
is convergent.
Hence the series for e" is always convergent.
58. When x is a complex quantity the quantity e*

is then a short way of writing
x²
1 +x+ + .......
23
Unless x be real, the e in e* does not mean the series
1 1
1 +1 + + +
76 TRIGONOMETRY .
When x is complex, e stands for a series of the same form

as that series which, when x is real, has been proved
to be equal to
1 1
+ + .....) .
(1 + 1 23
Instead of e* the expressions E (x) and exp (x) are sometimes used.
59. By a proof similar to that of Art. 304, C. Smith's

Algebra, it may be shewn that
exey = ex+y,
whether x and y be real or complex quantities, so that

the functions e* and ey obey a law of the same form as
the index law.
60. If x be put equal to Oi, where is real, we

then have
0212 0313
eoi = 1 + Oi + + ......
2 3
02 ᎾᏮ
= 1. ......
4 16
03 05
+ i0 - +
i [6 13
= cos i sin 0. (Arts. 32 and 33.)

So - i sin 0.
e-oi = cos 0 —
Hence, by addition, we have

eHi te
cos =
2
and, by subtraction,
eli - e-oi
sin =
2i
COMPLEX QUANTITIES. CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS. 77
Circular functions of complex angles.
61. When x is a complex quantity, the functions

Ꮳ and cos x have at present no meaning.
sin x
For real values of a we have already shewn in Arts.
32 and 33 that
205
sin x = x + + ...... ad inf.
15 |7
хов
and cos x = 1 - + + ...... ad inf.
24 16
Let us define sin x and cos x, when x is complex ,

so that these relations may always be true, i.e. for all
values of let
20-3 005 x²
sin x = x - + ...... ......... (1 ) ,
၈၂
хв
ခု
and cos x = 1 - + ..... ....... (2) .

246
When x is complex, the quantities sin x and cos x are

then only short ways of writing the series on the right-hand
sides of (1) and (2).
62. We have then, for all values of x, real or

complex,
хог оств
cos x + i sin = 1 + xi
2 3+ 1
= 1 + x² + (xi)² +
, (xi)³ , (xi)4
+
2 3 4
= exi (Art. 56. )
So cos — i sin x = e
78 TRIGONOMETRY.
Hence for all values of x, real or complex, we have
COS X " and sin x:

21
2
These results are known as Euler's Exponential Values.
63. We can now shew that the Addition and Sub-

traction Theorems hold for imaginary angles, i.e. that ,
whether be real or complex, then
sin (x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y,

cos (x + y) = cos x cos y -
— sin x sin y,
sin (x -
− y) = sin x cos y COS X sin y,
and cos (x − y) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y.
Since
exi + e-xi exi- e-xi
COS X = and sin x =
2 2i
we have sin x cos y + cos x sin y
exi - e-xi eyi + e-yi exi + e-xi eyi — e―yi
+
21 2 2 2i
exi . 2eyi - e-xi . 2e-yi C(x+y)i e- (x+y)i
(Art. 59)
4i 2i
= sin (x + y).
Similarly the other results may be proved .
64. It follows that all formulæ which have been

proved for real angles and which are founded on the
Addition and Subtraction Theorems are also true when
we substitute for the real angle any complex quantity.
For example, since
cos 30 = 4 cos³ 0 - 3 cos 0,
COMPLEX QUANTITIES. CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS. 79
where is real, it follows that
cos 3 (x + yi) = 4 cos³ (x + yi) - 3 cos (x + yi).
Again, since, by De Moivre's Theorem, we know that

cos no + i sin no
is always one of the values of
(cos + i sin )n,
when is real and n has any value, it follows that
cos n (x + yi) + i sin n (x + yi)

is always one of the values of
[cos (x + yi) + i sin (x + yi)]”.
65. Periods of complex circular functions. In

equations (1 ) and (2) of Art. 63 let a be complex and let
y = 2π.
Then sin (x + 2π) = sin x cos 2π + cos x sin 2π
= sin x,
and cos (x + 2π) = cos x cos 2π- sin x sin 2

= COS X.
Hence sin x and cos a both remain the same when a

is increased by 2π. Similarly they will remain the same
when a is increased by
4π, 6π, ......... 2nπ.
Hence, when a is complex, the expressions sin x and

cos a are periodic functions whose period is 2π.
This corresponds with the results we have already
found for real angles. (Art. 61 , Part I.)
80 TRIGONOMETRY .
EXAMPLES. X.
exi + e-xi and sinx exi- e-xi

Assuming that cos x = - 2 2i prove that, for
all values of x and y, real or complex,
1. cos2x + sin²x = 1 . 2. cos ( x) = cos x.
3. sin ( -x) = – sin x. 4. cos 2x cos² x − sin² x = 1-2 sin² x.
-x
5. sin 3x =3 sin x - 4sin³ x. 6. cos x – cos y = 2 sin x +
+y
sin
7. sinx - sin y = 2 cosy sin .

Prove that
8. {sin (a + 0) - eai sin 0 } " = sin” ae¯noi¸
eai sin no = e➖noi sin a.
9. sin (a + n0) –-e
10. {sin (a − 0) + e±aisin 0 }" = sin^-¹ a { sin (a− n0) + e±ai sin no} .
66. In the formulæ of Art. 62if x be a pure imaginary

quantity and equal to yi, we have, since
22 = -1,
eyi.i+ e-yi.i ey + ey ey + e-y
cos yi = 2 2 2
and
eyi.i — e―yi.i e-y - ey --ey
sin yi = =i
21 2i 2 (-1)
ey
=2
2
67. Hyperbolic Functions. Def. The quantity
whether y be real or complex, is called the hyperbolic

sine of y and is written sinh y.
HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS . 81
Similarly the quantity

ey + e-
2
is called the hyperbolic cosine of y and is written

cosh y .
[It will be observed that the values of sinhy and cosh y are obtained
from the exponential expressions for siny and cosy by simply omitting
the i's.]
The hyperbolic tangent, secant, cosecant, and cotangent

are obtained from the hyperbolic sine and cosine just as
the ordinary tangent, secant, cosecant, and cotangent are
obtained from the ordinary sine and cosine.
sinhy ey
Thus tanh y = =
Cosh y ey + e-y '
1 2
cosech y = =
sinhy ey е- у
1 2
sech y = =
cosh y ey + ey'
coth y = 1 ey + e-y
and =
tanh g ey e-y '
The hyperbolic cosine and sine have the same relation

to the curve called the rectangular hyperbola that the
ordinary circular cosine and sine have to the circle.
Hence the use of the word hyperbolic .
68. From Arts. 66 and 67 we clearly have
cos (yi) = cosh y,

and
sin (gi) = i sinh y .
So tan (gi) = itanh y.
L. T. II. 6
82 TRIGONOMETRY .
69. Corresponding to most general trigonometrical

formulæ involving the ratios of angles there are formulæ
involving the hyperbolic ratios.
For example, we have, for all values of the angle x,
cos² x + sin x = 1 ,
so that cos² (yi) + sin² (yi) = 1 ,
and hence, by the last article,
cosh* y – sinh * y = 1.
[This may be deduced independently from the definition of the hyper-
bolic functions . For
ey 2
cosh2y - sinh2y1=
= (c²+ e− ) ² - (e² = e− ³) ²
e2v +2 + e-2y e2y - 2 + e-2y

4 = 1.1
Again, for all values of u and v we have
sin (u + v) = sin u cos v + cos u sin v.

Put u = xi and v = yi,
so that
sin [(x + y) i] = sin (xi) cos (yi) + cos (xi) sin (yi).
The expressions of the last article then give
isinh ( + y )= i sinh æ cosh y + cosh æ xi sinh
.. sinh ( + y) = sinh æ Ꮖ sinh y.

Ꮳ cosh y + cosh æ
[Directly from the definition of the hyperbolic ratios we have

sinh æ cosh Уy + cosh æ sinh y
ex -·e-x e² + e-y ex+ ex ev - e-y 2extv - 2e-(x+y)
=
2 2 + 2 2 4 •
on multiplication , = sinh ( + y ).]

HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS. 83
Again, for all values of 0, we have

3 tan tan³
tan 30 =
1-3 tan² 0
Put then = xi, and we have
3 tan (xi) - tan³ (xi)

tan (3x ) =
=
1-3 tan² (xi)
Hence the substitutions of Art. 314 give
3i tanh x i3 tanh
itanh (3 ):=
1 – 3i tanh
3itanh + itanh3x
1+ 3 tanh2x
3 tanh + tanh x
so that tanh (32 ) =
1 + 3tanh x
As before, this may be easily proved from the definition
of tanh .
70. In general it follows from (1) of Art . 68 that any

general formula which is true for cosines of angles is also
true if instead of cos we read cosh.
From (2) of the same article, since
sin * (gi) = − sinh y ,

it follows that any general formula involving the cosine
and square of the sine of an angle is true if for cos we
read cosh and for sin² we read - sinh2.
Similarly from (3) we may turn a formula involving
tan² into another by writing for tan² the quantity — tanh².
In this manner formulæ and series involving the
hyperbolic functions may be obtained from 27, 28, 30, 44,
46, and 48-53 and also from Part I., Arts. 241 and 242 .
6-2
84 TRIGONOMETRY.
71. From the values in Art. 67 it follows, by Art. 56,

that
cosh x =· 1/2 (ex + e¯x)
+
= 1+ 1+ 1+ 61
sinh = [e* − e−*]
=x+ + +
17
These are the expansional values of cosh x and sinh x.
* 72. Periods of the hyperbolic functions.

For all values of 0, real or complex, we have cos ei = cosh 0.
Hence
cosh (x +yi) = cos { (x + yi) i} = cos (xi - y) = cos [ -2π + xi - y] (Art. 65)
=cos [(2πi +x + yi) i] = cosh [ 2πi + x +yi]
= (similarly) cosh [ 4πi + x + yi] = ......
Hence the hyperbolic cosine is periodic, its period being imaginary
' and equal to 2πi.
Again, since sinh 0 = -− i sin (i, we have
sinh (x + y )= − isin { (2 + yi) i} = - isin [xi - y ]

=-− i sin [ −2π + xi −y] = − i sin { [ 2πi + x + yi] i}
= sinh [27i ++ gi] ,
so that the period of sinh (x +yi) is 2πi.
Similarly it may be shewn that the period of tanh (x +yi) is πi.
The hyperbolic functions therefore differ from the circular functions
in having no real period ; their period is imaginary.
73. Ex. 1. Separate into its real and imaginary parts the expression
sin (a +ßi).
HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS. 85
We have sin (a +ẞi) = sin a cos ẞi +cos a sin ßi

eßte-B e -B - eB
=sin a + cos a
2 2i
eẞ+ e - B eß.-e
=sin a +i cos a
2 2
= sin a cosh ẞ + i cos a sinhẞ.
Ex. 2. Separate into its real and imaginary parts the expression
tan (a +ẞi).
sin (a + Bi)
We have tan (a +Bi) =
cos (a + Bi)
2 sin (a +Bi) cos (a - Bi)
2 cos (a +Bi) cos (a - Bi)
sin 2a + sin 2ẞi
cos 2a + cos 2ẞi
sin 2a + i sinh 23 •
(Art. 68.)
cos 2a + cosh 26
Aliter. Let tan (a + ßi) = x + yi , so that tan (a – Bi) = x — yi.
x= [tan (a +ẞi) + tan (a - − ẞi)]
sin (a +ẞi) cos (a -
− ßi) + cos (a + ßi) sin (a − ßi)
2 cos (a +Bi) . cos (a – Bi)
sin 2a = sin 2a
cos 2a + cos 2ẞi cos 2a + cosh 23 °
1 - -
Also y= [tan (a + ßi) — tan (a − ßi)]
- - -
= 1 sin (a +ẞi) cos (a − ßi) – cos (a-+ßi) sin (a − ßi)
2i cos (a +ẞi) cos (a – Bi)
1 sin 28i sinh 26
=
i cos 2a + cos 2ẞi cos 2a +cosh 28
sin 2a + isinh23
.. tan (a +Bi)=
cos 2a + cosh 28 '
Ex. 3. Separate into its real and imaginary parts the expression
cosh (a +Bi).
86 TRIGONOMETRY.
eatBit-a-Bi
-a
e
We have cosh (a+Bi) =- (Art. 67)
2
_eª . eª¹ + e¯ª . e¯ßi =

_ eª ( cos 3+ i sin §) +e¯* (cos 3 – i sin 3)
2 2 (Art. 62)
-ee − ª).
cos ß (eª + e¯ª) + i sin 3 (eª −
2 = cosßcosha + isin3sinh a .
Aliter. cosh (a + Bi) = cos { (a + Bi) i} (Art. 68)
= cos {ai - B}
=cos (ai) cos ẞ + sin (ai) sin ß
= cosh a cos B + i sinh a sin B.
EXAMPLES . XI.
Prove that
1. cosh 2x = 1 + 2 ( sinh x)² = 2 ( cosh x)² - 1.
2. cosh (a + 8) = cosh a cosh ẞ + sinh a sinh 3.
3. cosh (a + B ) – cosh ( a – B)= 2 sinh a sinh B.
tanha + tanh 8
4. tanh (a + B )= 1 + tanh a tanh B`
5. cosh 3x = 4 cosh³ x - 3 cosh x.
6. sinh 3 = 3sinh + 4sinh3x.
7. sinh (x + y) cosh (x -− y) = ½ (sinh 2x + sinh 2y).
8. cosh 2x + cosh 5x + cosh 8x + cosh 11x
13.x 3x
= 4 cosh cosh 3x cosh
2 2'
9. cosh x +cosh (x + y ) + cosh (x + 2y) + ...... to n terms
1 ng
cosh (x + 2y ) sinh 2
sinh У
2
10. sinh + sinh (2 + y ) + sinh (x + 2y ) + to n terms
n- 1 ny
sinh x + У sinh
2 2
sinh ở
EXAMPLES. 87
n (n - 1) sinh 3+
11. sinh + nsinh2 + ...... to (n + 1) terms
1.2
X
=2" cosh" sinh
( +1) .
12. sinh ẞ sin a +i cosh ẞ cos a = icos (a + ẞi).
13. sin 2a +i sinh 28 = 2 sin (a +iẞ) cos (a - iẞ).
14. cos (a + iß) + i sin (a + iß) = e−³ (cos a + i sin a).
15. If tany = tan a tanh ß, and tan z = cot a tanh ß, then prove that
tan (y +2) = sinh 28 cosec 2a.
π น
16. If u= log tan + , prove that tanh12 =tan 2.
$ ),
Separate into their real and imaginary parts the quantities
17. cos (a + ßi). 18. cot (a + ẞi).
19. cosec (a +ẞi). 20. sec(a +Bi).
21. sinh (a + Bi) . 22. tanh (a + bi).
23. sech (a +ßi).
u + iv sin u + i sinh v
24. Prove that tan 1
2 cos u + cosh v
25. If sin (4 +iB) = x + iy, prove that
x2 y2 x2 y2
cosh2B + sinh ”B =1, and sin2 A cos2A = 1.
26. If tan (4 + iB) = x + iy, prove that
x²+y² + 2x cot 2A = 1 , and x² + y² – 2y coth 2B + 1 = 0 .
27. If sin (0 + pi) = cos a + i sin a, prove that cos² 0 = ±sin a.
28. If sin (0 +pi) = p (cos a + i sin a), prove that
p²= [cosh 2p - cos 20] and tan a = tanh & cot 0.
29. If cos (0 + pi) = R (cos a + i sin a), prove that
sin (0 - a)
= log •
sin (0 +a)
30. If tan (0 +pi) = tan a +i sec a , prove that e26 = cot and that
'2'
π
20 = NT + + a.
31. If tan (0 + pi) = cos a + i sin a, prove that

Nπ π π
9= 2 + 4 9 and log tan +
88 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XI.]
32. If A +iB = c tan (x + iy ), then

2cA
tan 2x =
c2 - A2 - B2
33. If tan (0 +pi) = sin (x + iy), then
cothy sinh2¢ = cot a sin 20.
34. If tan (a + iß) = i, a and ß being real, prove that a is indeter-
minate and ẞ is infinite.
Prove that
35. } (sinh + sinx) = x + ad inf.
x4
36. (cosh x + cos x) = 1 + + + ad inf.
4 18
** 74. Inverse Circular Functions. When a and
B are real and a = cos B, we defined, in Art. 237 , Part I. ,
the inverse cosine of a to be that value of B which lies
between 0 and π, and it was pointed out that ẞ was a
many-valued quantity.
If now x + yi = cos (u + vi),
then similarly u + vi is said to be an inverse cosine of
x + yi.
But since
x + yi = cos ( u + vi) = cos [ 2nπ ± (u + vi)] (Art. 65)

it follows that 2nπ ± (u + vi) is also an inverse cosine of
x + yi, where n is any integer.
The inverse cosine of x + yi is hence a many- valued
function. When the many-valuedness of the inverse
cosine is considered it is written
Cos-¹ (x + yi).
The principal value of the inverse cosine of x + yi

is that value of 2nπ + (u + vi) which is such that either
2nπ + u or 2nπ - u lies between 0 and π.
This principal value is denoted by cos¬¹ (x +yi).

We have then
Cos¬¹ (x + yi) = 2nπ ± cos−¹ (x + yi).
** 75. Similarly if
x + yi = sin (u + vi) = sin {nπ + (− 1)" (u + vi)} ,
then nπ + (− 1)" (u + vi) is an inverse sine of x + yi. It is

a many-valued quantity and is denoted by Sin-¹ (x + yi).
Its principal value is such that its real part lies between
-and , and is denoted by sin−¹ (x + yi).
We then have
-1 -
Sin-¹ (x + yi) = nπ + (− 1)" sin¬¹ (x + yi).
Similarly tan¹ (x + yi) and Tan¬¹ (x + yi) are defined,

so that the principal value of Tan¬¹ (x + yi) is such that
π
-π
its real part lies between – 2 and + 2 and
-1
Tan-1 (x + y ) = nπ + tan-¹ (x + yi).
Similarly
Sec-1 (x + y ) = 2nπ + sec¹ (x + yi),
Cosec¯¹ (x + yi) = nπ + (− 1 )” cosec−¹ (x + yi),

and Cot-¹ (x + yi) = nπ + cot¬¹ (x + yi).
** 76. We shall henceforward use sin-1, Sin-¹, cos-¹,

Cos- ,... with the meanings above assigned.
** 77. Inverse hyperbolic functions. If x = coshy

then similarly, as in Art. 74, we write y = cosh-¹x.
90 TRIGONOMETRY .
If x be real, we have
ey + e-
x=
2
so that ezy - 2xe + 1 = 0,
and hence ey = x ± √x² - 1

1
= x + √x² −1 or
x + √x² - 1
:: y = ± log (x + √x² − 1).

The positive value of the right-hand side is the one
always taken.
Hence, when x is real, cosh-¹ is a single-valued
function.
Similarly sinh-¹x and tanh-¹x are defined ; they are
single-valued functions, when x is real.
** 78. If a + ßi = cosh (x + yi), then x +yi is said to be an in-

verse hyperbolic cosine of a +ẞi.
But cosh (x + yi) = cosh { 2nπi ± (x + yi)} , as in Art. 72.
Hence 2nπi + (x +yi) is an inverse hyperbolic cosine of a + ẞi. Its
principal value is that value whose imaginary part lies between 0 and
Ti, i.e. such that 2nπ ±y lies between 0 and π.
Similarly the inverse hyperbolic sine and tangent of a +ßi are defined .
In this case the principal values are such that the imaginary part lies
between -i andi.
** 79. Ex. 1. Separate into real and imaginary parts the quantity
sin−¹ (cos +i sin 0), where 0 is real.
Let sin-1 (cos + i sin 0) = x + yi,
so that cos +i sin 0 =sin (x + yi) = sin x cos yi + cos x sin yi
= sin xcosh y + i cos x sinhy.
Hence sin x cosh y = cos 0 ...... .(1),
and cos æ sinh y = sin 0 ......... (2).
Squaring and adding, we have

1= sin® ® cosh®y + cos3xsinh ? y= sin x (1 + sinh? y) + cos° x sinh y
=sin2x +sinh2y.
.. sinh2y = cos² x.
Hence from (2) we have cos² x = sin 0, assuming sin ◊ to be positive.
π π
Therefore, since x is to lie between - 2 and + (Art. 75),
we have cosx= +√sine, and hence x = cos-¹ (√sin 0).

The equation (2) then gives
sinh y= + sin 0,
so that e2v - 2ev√sin 0 = 1, a quadratic for ev.
Hence ev= sin @ + 1 + sin 0,
i.e. y = log [√sin @ +√√1 + sin @].
Ex. 2. Separate into its real and imaginary parts the quantity
tan-1(a +ẞi).
Let tan-1 (a +ẞi) = (x + yi) , so that tan (x + yi ) = a +ßi,
and tan (x - yi) = a - Bi.
.. tan 2x = tan { (x + yi) + (x − yi)}
2a
= (a + Bi) + (a - Bi)
1- (a +Bi) (a - Bi) 1
2a
x= tan- 1
1 – a² -
— ß² •
Again tan (2yi) = tan [(x + yi) − (x − yi) ]
= (a +Bi) -(a - Bi) = 28i
1+ (a + ẞi) (a - ẞi) 1 + a² +ẞ² *
e2y 2y 28i
.. i ..(1).
e²v+ e²v = 1 + a² +8²·
e2y 1 + a² + ß²+ 2ẞ _ (1 + ß)² + a²
e-2y =1 + a + 82-2-(1-8)²+a2°
• y =z log { (1 +8)² + a²
+ a² ) °
92 TRIGONOMETRY.
Or again (1) gives tanh 2y 28

=´1 + a² +ß³ ³
1 28
so that
y =2 tanh - 1 1 + a²+82
We should have Tan−¹ (a + ßi) = nx +tan−¹ (a +ßi)
2a i 28
= n + tan- 1.1 − a³ – 8² +½ tanh¬¹
1+ a²+ B²°
EXAMPLES. XII.
Separate into their real and imaginary parts the quantities

1. tan-1 (cos +i sin 0).
2. cos-¹ (cos +i sin 0), where 0 is a positive acute angle.
Prove that
3. sinh… r= log (2 + x + 1) . 4 tanh -1r = sinh- 1
5. cosh-¹x = log ( √x² − 1 + x). 1 +x

6. tanh - r = } log •
1-x
π
7. − 1)” log cot 0
Sin-¹ (cosec 0) = { 2n + ( − 1)"} ; + i ( -
2'
7-1 log tan

8. Tan-¹ (ei ) = ¹T + 4
2 2 ( -9).
9. Tan-1 tan 20 + tanh 2
+ Tan-1 tan 0-
– tanh ¢
tan 20 – tanh2 = Tan-1 (cot@ cothp).
tan 0+ tanh ở
CHAPTER VI.
LOGARITHMS OF COMPLEX QUANTITIES.
80. IF a = e , where a and c are real quantities, we

know that a is called the logarithm of a to base e and we
have shewn in Art. 5 that
x2 XC-3
a = ex = 1 + x + + + ..... ad inf.
2 3
We may therefore look upon the logarithm, x, of a to

base e as being derived as a root of the equation
a= 1 + x+ + + ...... ad inf. ...... (1).
As in other cases we shall now extend this result to

complex quantities.
81. Def. If x + yi be any complex quantity and if

a + Bi be a quantity which is equal to ex+yi, i.e. to the series
(x + yi)² , (x + yi)³
1 + (x + yi) + + +
2
then x + yi is said to be a logarithm of a + Bi.

94 TRIGONOMETRY.
We say " a" logarithm because, as we shall now shew,

there are with the above definition many logarithms of a
quantity.
We have a + Bi = ex + yi . (1).
Now, by Art. 62, we have, for all integral values of n,

eri = cos 2nπ + i sin 2nπ = 1 …….. (2) .
Hence from (1 ) and ( 2) we have, by Art. 59,

a + ẞi = ex+yi . 。m#i = ex+ (y+MĀ)i
According to the above definition we see that, if x + yi

be a logarithm of a + Bi, so also is
x + yi + 2nπi, i.e. x + (y + 2nπ) i.
82. We proceed to find the logarithms of the com-

plex quantity a + Bi, where a and ß are real.
By Art. 20, we have
a + ßi = r [cos ( 2nπ +0) + i sin (2nπ + 0)] ,
where n is any integer, r = + √a² + B², and 0 is that value

α
lying between - π and + such that cos is - and sin
is , i.e. with the restriction of Art. 20,
0 = tan-1 ·
If x + yi be a logarithm of a + Bi, we have then
r [cos (2nπ + 0) + i sin ( 2nπ +0)] = ex+yi

= ex . eyi` (Art. 59)
= ex(cos y + i sin y).

LOGARITHMS OF COMPLEX QUANTITIES. 95
By equating real and imaginary parts, we have

ex cos y = r cos (2nπ + 0),
and ex sin y = r sin (2nπ + 0).
Hence ex = r, and y = 2nπ + 0.
Since x and r are both real, a is the ordinary algebraic
Napierian logarithm of r, so that
X = loger.
Hence a logarithm of a + Bi is
loger + i (2nπ + 0),
i.e. B
loge Va² + B² + i ( 2nπ + tan-¹
a
Since n is any integer we see that there are therefore

an infinite number of logarithms of a + Bi, and that these
only differ by multiples of 2πi.
83. With the extended definition of a logarithm

given in Art. 81 , it follows by the last article that the
logarithm of any number is many-valued.
When this many-valuedness is taken into consideration
we write the logarithm of a + Bi as Log (a + Bi).
Hence
Log (a + Bi) = loge √a² + ß² + i ( 2nπ + tan−¹

2).
If we put n equal to zero in the value of Log (a + Bi)

the result is called the principal value of the logarithm
and is denoted by log (a + Bi) , so that
log (a + Bi) = log. √(a² + B²) + i tan-¹

and
Log (a + Bi) = 2nπi + log ( a + Bi).
96 TRIGONOMETRY.
This distinction between log and Log is to be here-

after assumed.
84. Any positive quantity has one real logarithm

and an infinite number of imaginary ones.
In the result of the preceding article put ẞ equal to
zero, and we have
Log a = 2nπi + log, a.
We therefore observe that, with our extended definition of
a logarithm, every real quantity a has a real logarithm
( which is equal to log, a as ordinarily defined) and an
infinite number of imaginary logarithms, which are
obtained by adding any multiple of 2i to its real
logarithm.
This might have been directly deduced from equation
(1 ) of Art. 80. For this is an equation of infinite degree
and therefore it has an infinite number of roots, of which
only one is real.
It will be noted that the principal value of the
logarithm (according to our extended definition) of a real
number is equal to its ordinary algebraic logarithm.
85. Logarithm of a negative quantity. In the result

of Art. 83 put ß = 0, and a = - x, where x is a real
positive quantity.
:: + √a² + ß² = + x, and tan-¹
X
[which is an angle such that its cosine is i.e. -1 ,
+x
and its sine zero (Art. 20)] is equal to π.
.. Log (-x) = 2nπi + log, x + πİ,
and log (− x) = log, x + πi.
Hence the principal value of the logarithm of a

negative quantity - (with our extended definition) is
equal to the ordinary algebraic logarithm of x added
on to πi.
86. Logarithm of a quantity which is wholly imagin-

ary. In the result of Art. 83 put a = 0, and we have
Log (Bi) = 2nwi + loge ß + i T
= log. 8 + i (2n + 3) T.
so that the logarithm of any quantity which is wholly

imaginary consists of two parts, the first of which is real,
and the second of which is imaginary and many-valued
As a particular case, put ẞ = 1 , and we have
Log (√−1) = i (2n + П,
π
so that the principal value of Log (√- 1) is 2.
87. In the result of Art. 83 put
a = cos 0 and ẞ = sin 0.
.. Log (cos + i sin 0)
= log. 1+ i ( 2nπ + 0) = Oi + 2nπi,
.. Log ei = Oi + 2nπi.
The principal value of Log ei, i.e. log ei , is therefore

that value of (0+ 2nπ) i which is such that + 2n lies
between π and + π.
L. T. II. 7
98 TRIGONOMETRY.
88. Ex
. 1. Resolve into its real and imaginary parts the expression
Log sin (x + yi).
Let Log sin (x+ yi) = u +vi, so that
eu+vi = sin (x+ yi) = sin x cos yi + cos x sin yi
ey + e-v ev -e-y
= sin x + i cos x ...(1).
2 2
As in Art. 18 let the right-hand side of this expression equal
r [cos (2nπ + 0) + i sin (2nπ + 0)],
so that
ey + e-y \ 2
r= + sin² x + cos² x
( + )
= √(e²v + e−2y) − 2 cos 2x

cosh 2y - cos 2x
= √√2 cosh 2y -- 2 cos 2x = , 2
ey - e-y
and 0=tan-1 cot x
[cot x = ]. = tan -1[ cot 2 tanh g],
with the usual restriction of Art. 20.
We have then from (1)
eu (cos v + i sin v) = r [ cos (2nπ + 0) + i sin (2nπ +0)].
Hence eur, so that u = loger,
and v = 2nπ +0.
.. Log sin (x +yi) = u + vi = loge r + (2nπ + 0) i
cosh 2y- cos 2x
= 108. 2 + i [2n7 + tan - 1 (cot 2 tanh y)].
By putting n equal to zero, we have the principal value of

Log sin (x +iy).
Ex. 2. Find the general value of Log ( −3).
Let x +yi = Log ( -3), so that
ex+yi = - 3.
Put -3 = r {cos (2n + 0) + i sin (2nπ + 0)},
as in Art. 18.
Then we have r = 3 and 0 =π.
Hence 3{cos (2nπ + ) + i sin (2nπ + π) }

= ex+yi = ex . eyi = ex {cos y + i sin y}.
Hence ex = 3, so that x = log, 3, and y = 2nπ +π.
..Log ( -3) = log, 3+ (2nπ + π) i.
The principal value, obtained by putting n equal to zero, is
loge 3+ πi.
EXAMPLES. XIII.
Prove that
1. log (cos + i sin 0) = i0, if T < 0 > T. 2. log ( -1) = Ti.
3. log ( -i) i.
4. log (1+ cos 20 +i sin 20) = log. (2 cos 0) + i0, if −π < 0Þπ.
π x
5. log tan 4 + 2 i ) = itan -1sinh .
'cosh 2y + cos 2x - i tan-1

6. log cos (x + yi) = log. 2 (tan xtanhy) .
7. log sin (2 + 3i ) = 2i tan −1 (cot æ tanh y).

sin (x- yi)
cos (x - yi)
8. log ! = 2itan - 1 (tan xtanhy).
cos (x + yi)
x-i
9. i log x + -ET- 2 tan-1 x.
i
10. log (1 +itan a) = log, sec a + ai , where a is a positive acute angle.
π
= +i
11. log - log.cosce ) + ( - 1).
a + bi
12. log2 = 2i tan- 음.
- bi
13. Log ( -5) = loge 5+ ( 2nπ + T) i.
14. Log (1 + 1) = log. 2 + i ( 2nx +7 ) .

15. Find the value of log log sin (x + yi).
7-2
100 TRIGONOMETRY .
89. Definition of a when a and x are any

quantities, complex or real. When a and c are real
quantities we know that
a = exlog,e a. (Art. 5.)
When a and c are complex the ordinary algebraic
definition of a no longer holds.
Let us so define it that
ax = exLoga2
for all values of x and a , whether real or complex.

Now, by Art. 83, Log a is many-valued and complex
when a is complex. Hence a is many-valued and com-
plex, so that
ax = exLog a = ex (2nri +loga)
The value of a* obtained by putting n equal to zero is

called its principal value.
Hence the principal value of a*
= exloga
= 1 + x log a + (log a)² + ... (by Art. 56).
From Art. 59 it follows that if principal values be considered we

have a* × a = a*+v, so that the principal value of a satisfies the ordinary
algebraic law of indices.
90. It may now be shewn that, if y be complex,

1 1 1
- y' + ...... ad inf.
log (1+ y) = y - y² + 3 y³
The proof is similar to the proof when y is real.

(Art. 8.)
It is, in general, necessary that the modulus of y be < 1 ;
otherwise the Binomial Theorem does not hold for com-
plex quantities. (Art. 26.)
COMPLEX INDICES. 101
If the modulus of y be equal to unity, so that y may be put equal to

cos +i sin p, the expansion can be shewn to be still true, except in the
cases when is equal to an odd multiple of π..
Since Log ( 1+ y) = 2nπi + log (1 + y),
we have
1 1 1
Log (1+ y) = 2nπi + y y² +5 y³ - y + ...... ad inf.
91. To separate into its real and imaginary parts the

expression (a + Bi)x+yi.
Let a + Bir(cos + i sin 0),
so that, as in Art. 18,
r= √a² + B², and 0 = tan-¹ 용.
Then, by definition,
(a + Bi)x+yi = e(x+yi) Log (a +ßi)
=: e{x+yi} {log (a +ßi) +2mwi}
== e{x+yi} { logr+ (0 +2mπ) i}
= e{xlogr―y (0+2mm) } + i {ylogr+x (0+2mm)}
= exlogr.e―y(0+2mm) . ei {ylogr+x (0+2mm) }
= p².e¯y(0+2mm) [cos { y logr + x ( 0 + 2mπ)}
+ i sin {y log r + x ( 0 + 2mπ) } ].
If we put m equal to zero, we obtain the principal

value of the given quantity, viz.
re-yº [cos (y log r + x0) + i sin (y log r + x0)].
**92 . Ex. 1. Find the general value of [ √ -INFI.

We have =eN -ILog √√ -1.
W -IN=1=
102 TRIGONOMETRY.
But Log -I - Log [cos ( 2 + )+ sin ( 2+ )]
=Loge (2nw+ =);__

=
= (2nx + ) i.
:: [√−1]√ =1 =e (2nx+7) v² =e
=e− (2nx+5),
where n has any integral value.
The principal value of [√√√ is e
Ex. 2. Find the general value ofLog2 ( -3).

Let Log₂ (-3) = x + yi, so that 2x+yi = −3,
i.e. e(x+yi) Log2 = 3 {cos (2mπ + π) + i sin (2mT + T) } (Art. 20) .
But Log 2 = 2nri + log,2 , and 3 = eloges9
:: ¿(x+ yi) (2nπi+log,2) = elog¿8.e (2mñ + ñ) i¸
:. (x +yi) (2nπi + log,2) = log,3 + (2mπ + π) i.
Equating real and imaginary parts, we have

x log. 2-2nжу = log. 3,
and x. 2nπ + y log, 2 = 2mπ + π.
Solving, we have
x= log, 3 loge 2 + (2mπ + π) . 2nπ
(loge 2) ² + 4n²²
and (2mπ + π) log, 2 - 2nπ log. 3

y=
(loge 2)² + 4n²²
Hence Log₂ ( -3)
-
= {loge 3 log, 2 + 2n (2m + 1) π³ } + iπ { (2m + 1 ) log, 2 − 2n log, 3 }
(loge 2)² + 4n²²
Ifm =n=0, the principal value is obtained, viz.
loge 3+πi
log. 2
COMPLEX INDICES. 103
93. It could now be shewn that the general values

of the logarithms of complex quantities satisfy the
ordinary laws of logarithms, viz.
Log mn = Log m + Log n,
m
and Log Log m― Log n.
n
It could also be shewn that Log m" = n Log m + 2рπi,

where p is some integer or zero. The proof is left as an
exercise for the student.
EXAMPLES. XIV.
Prove that
1. a¹ = e -2mπ {cos (log a) + i sin (log a)} .
2. ia = cos { (2m + 1) Ta
xa}
+ i sin
{ ( 2m + 1) ra } .
3. cos 0+i sin 0, where
+
= . c− (2nx + )). .
0 = ( 2m + 1 ) π.e
4. If ...ad inf. = A + Bi , principal values only being considered, prove

that
ΠΑ B
tan = and 4² + B² = e-TB.
2 Α'
5. If ia+ Bi = a +ẞi, prove that
a²+8² = e-( n + 1) =ß¸
(1 +i)p+gi
6. If =a +ßi, prove that one value of tan-1 is
(1 — i)p—gi
1
2Pπ +q log. 2.
7. If (a + bi)² = m*+vi, prove that one of the values of y

x
is
ત
b
2 tan-1
a
loge (a² + b²) °
104 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XIV. ]
8. If aª +ßi = (x + yi) + , principal values only being considered,

prove that
1
a = p loga (x² + y²) −- q tan-12
x loga e,
and that ap +Bq
loga (x² + y²) = 2 2
p²+qi
9. Prove that the real part of the principal value of (i) log(1+i) is
πT2
e 8 cos
( log 2) .
10. Prove that the principal value of (a + ib)a + iß is wholly real or

wholly imaginary according as
1
ẞ log (a² + b²) + a tan-¹ a
π
is an even or an odd multiple of 2 ·
11. Prove that the general value of

(1+ i tan a)→
is ea+2m π
[cos {log cos a} + i sin {log cos a}].
a + x + iy λ + μί
12. If = X + iY,
a - x - iy
prove that one of the values of
Y 2ay
tan-1. is λtan-1 + log (a + x)² + y²
X a²x²2- y² (a -
− x)² + y² °
4n +1
13. Prove that Log₁/-1 (√√ -1)= 4m + 1 '
where m and n are any integers.
14. Prove that the general value of Log, ( -2) is
(log 2)² +m . (2n + 1) π² + i (2n + 1 - m) π log 2
2 (log 2)² + 2m² 2 (log 2)2 + 2m²²
Explain the fallacies in the following arguments :
15. For all integral values of n we have
e2nric
= cos 2n + i sin 2nπ = 1,
so that =e =
[Exs. XIV.] COMPLEX INDICES. 105
Raise all these quantities to the power √1 ; thus

e-2″ -e-4 = e -6п =
.. 2π = 4π = 6π = ..
.......
16. For all values of 0 we have

cos (0 ) + i sin (0 -− π) = cos (0 + π) + i sin (0 +π),
so that ei (0 ) = ei (0+ ),
Hence 0- π =0 + , i.e. π = 0.
17. If and be the principal values of the amplitudes of two

complex numbers x and y, prove that
log xy = log x + logy + 2nπi,
where n is -1, 0, or +1 according as 0+ is > , greater than -π and
not greater than π, and not greater than -π, respectively.
CHAPTER VII.
GREGORY'S SERIES. CALCULATION OF THE VALUE OF T.
94. Gregory's Series. To prove that, if o be not

π π
less than - and be not greater than + then
4
1
0 =tan 0 - 1 tan³ 0 + 3 tan - ......
.... ad inf.
3
We have
1 +itan 0 = sec ✪ (cos + i sin 0)

= sec 0. eoi

log, sec 0 + 0i = log (1 + i tan 0).
Therefore, by Art. 90, if tan @ be numerically not

greater than unity, we have
log. (sec ) + Oi = log ( 1 + i tan 0)
1 1
= itan 0 --- is tans ......
½³
2 tan² 0 + 3
1 1
= itan + tan² - i tans 0.- tan + ...... ad inf.
3
GREGORY'S SERIES. 107
Equating the imaginary parts on each side of this

equation, we have
Ꮎ = tan-
0 tan³0 + tan³ 0 - tan' 0 + ... ad inf. ...
. (1).
Since this series is true for acute angles such that the
tangent is not numerically greater than unity it is true
π
- and
for all angles lying between the values 4 and +7 4
π π
also for the extreme values -
— — and +
4'
95. The series of the last article may be slightly

transformed by writing_tan 0 = x, so that x must be not
less than -1 and not greater than 1 .
It then becomes
-1
tan-¹x= x - 3x² + x° – x² + ...... ad inf. ,
where tan-¹x is that value which lies between

π П
4 and +7.
-7 4
96. Gregory's Series is a particular case of a more

general theorem which may be enunciated as follows :
π π
If O be an angle which lies between pπ-
РП and рT +
4 4
both limits being admissible, then
1 1
0 - рπ = tan - -
· 3 tan³ 0 + tan³ 0 — ...... ad inf.
108 TRIGONOMETRY .
π
=
For let pπ + , where & is not greater than 4 and
П
not less than -
4.
Then 1 + i tan 0 = 1 + itan = sec & (cos + i sin ø)

= sec . epi
Hence, by Arts . 83 and 90, we have, provided that

tan be numerically not greater than unity,
• log, sec + pi = log (1 + i tan 0)
1
= i tan 0 -
= — — 22
i³ tan³ 0 + is tans 0-
3
1 1 1 1
= itan 0 + tan20 - i tan³ 0 + tan 0 + i tan³ 0 — ...
2 3 4 5
ad inf.
Equating the imaginary parts on both sides of this

equation we have
1 1
$ =tan 0 - tans + tan' 0 - .... ad inf. ,
3 5
1 1
= n
i.e. 0 - pπta - tan³ 0 + tan 0 -...ad inf.... (1).
3 5
97. Examples of particular cases.

3п 5п π an П
If lie between and d T + " we have
4 4 9 i.e. between π- 4 4
p =1 and equation (1) of the preceding article becomes
1 1
0-T=tan 0 tan³ 0 + tan50-
- ad inf.
5
7π 9п π π th equa
If lie between and i.e. between 2π - and 2π + e -
4 4
tion becomes
1
0-2π =tan - tan³ 0 + tan³ 0 – ...... ad inf.
CALCULATION OF T. 109
13π 11π π
Similarly, if lie between - and - 9 i.e. between -
– 3π and
4
π
−3π +
4' we have p = -3, and the equation becomes
1
0 + 3 = tan 0-1 tan³0 + tan³ 0 - ad inf.
π 3π
98. If lie between and , or between
4
5п 7π
and
4 4
or, generally , between
π 3π
nж + and nж +
4 4
tan is numerically greater than unity ; in these cases
the expansion of log ( 1 + i tan ) does not hold, and there
is no such expansion as equation (1 ) of Art. 96.
99. Value of π. One of the chief uses of Gregory's

series is its application to find the value of π.
In Art. 95 put x = : 1, and we have
π 1 1 1 1
- + - +
4 =1 3 5 7 9
=1- - - - - ......
9 -G- 13
1 1 1
= 1-2 + + +
3.5 7.9 11.13
This series may be used to calculate π ; its defect

however is that the successive terms do not rapidly
become small, so that a very large number of terms would
have to be taken to obtain the value of π correct to any
great degree of accuracy.
For this reason other series have been sought for.
110 TRIGONOMETRY.
100. Euler's Series. We can easily prove that

1
-1
<
tan-112+ tan- = π•
3 4
In Art. 95 put in succession x equal to

1 1
and
2 3'
and we have
44
113 112
12
π
= tan-1 + tan-¹
12
1 1 1 1 1 1
= +
+
3 ' 23 5 ' 25 7'27

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ - + - .....
3 3'33 5'35 7' 37 +
This series converges more quickly than the preceding

series ; but more than eleven terms of the series for
1
tan-1 would have to be taken to give π correct to 7
2
places of decimals .
101. Machin's Series. A more convergent series

than the preceding is Machin's, which is derived from the
expression
1 1 =π
4 tan-1 - tan-1 (Art. 240, Part I., Ex. 4).
239 4
1 1
By substituting in succession 5 and 239 for x in Art.
95, we have
П 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ +
3'5³ 5 ' 55 7'57 ]
1 1 1 1 1
- +
239 3 ' 239³ 5 ' 2395
CALCULATION OF T. 111
2 1 23 1 25 1 27
.. T = 16 + - + ....
10 3 103 5 105 7 107
1 1 1 1 1
- 4 - +
239 3 2393 5 2395
2
Now 16 x - 3.2
10
1 25
16 x = ·001024
5'105
1 29
16 x = ⚫0000009102
9 ° 10⁹
1 1
4x •0000000977
3'2393
3-2010250079
1 23
Also 16 x = 0426666666 ...
3'103
1 27
16 x = 0000292571 ...
7 ° 107
1 211
16 x = 0000000298 ...
11'10¹¹
1
4x = 0167364017 ...
239
0594323552
Hence 3-2010250079
- 0594323552
T = 3.14159265/27
This is the value of π correct to 8 places of decimals.
By taking the first series to 21 terms and the second
series to three terms we should get π correct to sixteen
places.
112 TRIGONOMETRY.
102. Rutherford's Series. A further simplification

of Machin's formula is the expression
1 1 1 π
4 tan - tan-1 + tan-1 =-
70 99 4°
For we have
1 1
1 1 70 99 29
tan-1 -tan-1 = tan tan-1
70 99 1 1 6931
1+ •
70 99
1
= tan-1 ·
239
EXAMPLES. XV.
Assuming that
1 1
0 - nT =tan - tan³ 0 +5 tan50
write down the value of n when lies between
11T 13π 7π 9п
1. 4 and 4 . 2. 4 and ST.
4
3. 197 and 21T 4. - 3T and - 5T ·

4 4 4
5. - 11T and - 13π •
6. Prove that
1 1
T=2 /3 ( 1 - 32
== 2√3 1 + 5.32 7.33 + ... } .
6 =3 - 7.1
7. Prove that
=1 + 1-16 + 1) +16 + ) ...

8. If x be < /2-1, prove that
1 1
2 x 2 5 ad inf.
:( 3 inf.)
2x 2x 3 2x
=
1 - x23
------- | (___x2) + x2
( -_-) ....ad inf.
[Exs. XV.] CALCULATION OF π. 113
Find the value of π to three places of decimals

9. By using Euler's Series.
10. By using Machin's Series.
11. By using Rutherford's Series.
12. To the second order of small quantities, prove that
π
√1+ sin @ log (1 -
− 0) + tan−¹ 0 sin (3 + 0 ) = √3 - 10.
π
13. When both 0 and tan-1 (sec ) lie between 0 and , prove that
2
π 0 1 1
པ་
tan-¹ (sec 0) = +tan2 - tan6 + tan10 ....
4
L. T. II. 8
CHAPTER VIII.
SUMMATION OF SERIES. EXPANSIONS IN SERIES.
103. We shall now apply the results of the preceding

chapters to the summation of some trigonometrical series.
The chief series may be divided into four classes ;
(1) Those depending for their summation on a
Geometrical Progression ultimately,
(2) Those depending ultimately on the Binomial
Theorem ,
(3) Those depending ultimately on the Exponential
Theorem, including, as sub-cases, the Sine and Cosine
Series, *
and (4) Those depending ultimately on the Logarithmic
Series and, as a sub-case, Gregory's Series.
104. In Arts. 105-108 we shall sum one example of

each of these classes. It will generally be found more
convenient in summing one of these series involving sines
of multiple angles (such as sin a, sin 2a, sin 3a ...) to also
sum at the same time the companion series involving the
cosines of the same multiple angles
(i.e. cos a, cos 2a, cos 3a ...).
The method will be best seen by a careful study of the
following four articles.
SUMMATION OF SERIES. 115
105. Ex. Sum to n terms, and to infinity, the series

1 + c cos a + c² cos 2a + .......
where c is less than unity.
Let
C = 1 + c cos a + c² cos 2a + ... + cn-¹ cos (n - 1 ) a ......(1) ,
and
Sc sin a + c² sin 2a + ...... + cn-¹ sin (n − 1 ) a…………………….(2).
Multiplying (2) by i and adding to (1), we have

C + Si = 1 + c (cos a + i sin a) + c² (cos 2a + i sin 2a) + ......
= 1 + ceai + c² e²ai + ... + cn−1 e(n−1) ai (Art. 62)
1 - cn enai
= 1 - ceai , by summing the G.P. ,
(1 -
− cn enai) (1 — ce-ai)
(1 — ceai) ( 1 — ce-ai)
1 - ce-ai -
— cn enai + cn+¹ e(n−1) ai
=
1 - c (eai + e-ai) + c²
-
1 — c ( cosa + isina) —c" ( cosna + isinna) + cn +1 (cos (n − 1 ) a
(+isin (n − 1) a)
12c cos 2a + c²
Hence, by equating real and imaginary parts, we have

1 - c cos a - c² cos na + c² +¹ cos (n − 1 ) a
C=
1- 2c cos a + c²
c sin a — c² sin na + c²+¹ sin (n − 1 ) a

and S =
1- 2c cos a + c²
The sum to infinity is obtained by omitting the terms

containing and cn+1, which become indefinitely small
when n is very great.
8-2
116 TRIGONOMETRY.
1- c cos x
Hence C∞ =
1- 2c cos a + c²²
c sin a
and S.∞ =
1- 2c cos a + c² °
From the results for C and S it is now clear that the above series
might have been summed, without the use of imaginary quantities, by
multiplying both sides of (1) and (2) by the quantity 1-2c cos a +c².
The coefficients of c², c³......c"-1 would then be found to vanish and the
values of C and S be easily obtained.
106. Ex. Sum the series

1.3.5
sin 3a + ... ad inf.
1.3 sin 2a + 2.4.6
2 sin a + 2.4
1
1 1.3 1.3.5
Let S = sin a + sin 2a + sin 3a +... ,
2 2.4 2.4.6
1 1.3 1.3.5
and C=1+ cos a + cos 2a + cos 3a + ....
2.4 2.4 . 6
Hence, multiplying the first by i and adding to the

second, we have
1 1.3 1.3.5
C + Si = 1 + =
— ear + ezai + esai+ ...
2 2.4 2.4.6
=
= (1 − ea²)—†, if a ‡ 2nπ,
by the Binomial Theorem. (Art. 26.)
-
.. C + Si = {1 — cos a -— i sin a}―
a α
= {2 sin (sin 2 - icos )}
2
α
2}
= {2 sin 3 {cos ( - 2) + i sin (2 - )
П
-={2 sin 3} {cos ( 4 ) + i sin 4
Hence, by equating real and imaginary parts, we have

a) - π -α
C = 2 sin COS
· {2
П- α
and S =· sin
{ 2sing 4
=
If a 2nπ, clearly S = 0 and C = ∞ .
EXAMPLES. XVI.
Sum the series
1 1
1. sin a+ 2 sin 2a + 22 sin 3a +....... ad inf.
2. Cos a . cos a + cos² a cos 2a + cos³ a cos 3a + ad inf.

π
+1
12
3. sin a . sin a + sin² a sin 2a + sin³a sin3a + ad inf., where a
4. sin a . cos a + sin² a . cos 2a + sin³ a . cos 3a + ad inf.,
where a π
±2
5. sin a +c sin (a + ẞ) + c² sin (a + 28) +...... to n terms and ad inf.

6. 1 + c cosha + c² cosh 2a + ...... +cn-¹ cosh (n -− 1) a.
7. c sinha + c sinh 2a + ...... + ...... ad inf.
8. 1-2 cos a + 3 cos 2a - 4 cos 3a + ...... to n terms.
9. 3 sin a +5 sin 2a +7 sin 3a + ...... to n terms.
π
10. When a = " find what are the values of the series in Exs. 3
2
and 4.
n (n - 1)
11. sin a +n sin (a +ß) + 1.2 sin (a +28) + ...... to (n +1 ) terms ,
n being a positive integer.
1 1.3
12. sin a + sin 3a + 2 . sin 5a + ...... ad inf.
13. cos" a - n cos²-1 a cos a +n (n- 1)

1.2 cos"-2 a cos 2a...to (n + 1) terms,
n being a positive integer.
14. n sin a + n (n + 1) sin 2a +n (n + 1 ) (n + 2) sin 3a + ...... ad inf.

1.2 1.2.3
118 TRIGONOMETRY . [Exs. XVI.]
1 1 1.3
cos 20
15. 1 + co 2 · cos 40 + 2.4.6 cos 60- ad inf.
n (n - 1)‘sinh 3u +
16. sinh u + n sinh 2u + 1.2 to n + 1 terms, where n
is a positive integer.
107. Ex. Sum the series

c² cos 20 c4 cos 40
1+ + + ...... ad inf.
2 4
c²cos 20 c4 cos 40
Let C1 + + + ...... ad inf. ... (1 ),
2 14
c² sin 20 c¹ sin 40
and S= + + ...... ad inf. ….. (2).
12 4
Hence
c2e20i c'etoi
C + Si = 1 + + + ...... ad inf.
12 4
ya y yo
=1 + + + + .......
4 16
where y = седі := c (cos + i sin 0).
ey + e-y
.. C + Si:=
2
1 1 -c cose-icsin
= eccos 0+ic sin + .. (3)
1
eccos 6 [ cos (c sin 0) + i sin (c sin 0)]
1
+ -c cose [ cos ( c sin 0) — i sin ( c sin 0)]. (Art. 62. )
By equating real and imaginary parts we therefore

have
1
C = cos (c sin ) [eccos + e-c cos
08 6]
2
= cos (c sin ) cosh (c cos 0),

and -
S = 1 sin (c sin 0) [ eccos • — e¯ccos •]
= sin (c sin 0) sinh (c cos 0 ) .
Aliter. From (3) we have

1
C + Si = 1 e(e sin 0—ic cos 0) i + e-(c sin 0-ic cos 0) i
2
= cos (c sin - ic cos 0) (Art. 62)

=- [ cos (csin ) cos (ic cos ) + sin (csin ) sin (iccos 0)]
== [cos (csin @) cosh (ccose) +isin ( csin ) sinh (c cos )]
(Art. 68).
Hence C and S as before.
108. Ex. Sum the two series

c² C3
c sin a + sin 2a + sin 3a + ...... ad inf. ,
2 3
C3
and c cos a + cos 2a + cos 3a + ...... ad inf.,
2 3
where c is numerically not greater than unity.

Let S and C stand for these two series ; then, as
before, we have
C²
C + Si = c (cos a + i sin a) + 2 (cos 2a + i sin 2a) + ......
C² c²
=: ceai + ezai + esai + .(1)
2 3
==-log [ 1 - cea ] (by Art. 90) ......... (2)
- c cos a - ic sin a]
==- log [ 1 − (Art. 62).
Let 1 - c cos a = r cos 0, and -- c sin a = r sin 0,
so that
1 c cos a
r = √1-2c cos a + c², Cos =
120 TRIGONOMETRY.
and
c sin a c sin a
sin , i.e. 0 == tan-¹
r 1 - c cos a
with the convention of Art. 20.
:. C + Si = − log [ √1 - 2c cos a + c² (cos + i sin 0) ]

==- log [ √1 -
— 2c cos a + c² . eºi]
==
-log √1-2c cos a + c² -
— Oi.
1
- log √ -
.. C
′=− 2 log
/ (1 − 2c cos a + c²) = — — log (1
( 1 - 2c cos a + c²)
.........(3),
- c sin a
and S = -0 = - tan-1 .(4).
-- C COS
Exceptional cases. When c = 1 , the quantity (2)

-
= log [ 1 — cos a — i sin a] = log [ 1 +cos ( a − π) + i sin ( α — π)].
This, by Art. 90, is always equal to the series (1 )

except when aπ is equal to (2n + 1 ) π, i.e. except when
a is a multiple of 2π.
In this case S = 0,
1 1 1
and C=+1+ + +
3
which is known to be a divergent series.

When c = -1 , the quantity (2)
= log [ 1 + cos a + i sin a].
This by Art. 90 is always equal to the series (1)
except when a = (2n + 1) π.
In this case S = 0, and
1 1 1
C = 1 + 2+ 3 + + .......
4
The results (3) and (4) give then the sum of the two
series except when (1 ) c = 1 and a = 2nπ, ( 2) c = −1 and
a = (2n + 1 ) π, and (3) when c > 1 .
In examples depending on the logarithm series it will
be often found that for some particular values of the angle
there is no sum.
Particular case . Let c = cos a, where a lies between

π
0 and so that
2'
1 1
S = cos a . sin a + cosa sin 2a + cos³ a sin 3a +....
2 3
In this case
sin a cos
S = -tan-¹
sin² a a) , by (4),
= tan-¹ (- cot a)
remembering the convention mentioned above,

π
= -
2
EXAMPLES . XVII.
Sum the series
1. sin a +c sin (a +ẞ) + 2 sin (a + 28) + ...... ad inf.
2. cos a +c cos (a +ẞ) + cos (a + 28) + ...... ad inf.
cos² a cos³ a
3. 1 - cos a cos ß + cos 28- cos 38+ ...... ad inf.
12 3
sin (a + 28) sin (a +48)
4. sin a + ad inf.
2 14
122 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XVII.]
cos (a + 2B) + cos (a +48) ...... ad inf.

5. COS α- 3 15
cosh 2a cosh 3a
6. 1 + cosh a + + ad inf.
2 3
sinh 2a sinh 3a
7. sinh a + 2 + ...... ad inf.
3
1
8. 1 + ecos a cos ( sin a) + e2cosa cos (2 sin a) + ………….. ad inf.
12
e2sina e3sin a
9. 1 +esina cos (cos a) + cos (2 cos a) + 13 cos (3 cos a) + ...
12
ad inf.
5 cos 0 7 cos 30 9 cos 50
10. + + ...... ad inf.
1 3 15
[In the following examples c may be assumed to be positive and not
greater than unity ; when c equals unity there will be, as in Art. 108,
exceptional cases for some values of the angle a.]
c2 C3
11. c sin a sin 2a + sin 3a- ...... ad inf.
2 3
1 1
12. c sin a + c³ sin 3a + 5 c³ sin 5a + ...... ad inf.
1 1
13. c cos a + c³ cos 3a + c³ cos 5a + ...... ad inf.
113
1
14. c cos a - c³ cos 3a + c³ cos 5a – ...... ad inf.
1 1
15. c sin a → c3 sin 3a + 5 c5 sin 5a - ad inf.
3
1
cos 3a + cos 5a -...... ad inf.
16. cos a -168
1 1
17. c cos α- - c³ cos (a +25) + c³ cos (a +48) -..
− .... ad inf.
1
18. sin a sin ß+ sin 2a sin 28+ sin 3a sin 3ẞ + ...... ad inf.
1 1
19. c sin² a- 2 c2 sin² 2a + 3 c3 sin² 3a- ad inf.
1 1
20. sinh a – 2 sinh 2a + sinh 3a - ...... ad inf.
[Exs. XVII. ] SUMMATION OF SERIES. 123
ва
21. e cos B - 1 е cos 38 + 1 eða cos 58- ...... ad inf.
1 2π 1 3п 1 4π
22. + cos + 5 Cos 3 + 7 COS 3 + ...... ad inf.
cos
W 1 w 1
23. If 0 - a = tan² sin 20 2 tan4 2 sin 40 + 3 tan6 sin 60-- .. ad inf.
prove that tan a tan.cos w.
24. If and be positive acute angles prove that the sum of the
series
1 1
sin cos + sin 30 cos 30+ sin 50 cos 5+ ad inf.
π
is or 0, according as 0 > or < ø.
4
Prove that
1 1
25. tanh + -tanh3
3 + -tanh5x
5 +
1 π
1
= tan x- tan³ x + tan³ x - ....... where x lies between and + π
3
1
sine 0 + ......
2 sin¹0 + • 8
26. 2 sin² 0 +1.4
where lies between

= 2 (tan³ 0 + 1/3 tan' + } tan¹º 0 ....
+ ).
П
+ -
-7 and +
1 1
27. sin 0+ sin³ 0+ sin5 0 + ......
1 1 π
e - sin 30+ sin 50 ......
....... where 0 (2n + 1)
= 2 (sin
109. We subjoin some examples of series which come

under neither of the foregoing heads nor under that of
Chapter XIX. , Part I. In general they are to be summed
by the artifice of splitting each term into the difference of
two terms. Considerable ingenuity is often required. When
the answer is known the method of summation can usually
be easily seen ; for the answer when n is put equal to
unity gives the form in which the first term of the series
has to be put.
124 TRIGONOMETRY.
Ex. 1. Sum to n terms the series

0 0
sin³ +3 sin³ 32 +3² sin³ + ...
Since always sin 3 = 3 sin - 4 sin³ , we have
sin³ = (3 sing- sine).

1
3 = 32 3
32
3. sin³.8 . [ 8ain - in - in 32 - in ໆ .
1 Ө
32 sin³ = 32
33 [ 33 sin 33 - 3' sing] ,
0 0 8
3n sin - 3n-1 sin
3"-1 sin³3n = [3 3n 3"- ].
Hence, by addition, the required sum
- [3ain -sino].
呵
Also the sum to infinity
- [0 - sin 0]. (Art. 228, Part I. )
Ex. 2. Sum the series

tan a + 2 tan 2a +22 tan 22a + .......+2n-1 tan 2n-1 a.
We have easily
tan a cota - 2 cot 2a,
tan 2a = cot 2a - 2 cot 22a,
tan 22a = cot 22a - 2 cot 2³a,
and tan 2n-1 a = cot 2n-1 a - 2 cot 2"a.
By multiplying these rows in succession by 1 , 2, 22, ......2-1 we have

tan a +2 tan 2a +22 tan 22a + + 2n -1 tan 2 -la - cot a - 2" cot 2″a,
the other terms all disappearing.
The required sum therefore = cot a - 2" cot 2"a.
Ex. 3. Sum the series
tan a tan (a +ẞ) + tan (a +ß) tan (a + 2ß) + tan ( a + 2ß) tan (a + 3ß) + .
to n terms.
Let up the rth term, i.e.

tan {a + (r - 1 ) ẞ} tan {a +rß} ,
.. (u + 1) tan ẞ
= [1 + tan {a + (r − 1) ẞ} tan { a + rẞ } ] × tan [ a + rß− (a + r − 1ß)]
= tan{a + rẞ} -tan { a + r - 1ẞ } . [Art. 98, Part I.]
Hence giving r in succession the values 1 , 2,......n, we have
(1 +u₁) tan ẞ = tan (a + B) –- tan a,
(1 +u₂) tan ẞ = tan (a +28) - – tan (a +ẞ),
(1 +un) tan ẞ=tan { a + nẞ} - tan { a + (n -

− 1) ẞ}.
Hence, by addition,
(n + S₂) tan ẞ =tan (a + nß) – tan a,
-
so that Sn= tan (a +nß) ta– tan a − n tan ß¸
nB
EXAMPLES. XVIII.
Sum the series

1. cosec + cosec 20+ cosec 40 + ...... to n terms.
2. cosec cosec 20+ cosec 20 cosec 30+ cosec 30 cosec 40+
to n terms.
3. sec 0 sec 20+ sec 20 sec 30+ sec 30 sec 40+ ...... to n terms.
4. sec 0 sec (0 + ) + sec (0 + p) sec (0 + 2p) + sec (0 + 2p) sec (0 + 3p)
+ ...... to n terms.
1 1 1
+ +
5. cos a + cos 3a cos a + cos 5a cos a + cos 7a + to n terms.
1 Ꮎ 1 0 1 0
6. tan 0 + 2 tan 2 + 22 tan 22 tan ad inf.
23
1 1
7. tanh 0 +12tanh + tanh 22 + tanh 23+ ...... to n terms.
2 22 23
8. tan 0 sec 20+ tan 20 sec 40+ tan 40 sec 80+ ...... to n terms.
0 Ө 0 Ꮎ
9. tan sec + tan 22 sec 2+tan 23 sec 22 + ...... to n terms and to
2
infinity.
1 1 1
10. 2 cos 0 + 22 cos 0 cos 20 to n terms.
23 cos 0 cos 20 cos 22 0
1 1
11. sin 20 cos² 0 sin 40 cos2 20+ sin 80 cos2 40 to n terms.
2
1 1
12. sin 20 sin20 + sin 40 sin2 20+ sin 80 sin² 40+ ...... to n terms.
sin 0 sin 20 sin 30
13. ...... to n terms.
cos +cos 20 cos + cos 40 cos +cos 60
1 1
14. tan² a tan 2a + tan2 2a tan 4a + 22 tan2 4a tan 8a + ...... ad inf.
1 1 1
15. cos³ 0 - cos³ 30+ 32 cos³ 320 - 33 cos³ 330 + ...... to n terms.
3
16. sin³.3 + 3 sin³. +32 sin³ 33 + ...... to n terms.

32
1 3 32
17. + + ......
cot 0-3 tan cot 30-3 tan 30 cot 320-3 tan 320
to n terms.
cos - cos 30 cos 30 - cos 320 cos 320 - cos 330
18. +3 +32. + ......
sin 30 sin 320 sin 330
to n terms.
4 6 8
19. tan-1 + tan-1 + tan -1 + ...... to n terms.
1 + 3.4 1 + 8.9 1 + 15.16
1 1 1
20. tan-1¹ + tan -¹ + tan- ¹ + tan-1 + to n terms.
7 13 21
1 2 2n-1
21. tan-1 + tan-1 g+ +tan -1 1+2-1 + ...... ad inf.
3
1 + sin -1 √√2-1 + sin -1√3 - √2
22. sin-1 + ......
√2 №6 12
+ sin-1√n -√n 1
+ ...... ad inf.
√n (n + 1)
Expansions.
110. In some branches of higher Mathematics it is

desirable to be able to expand certain quantities in a
series of ascending powers.
As an example we will expand

log (12a cos + a²)
in ascending powers of a.
EXPANSIONS. 127
Since 2 cos 0 = ei + e-bi,

we have
-
log (1 − 2a cos + a²) = log [ 1 − a (eºi + e−ºi) + a²]
= log [ ( 1 − aeºi) ( 1 — ae− i)]
-
= log ( 1 − aeºi) + log (1 — ae− i)
1 1
==- aei .- a²e20i asesor afetoi
2
-ae -Oi - -20i - 1 a³e -30i

3
1 1
= − a [eºi + e −ºi ] -
— — aa²² [6206 + e−20i] -
–3{ a³ [e³30i + e¬³01]
}
1
a . 2 cos - a² . 2 cos 20 -18a³.2 cos 30 ......
1 1
=- 2a cos 0
6 + 2 a² cos 20+ a³ cos 30+ ......
2 [a 3
The expansion of log ( 1 -

— ae ) is legitimate, by Art.
90, if the modulus of -aei be less than unity.
Now -αeoi = a {cos (π + 0) + i sin (π + 0)} ,
so that its modulus is equal to a . Hence the above

expansion is legitimate provided that a is less than unity.
The expansion is also legitimate if a be equal to unity,
provided that do not equal an even multiple of π.
It is also legitimate if a be equal to -1 and 0 do not
equal an odd multiple of π.
111. Ex. Expand

1 - a2
1-2a cos 0 + a²
in a series of ascending powers of a.

128 TRIGONOMETRY.
We have
1 - a2 2- 2a cos 0
== 1+
1- 2a cos 0+ a² 1 -· 2a cos 0 + aª
2.- a (eoi + e-oi)

= - 1+ 1 -
− a (eºi + e−oi) + a²
2 a (ei + e-oi)
1+
(1 − aeºi) (1 — ae-ºi)
1 1
= 1+ +
1- αeoi
aeli 1 - ae- i
= −1+ ( 1 -
− αeºi)−¹ + ( 1 -
− ae− i)-1
= −1 + 1 + aeºi + a²e²0i + a³é³0i + ......
+ 1 + ae-oi + a²e—20i + a³e¬30i + ......
= 1 + a (ei + eoi) + a² (e20i + e−20i) + ......

= 1 + 2a cos 0 + 2a² cos 20 + 2a³ cos 30 +... ad inf.
The expansions of ( 1 - ae )-¹ and (1 — ae―0i)-¹ by the

Binomial Theorem are legitimate if the modulus of aei be
less than unity, i.e. if a be numerically < 1, but not
otherwise. (Art. 26.)
The above series is the one assumed in Art. 49.
Similarly we can deduce the series of Art. 48. For
we have
2a sin 1 a (eoi —- e―oi)
=
1- 2a cos 0 + a² i 1 - a (eoi + e-oi) + a²
1 - ae- -ᎾᎿ
aeli - 0 1 1 1
= ==
- - - αρθί 1 - a e-oi
i (1 — aeºi) ( 1 - ae-oi) 1
1 ᎾᎿ
{ (1 + ae©i + a²e²0i + ... ) -
— (1 + ae-oi + a²e—20i + ...) }
. ad inf.
= 2a sin 0 + 2a² sin 20 + 2a³ sin 30 + … ...…
As before this expansion is legitimate only if a < 1.
EXPANSIONS. 129
112. Ex. If sin x = n sin (a + x), expand x in a

series ofascending powers of n, where n is less than unity.
Since
sin an sin (a + x) = n (sin a cos x + cos a sin x),
n sin a
.. tan x =
1 - n cos a
exi - e-xi ni sin a
= "
exi + e-xi 1 -n cos a
exi ·n cos a + ni sin a 1 - ne-ai
= =
ai - -
1 n cos a ni sin a 1- neai
:. 2x = log ( 1 -
— ne-ai) — log ( 1 — neai)
1 1
==- ne-ai - n²e-2ai n³e-sai ......
2 3
1 1
+ neai + n²ezai + — n³é³ai + ......
2 3
1
= n (eai -
− e−ai) + 2 n² (ezai — e−2ai)
1
+ n³ (esai — e˜³ai) ......
……………. ad inf.
3
1 1
= n . 2i sin a +
n² . 2i sin 2a + n³ . 2i sin 3x + ...
2 3
1 1
.. an sin a + n² sin 2a + n³ sin 3a + .... …..(1 ).
2 3
In this equation we have assumed a to lie between
-and + 2 ; if it do not , then, instead of 2ri, we should
read 2kπi + 2xi ; the left hand of equation (1 ) would then

be + kπ, and we must choose k so that + kπ shall lie
π π
between - and +
2 2
As before the expansions are legitimate if n be < unity.
L. T. II. 9
130 TRIGONOMETRY.
113. Ex. Expand eax cos bx in a series of ascending

powers of x.
We have
ebxi + e-bai
eax cos bx = eаx .
2
1 1 (α -bi)x
= e(a+bi)x +
2
1 (a + bi)²x² (a + bi)³x³
+ a+ biyes²+ .....
]
= 2 [ 1 + (a + bi) x + (a +bi) * 13
12
1 (abi)²x²
+ (a − bi) x + · + ......
2 1+
The coefficient of xn
= (a + bi)n + (a − bi)n
2 n
If a + bir (cos a + i sin a), so that
b
r = + √a² + b² and tan a = -
with the convention of Art. 20, then the coefficient of x

{r (cos a + i sin a)}" + { r (cos a -
− i sin a)}"
2n
cos na
=pn
n
by De Moivre's Theorem.
Hence we have
2cos 2a r³ cos 3a
eax cos bx:==1 + r cosa.x + 20$ + .......
12 3
where
b
r = + √a² + b² and tan a = - •
α
This expansion is legitimate for all values of a, b, and
x. (Art. 57.)
EXPANSIONS. 131
EXAMPLES . XIX.
Expand in an infinite series

1+ a cos e cos 0 -a cos (0-4)
1. 2.
+ 2a cos 0+ aª
a² • 1-2a cos + a²
sin - a sin (0-6)
3. 1-2a cos +a² 4. ea coscos (0 + a sin p).
5. eae sin be.

Prove that
a2 1
=4
in² = 4 [c sin 0.
0 - — c²
a cos² +
6. log a² 29+ } c³ sin 30
sin² 20
cain 38 -...]
a--b
where
a+ b '
a sin @ 1
7. tan-1 1 . a sin 0 + a² sin 20+ a³ sin 30+
- a cos = ad inf.
1 1
8. tan-1 ( sin a tan 28) = sin a tan ẞ +3 sin 3a tan³ß
1
+ sin 5a tan³ ß + ...... ad inf.
5
9. If sin x cos (0 + a) , expand in a series of ascending powers
of x.
10. Expand y in terms of cos a, where
x+a x-α
2 tan y sin x cosec cosec
2
1-n
11. If tan x = n tany , and m = prove that
1+ n 9
m2 m³
x +ry - m sin 2y + 2 sin 4y - sin 6y + ...... ad inf. ,
3
π an π
where r is to be so chosen that x+rry lies between d+ •
2
12. What does the series of the preceding question become when
1
(1) n = cos a, and (2) n = ?
cos 2a
π
in a series of sines and cosines of
13. Expand log cos ( + )
ascending multiples of 0.
9-2
132 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs . XIX . ]
14. Expand log tan ( +91) in a series of sines of ascending multiples

of 0.
15. Prove that
(1 + e®itana )(1 + e − ớitan a) (1 + ei cot a) (1 +ei cot a )

= 4 (sec B + cos 0)²,
π
where B= -2a.
Hence expand log (1+ cos ẞ cos 0) in a series of cosines of multiples

of 0.
16. Prove that
2a cos 0
= 2a cos 0 + 2a2 sin 20 - 2a³ cos 30 - 2a4 sin 40+ ...... ad inf.
1-2a sin 0 + a²*
17. Prove that
1 1
log cos = - log 2+ cos 20- cos 40+ cos 60- ad inf.,
if be an angle whose cosine is positive.

18. In any triangle where a > b, prove that
b 1 62 163
- cos C.- 2 a2 cos 2C- 3 a³ cos 3C -...... ad inf.
log c = log a - a
We have c²= a2 + b² - 2ab cos C = a² 1 eic

[We (1- a ) (1-00-10 )]
(2000
19. Prove that the coefficient of x" in the expansion of
eax sin bx + ebx sin ax
in powers of x is
2 (a²+b²)5 NT n π-
COS
sin 4 cos 2 tan-1
n 22
20. Prove that the coefficient of c" in the expansion of

log (a³ + b3 + c³ - 3abc)
1 (-1) -1 2 cos no
is 72
n (a + b)n
(a² + b² - ab)
α--b
where tan 0=
a+ b √3.
CHAPTER IX.
RESOLUTION INTO FACTORS. INFINITE PRODUCTS FOR

SIN AND COS 0.
114. We know from Algebra that, if P be any

expression containing x and if the value = α would
make P vanish, then x - a is a factor of P.
Hence to find the factors of any expression P we first
solve the equation P = 0. Also if P be of the nth degree
we know that there are only n solutions of the equation
P = 0 . If the roots thus found are a , ẞ, y ,......κ, we know
that x - a, x - ẞ,...... κ are factors of the expression P
and that there are no other factors which contain x.
We shall apply this method in the following articles.
115. To resolve into factors the expression

x²n - 2x² cos no +1.
We have first to solve the equation

x² - 2xn cos no + 1 = 0,
i.e. x2n - 2xn cos no + cos² no = -- sin³ no,
so that xn -cos no = ± √ - 1 sin no,

and therefore
-
x = [cos no ± √− 1 sin n0]".
134 TRIGONOMETRY .
As in Art. 24 the values of this expression are the 2n

quantities
cos i sin e, cos ( 0+

cos ( +2 ) + i sin (8 + 2 ).
cos ( + ) ± i sin (0+

(8 + 1 ),
- -
cose +[ = 2 (n = 1) T} .
{0 + 2 (n −
n 1 ) T } ± i sin {0 + n
Taking the first pair of these quantities we have the

corresponding factors
OC -cos - i sin 0 and x - cos + i sin 0,
or, in one factor,

(x - cos 0)² + sin² 0,
i.e. the quadratic factor

x²- 2x cos 0 + 1.
Similarly the second, third, ... pairs of the above

quantities give as factors respectively
x²- 2x cos ( ++2) +1,

(0 +
x²- 2x cos ( + +1 ,
(0 + ATT)
and хо
- 2x cos {0 + 2-2
n } +1.
Also on multiplying together these n factors we see

that the coefficient of an in their product is unity, which
is also the coefficient of an in the original expression . No
other numerical factor is therefore required.
FACTORS OF x² - 2x cos no + 1. 135
Hence
x2n -·2x² cos n + 1
= {x² - 2x cos 0 + 1 } x² - 2x cos (0++27) + 1 }
= - 2x cos (0 + 1n ) +1 }
{
-
cos
... (x² - 2x008 ( 8 + 2¹2 π ) + 1 }. …….. (1 ).
By dividing by an we have
1 1
- cos
a² + xn
1/2 − 2 cosne = { # + − 2 008 @)} { * + — — 2008 (0+
(8 + 20)
2 = )}
}
1 2n
... {~ +2 - 2008 ( 8 + 21-2 )}
The relation (2) may be written

1 r= n - 1 1 2rT
xn + - 2 cos no:= II x + 2 cos
an r=0 (0+ n
r=n - 1
where II stands for the product for all integral values
r=0
of r from r = 0 to rn - 1 of the expression following it.
Similarly we may shew that
x²n -2an xn cos no + a²n
-
= {x² - 2ax cos € + a³} {œº —:2αx cos (0 + 2 )
n ) + a ... {
* {(a* - 2ax cos ( +1 _ 2axcos (6 + 2n −2 +) +a °}
. (3).
116. The proposition of the last article may also be proved by

induction.
136 TRIGONOMETRY.
1
We shall first shew that x² + → 2 cos na is divisible by
xn
x+ 2 cos a.
x
1 1
Let xn +
xn -2 cos na be denoted by (n), and x + X−−-2 cos a by A, so
that we have to shew that (n ) is divisible by λ, for all positive integral
values of n.
− 1) and ø ( n -
Assume that this is true for ø (n - − 2).
We have then, by ordinary multiplication,
- -1 1 -
2 cos (n
(n − 1) a}
(x + 1) × ¢ (n − 1) = {x + 1} {2n−1 + xn-1
= xn cos (n a1
(2 + 2) + (x²+ n-2) -- 2 COR ( -1 ) x ( +1)
= -2 cos na
+ -2008
+ 2))a} -2 co (n -
xn-2 -2 cos (n - 2) − 1 ) a {x + x1 - 2 cos a } ,
s
since 2 cos na + 2 cos (n − 2) a = 4 cos a cos (n -
− 1) a.
Hence x+ - - -
x × p (n − 1 ) = p (n) + ø (n − 2) − 2λ cos (n − 1) a.
- - -
+ (1(n − 1) − 4 (n − 2) + 21 cos (n − 1) …
:. 4(n)= (·x + 11)) 4 a ……...(.).
1
Now (1):= x + x 2 cos a = λ,
1
and (2) = x² + 2 cos 2a =
( x + x1 - 2 cosa ) ( x + x12 + 2 cosa )
:(
= \ (x + x
12 + 2 cos a) ,
so that (1 ) and (2) are divisible by X.
Hence, putting n = 3 in (1 ) , we see that ø (3) is divisible by λ.
Similarly putting, in ( 1 ) , n = 4, 5, 6 ...... in succession we see that,
by induction, (n) is divisible by λ for all values of n.
1 1
..xn + 2 cos a.
xn 2 cos na is divisible by x + x
PROPERTIES OF THE CIRCLE. 137
Again cos
xn
+1-2008 na = 2 + xn
1-2 cos n ( a + ).
and is similarly divisible by
1
x + --- 2 cos
x (a + 2 ).
Proceeding in this way we can shew that it is divisible by
1 n-
x+ 2 cos , ......x + - 2 cos
x (a + 1 ) , x n 12″ ) ,
(a + 2=
and hence obtain equation ( 2) of Art. 115.
117. De Moivre's Property of the Circle.

A geometrical meaning may be given to the equation
(3) of Art. 115.
Let ABCD ... be the angular E
points of a polygon of n sides F B
which is inscribed in a circle of G A
radius a, so that, O being the
centre, we have H
a
2π
< AOB=/ BOC= < COD=... = =
n K M
Let P be a point within, or
without, the circle suchthat
OP = x, and ≤ POA = 0.
Then
2π 4π
L POB = 0 + , <POC = 0 +
n n
and we have
PA = OP² + OA - 20P . OA cos POA
= x² - 2αx cos 0 + a²,
PB2 = OP² + OB² - – 20P . OB cos POB
2π
= x² - 2αx cos ( + + a²,
( n
4π
= ² - 2αx cos ( 0+
PC²x + a²,
(0 n
138 TRIGONOMETRY .
Hence PA' . PB² . PC² ... to n factors
- 2αx cos 0+ a² - cos

={0- '+ aº } {x
{a² = 20x 00 ( 0 + 2 ) + a³}
to n factors
{ *- 2ax cos ( + F) )+α )...
༧° –
=x²n - 2an xn cos no + a²n.
118. Cotes' Property of the Circle .

In the preceding article let the point P lie on OA , i.e.
let it be on the line joining the
E 7
centre to one of the angular points
of the polygon .
G
In this case = 0, and we have a
PA2 . PB2.PC ... to n factors H P A
= x² - 2αnxn + a²
= (xn - an)². N
:. PA.PB.PC ... to n factors M
= xn - an or else an —
= - xn.
The first of these values must be taken when P is
outside the circle, on OA produced, so that x > a.
The second must be taken when P is within the
circle.
We therefore have
PA . PB.PC. PD ... to n factors = an 2
~ an...(1).
Again let a, ẞ, y, 8 ... be the middle points of the arcs

AaBBCy ... is a polygon of 2n
AB, BC, CD, ... so that AaBBCY
sides inscribed in the circle.
By (1 ) we have
PA.Pa.PB.Pß. PC . Py ... to 2n factors = x²n ~ an
(2).
Dividing ( 1 ) by (2), we get
Pa . PB . Py ... to n factors = x² + a" ...... ( 3).
FACTORS OF xn - 1. 139
The equation (3) may also be deduced directly from equation (3) of
π
Art. 115 by putting 0 =; We then have
n
π 3п 5π
2ax cos x² -2axcos x² - 2ax cos +a²
(29-2 8 n + a²) (x² - 2 n +a²) (2². n
to n factors = x²n -
– 2aªÃª cos π + a²n
= x² +2a²x² +a²n = (x² + an)²,
i.e. Pa2 . PB2 . PY2......to n factors ==(x² + an)².
This is relation (3) .
119. To resolve into factors the expression x² - 1.

We have first to solve the equation
xn − 1 = 0,
2.e. n = 1 = cos 2гπ ± i sin 2гπ,
where r is any integer,
so that x = [cos 2rπ i sin 2rπ]" …….... (1)

First, let n be even.
As in Art. 24 the values of the expression (1) are
2π 2π 4πT 4π
cos Oisin 0, cos tisin , COS tisin
n n n n
n- 2 n 2 Nπ Nπ
... cos Tisin π, COS + i sin •
n n n n
But cos 0° ± i sin 0° = 1 ,
NT NT
and COS ± isin = 1.
n n
Hence in this case the roots are the n quantities

2π 2π 477 4π
± 1, cos + i sin COS tisin
n n n n
n-2 n -2
... COS Tisin π.
n n
140 TRIGONOMETRY.
The factors corresponding to the first of these pairs are

x - 1 and x + 1 , i.e. the quadratic factor x²- 1.
Those corresponding to the second pair are
2π 2π 2π 2π
COS - - i sin and x COS + i sin
n n n n

2π
x²- 2x cos +1 .
n
n
Hence we get 2 pairs of quadratic factors.
When multiplied together they give the correct

coefficient for a", so that no numerical quantity need be
prefixed to their product.
Hence, finally, when n is even,
2π 4πT
xn− 1 =·(x² - 1 ) ( x² - 2x cos + 1 2x cos
1 ) (x² . n 1) (2²- n +1)
- 2x cos N 2
... π +1
n
Secondly, let n be odd .
As in Art. 24 the values of the expression (1 )
are now
2π 2π 4π 4π
cos Oisin 0, cos + i sin > COS + i sin
n n n n
n - -3 n -3 n 1 n 1
... COS Tisin π, COS Tisin π.
n n n n
The first pair reduces to the single root +1 .
Taking the other pairs together, as before, we obtain,
when n is odd,
2π 4π
cos - 2x cos
a ” − 1 = (x − 1 ) {∞² – 2x n +1} {2² -2008 n +1....
n-1
- π+ 1.......... (3).
...{** — 2x cos n
FACTORS OF x² + 1. 141
Hence we have
r=23-1
2rπ
ост - 1 = (x² - 1)
xn II 2. cos +
r= 1 n 1),
when n is even, and
r= n-2 1
21π
x² - 1 = (x − 1 ) II 2x cos +
r=1 n 1) ,
when n is odd .
These formulæ can also be deduced from the funda-
mental one of Art. 115 by putting n0 = 2π.
120. To resolve x² + 1 into factors.

We must solve the equation
x² + 1 = 0,
i.e. on = -1 = cos (2гπ + π) ± i sin ( 2гπ + π),
where r is any integer,
so that x = {cos (2rπ + π) ± i sin ( 2rπ + π)

2гπ + π 2гπ + π
= COS + isin ..(1).
n n
First, let n be even.
As in Art. 24, the values of the expression ( 1 ) are
π π 3π 3π 5π 5п
COS tisin COS + i sin > COS isin
n n n n n n
(n - 1) π (n - 1 ) π
... COS + i sin •
n n
The factors corresponding to the first of these pairs are

π π π
OC COS - i sin and Ꮳ - COS + i sin •
n n

π
x²- 2x cos +1.
n
142 TRIGONOMETRY.
The quadratic factor corresponding to the second

pair is
3π
x² - 2x cos +1 ,
n
and so on.
Hence, as in the last article, when n is even, we have
x² + 1 = XC² 2x cos - 2x cos 3π

ER+11) (22 n +1) ...
... v 2x cos (n − 1) π +1
n
Secondly, let n be odd .

The values of the expression (1 ) are in this case
π π 3π 3π
COS - + i sin , COS + i sin
n n n
- nП Nπ
COS (n - 2) π + isin (n − 2) π COS- + isin
n n n n
The last pair of roots reduces to the single root -1, so

that x + 1 is one of the required factors.
The quadratic factors corresponding to the successive
pairs of roots are
π 3π
x²- 2x cos +1 , x² - 2.x cos + 1 , ...
n n
n-2
x² - 2x cos π +1.
n
Hence finally, when n is odd , we have
— π 3π
** + 1 = ( x + 1 ) ( x * — 2x cos n +1 ) ( a² - 2x cos n +1) ...
-
x²
[ 2º - 2r cos (n =n2) = +1 ] .
...
EXAMPLES. 143
We have then
2°= n -2 2
2r + 1
- 2x cos
x² + 1 = I² ( n T +1) ,
r=0
when n is even, and
n- 3
2 2r + 1 +F
x² + 1 = ( x + 1 ) йII ( æº -― 2x cos
r=0 n +1) ,
when n is odd.
These formulæ can be deduced from the fundamental
=
one of Art. 115 by putting neπ.
121. Ex. 1. Express as a product of n factors the quantities

cos no - cos no and cosh no - cos no.
In equation (2) of Art. 362 put x =ei, so that x¹ =
- ee- i, and hence
x + x− ¹ = e$i + e¯ $i = 2 cos p,
and x² + x¯n = endi + e¬npi = 2 cos np.
We then have
2 cos no - 2 cos no = (2 cos -
– 2 cos 0) 2 cos - 2 cos ( 0+
[ + 2=)]
n
2 cos p - 2 cos ( + n .to n factors,
i.e. - - cos ......

cos nó − cos n☺ =2n−¹ { cos + − cose } {cos (0 +20 )}
2n - 2
$ - COS 0 +
{ CO n -)}
r=n- 1
= 2n -1 II cos o - COS
r=0 {cos (0 + 2 )}•
Similarly by putting xe we have
cosh no - cos no
= 2n-1 [cosh - cos 0] cosh - cos (0 +- .....
+2n )]
s /] [ co
2n - 2
COS
[cost -cos ( +22 n )].
144 TRIGONOMETRY .
Ex. 2. Ifn be even, prove that

n-1 2π 4π 6п n--2
2 2 sin 2n sin si .sin
2n n 2n 2n
In equation (2) of Art. 119 put n equal to unity.
x² - 1 = x² -1 +xn−2 + +x+1
Then, since
x² - 1 x+1
xn - 1 n
therefore, when x is unity, x² - 1 = 2
Hence we have
n 2π Απ n-
= cos cos cos π
(3-2008 n)(2-2008 ) .( 2002 ).
2π 4π n 2
i.e. n=2.4 sin2 . 4 sin2 2n ..4 sin²
2n π,
2n
n-
there being 1 factors ,
2π 4π n- 2
=2n-1 . sin2 sin2 sin2 π.
2n 2n 2n
n-1 2π 4π n-- 2
Hence ± √n = 22 sin sin sin T ...(1).
2n 2n 2n
2π 4π n- 2
Each of the angles 2n ' 2n T is less than a right angle, so
2n
that each of the sines on the right-hand side of (1) is positive.
On the left-hand side we therefore replace the ambiguity by the
positive sign and have the required result.
EXAMPLES. XX.
Factorize the following quantities.

1. x6 + 2x3 cos 120° +1. 2. x8 - 2x4 cos 60° +1.
π
3. x10-2x5 cos +1. 4. x12 +x6 + 1.
5. x14 + x² + 1 . 6. x5-1. 7. x6 +1.

8. x7-1 . 9. x9 + 1 . 10. x10-1.
11 . x¹³ + 1. 12. x¹¹ - 1. 13. x20 +1.
[Exs. XX.] EXAMPLES. 145
14. If n be even, prove that

n-1 π Эп 5π
22 sin sin
2n 2n sin 21 sin n - 1 T= 1
2n
n- 1 π 3п
=22 COS COS COS n - 1
2n 2n π.
2n
15. If n be odd, prove that
n-1 2π 4π n-1 Эп
2 2 sin sin 2n ...sin n - 1 T = √n = 2 2 COS π COS COS
n- 2
2n 2n 2n 2n 2n π,
and that
n-1 n-1
π 3п n- 2 2π 4π
2 2 sin sin sin 2 n -1
2n 2n 2n T = 1 = 2 COS 2n COS 2n COS 2n π.
π 2π n-1 n
16. Prove that sin - sin sin T=
n n n 2n-1 °
17. If n be odd, prove that
π 2π Эп (n - 1) π
tan - tan -tan tan
n n n n
18. Shew that cos no
= 3п
cos cos cos cos .... 08-0082-1 π
-2--1 (008-005 2n)(0088-008 2n) ( 2n ).
Prove that
n-1
19. sin no 2n-1 sin & sin sin Φ + π
(» + ) n
r=n- 1
r=0 sin ( + ).
= 2-1 II
[Put x = 1, and 0 = 24, in the equation of Art. 115. ]
3п -
20. cos no = 2″-1 sin sin sin + π
( + ) ($+ 2n 2n 1 =].
[+ + 2n=
π
[Change into +2 in the formula of the preceding question .]
n-
21. 2-1 cos & cos COS ...... COS π
( + ) cos ( +2 ) ( x + 2 n= 1 x )
n
n-1 = ( - 1)2 sin no, when n is even,
and - (-1) 2 cos no, when n is odd.
π
[Change & into 4+ 2 in the result of Ex. 19.
19.]
L. T. II. 10
146 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XX.]
៩៩
т 3π 5 2n - 1 ??π
22. 2n-1 cos COS COS π COS π = COS
2n 2n 2n
π 5π 2π -1
23. 2-1 sin 2n sin 2n sin 2n sin
2n T= 1.
π 2π
24. cos n cos n COS (2-1) π = (-1)" - 1
n 22n-1
25. Prove that
2TT
x - a cos 0+
xn- an cos no 1 r=n-1 n
Σ
nxn-i r=0 •
x2n - 2ax" cos no + a²n 8+ 2rT
x² - 2ax cos + a2
n
[In the expression (3) of Art. 115 change x into x + h, expand and
equate coefficients of h.]
26. The circumference of a circle of radius r is divided into 2n equal
parts at points P1, P2, ......P2n ; if chords be drawn from P₁ to the other
points, prove that
PPPPP₁Pn = rn¬¹√n.
Also, if O be the middle point of the arc P₁P2n , prove that
OP . OP2......OP₂ = = √2mm.
27. If A, A,.. .A2n+1 be a regular polygon of 2n + 1 sides, inscribed
in a circle of radius a, and OAn+1 be a diameter, prove that
OД₁ . OA2...... ОAn = an.
28. 442......4, is a regular polygon of n sides. From 0 the centre
of the polygon a line is drawn meeting the incircle in P,1 and the circum-
circle in P2.
Prove that the product of the perpendiculars on the sides drawn from
P₁ is to the product of the perpendiculars from P₂ as
no
Cosn cot2 to 1,
n 2
✔ being the angle between OPP₁ and OA₁.
29. ABCD...... is a regular polygon, of n sides, which is inscribed in
a circle of radius a and centre O ; prove that
PA2 . PB2.PC²...... = r²n — 2ɑnrn cos no + a²n,
where OP is r and the angle AOP is 0.
Prove also that the sum of the angles that AP, BP, CP, ...... make
rn sin no
with OP is tan-1
rn cos no- an⋅
SIN IN FACTORS. 147
Resolution of sin and cos into factors.
122. To express sine as a product of an infinite series

offactors.
e 0
We have sin 0 =2 sin COS
2 2
Ꮎ
= 2 sin sin + .(1).
2
74
712
π
Similarly in (1 ) changing into 2 and 2 succes-
+
sively, we have
0 0 Ꮎ 0 2π
sin2 =2 sin 22 sin ( + 22 = 2 sin 22 sin 22 + 22 >
π
and + 2 .sin +
sin( + ) = 2 sin 2 (+ 22
=
- 2 sin ( 22
+ 22) sin (3+ 22).
Substituting these values in the right-hand side of (1)

we have, after rearranging ,
0 +1
0 2π +0 3п + 6
sin = 23 sin 22 ssin sin sin
in 22 22 22 ...(2).
Applying once more the formula ( 1 ) to each of the
terms on the right hand of ( 2) and arranging, we have
0 T+0 2π +0 3π +0 4π + 0
sin 0 = 27 sin sin sin sin sin
23 23 23 23 23
5π + θ 6П + 0 7π +0
sin sin sin .(3).
23 23 23
Continuing this process we have finally

Ө П+ 0 2π +0
sin = 2-1 sin - sin sin sin (p −1 )π +0
p p p p
where p
is a power of 2.
10-2
148 TRIGONOMETRY.
The last factor in (4 )

π от π
= sin π = sin
p P
The last factor but one
- 2π -
= sin (p − 2) π +0 = - =
sin [ 2 - 0] - sin 27-0
p
p p
and so on .
Hence, taking together the second and last factors ,
the third and next to last, and so on, the equation (4)
becomes
0 П+ 0 • π- 2π +0
sin = 2p-¹ sin sin sin sin sin 2-0
p P p } p p
..(5).
The last factor is
+0
2T +
sin
p
which COS
= sin ( +9
) = cos p.
Hence (5) is
π
=
sin 022-1 sin
in p[ sin P - sin [ in 2 - sing
...
π
( -1) 0 0
... sin2 sin2 COS (6).
p p p
Ꮎ
Divide both sides of (6) by sin- and make @ zero.
p
sin sin 0
Since = p,
Ꮎ
sin sin
Pe=0
SIN IN FACTORS. 149
we have
π
2π ЗП ( -1).
p = 2º¹ . sin² . . sin² sin2 sin2 ...(7).
Ρ Ρ Ρ Ρ
Dividing (6) by (7), we have
Ө 0 Ө
sin2 sin2 sin²
0 P Ρ ...
sin 0 =p sin 1 - -
p π 2π 3п
sin2 sin2 sin2
p p p
sin²
p COS . (8).
sin2 - 1 p
Now make p indefinitely great.

Since
0
= P.0 = 0 (Art. 228 , Part I.),

p Ꮎ
[P sin ... -
p p=∞
sin2 sin2
p 1. 202 02 02
= (Art. 228, Part I.),
П 02 π π²
sin2 sin2
Pp = pa Ρ
and so on, we have

62
- ... ad inf.
sin 0 = 0 ( 1 – 23 ) ( 1 – 2022) (1 32π2
This theorem may be written in the form

7=∞ 02
= II ( 1 -
sin 00 I
r=1 (1
150 TRIGONOMETRY.
123. To express cos 0 as a product of an infinite series

offactors.
In equation (4 ) of Art. 122 write for the quantity
π
equation becomes
2 +0, and the
π +20 sin 3π + 20 5π + 20
cos = 2-1 sin sin
2p 2p 2p
- 1 ) π +20
(2p −
sin . (1).
2p
The last factor
π - 20 = sin π - 20
= sin T-
120
2p ] 2p
the last but one
3π - 20
= sin (2р − 3) π +207 = sin
2p 2p
and so on.
Hence taking the factors in pairs, as before, we have
π + 20 . π - 20 3π+20 3π- 20
cos 0=2P-1 sin sin sin sin
2p 2p 2p 2p
π 3π 201
== 2p-1 sin² sin² sin² sin2 ...(2).
2p #] [ 2p
In (2) make ✔ zero and we have
3π 5π
• sin2 sin2 .(3).
1= 22-1 .sin 2
2p 2p 2p
Dividing (2) by (3), we have
201 20 20
sin² sin2 sin2
2p 2p
cos == 1 1- 1 ...
π 3π 5π
sin² sin² sin2
2p 2p 2p
20
sin2
2p
... 1 ..(4).
sin2 (p - 1) π
2p
COS IN FACTORS. 151
In (4) make p infinite ; then, as in the last article, we

have
402 402 402
COS 1 1- 1-- ... ad inf.
•=[ 3272] [ 5272
This theorem may be written in the form
7 =∞ 402
cos 0 = II ---
r=1 {1 -
(2r − 1 )² π²)
sin 20
Since cos 0:=
2 sin ' the product of cose may be
derived from the products for sin 20 and sin 0.
124. The equation (4) of Art. 122 may, by means of Art. 115, be
shewn to be true for all integral values of p. For we have
x² - 2x cos po + 1
= { x² – 2x cos 4 + 1} {x² --2x cos (( +
+ 2=) + 1 }
2x cos ( + .to p factors .
ཀྲསཾ – (* + 1 ) + 1} .
Put x = 1 , and we have
- - - 2 cos 2π
2 (1 − cos pp) = { 2 − 2 cosø } {2 . + to p factors.
³(
i.e. 4 sin2 ΡΦ = 4 sin²º . 4 sin² (2 + 2) . 4 sin² ( +1) ...to p factors.
2 ( + )
ΡΦ
Put 2 =0, and extract the square root of both sides. We have then
0 T+ 0 sin 2π +0
+sin @ =2P-1 sin • sin ..sin (p - 1) +0 ...(1).
Р p P Р
If lie between 0 and all the factors on the right-hand side of (1)
are positive and so also is sin 0. Hence the ambiguity should be
replaced by the positive sign.
If lie between π and 2π, all the factors on the right-hand side are
positive except the last, which is negative.
Hence the product is negative and so also is sin e, so that in this case
also the positive sign is to be taken.
Similarly in any other case it may be shewn that the positive sign
must be taken, and we have, for all integral values of p,
0 T+ 0 sin 2π+0
sin 0=2P-1 sin sin .sin (p - 1) π +0
Ρ P Р P
152 TRIGONOMETRY .
125. Sinh 0 and cosh 0 in products.

By Art. 68 we have
sinh ô =- i sin (0 ) and cosh = cos ( i).
Also the series of Arts. 122 and 123, being formed on
the Addition Theorem are, by Art. 64, true when for
we read fi.
0212
0 Oi -
vi sinh 6m - ixơi (1− -2 ( 1 – 22T2
πT 2 )(1-8 )... ( 1 )
02 02 02
1+ 1+ ...... ad inf.
2-2) ( 1
/
= 0 (1 + 2 22T2 (1 32π2
40212
and cosh = -
(140 ) (1-10 ) (1-404 )
...ad inf.
402 402 402
= (1 + 0 ) (1 + 3 ) ( 1 + r) ...ad inf. (2).
The products (1) and (2) are convergent. For we know (C. Smith's
Algebra, Art. 337) that the infinite product II (1 + u ) is convergent if the
series Zu, be convergent.
In the case of (1), Zun
02 1 1 1
+ 22 32 + 42 +
( ..),
and the latter series is known to be convergent.
126. Sums of powers of the reciprocals of all

natural numbers.
From the results of Arts. 122 and 123 we can deduce
the sums of some interesting series.
From Arts. 122 and 33 we have
02 02
(1 - 0 ) (1 - ) (1-3 .
).... ad inf.
sin 02 04
-1 - + + ...... ad inf.
Ꮜ 3 15
SUM OF NEGATIVE POWERS OF INTEGERS. 153
Taking the logarithms of both sides, we have
......
log (1 ) + log ( 1-2 ) + log (1-3 )+
02 04
= log 1 - 6 + 120 ......(1).
]
Now, by Art. 8, we have
02 104 106
=- + + + ...
log (1-0 ) π 2 π-4 3
02 1 04 1 ᎾᏮ
== + + +
log ( 1-2 ) 22π2 2 2¹π¹¹ 3 2ºπ6
so that (1 ) gives
02 1 1 1 104 1 1 1
+ 22 + 32 + ... ...
π2 12 27 14 + 24 + 34 +
]
106 1 1
...
376 16 + 26 + 36 + ·.......
04
120 +
= log [ 1- (86 - 1986 ...
)])
02 04 1/02 04 2
=- + ... + ..)² -
(6 120 .) 26 120 ·) ˚ —
– ...
Ө2 10+ 1 1 1
- -
6 120 2 36
02 04
6 180 . ( 2).
Since equation (2) is true for all values of the

coefficients of 2 on both sides must be the same, and
similarly those of 0 , and so on.
154 TRIGONOMETRY.
Hence we have
1 1 1 1
- ==
2 + 22 + 32 + ... ad inf.
)=
1 1/1 1 1 1
+ 24 + 3+ + ...ad inf. =-
24 180 '
1 1 1
Hence + + + ... ad inf. = 7² ...... (3),
12 22 32 6
1 1 1
and + + + ... ad inf. = ...... (4),
T 24 34 90
127. By proceeding in a similar manner with the

result of Art. 123 we have
402 402
...
(1-40%) ( 1-10) (1- 52π2
02 04
= cos 0 = 1 -
12 4
so that
402 402
log (1-1 ) + log (1 ) + log (1-1 )
=
+ ... log [ 1-2 +4
24 ... ]) .
Hence as before
- 402/1 1 1 1 1604 / 1 1
+ + ...
π2 12 + 32 52 ·) - 2 πT-4 14 34 +· 1++...
... )) +...
02 04
-
= log [ 1 − ( 2 - 2/4 + ...
)]
02 ᎾᎿ 1/02 04
=- + ... -
2 - 24
·- · - · · .· ) - 1
22( 24 + ... …...
)*'+
.) + …
..
02 04 1/04 02 04
=- + 24 + ... -
—=—
...
2 12
SUM OF NEGATIVE POWERS OF INTEGERS. 155
Hence , equating coefficients of and 4, we have
4 1 1 1 1
+ + + =-
32
1 1 1 1
- + + + ... ==
3' 5+ )= 12 '
% 100
1 1 1
and hence + + = . (1),
32 52
$ 18
1 1
and + =
14 + 3+ + 54 96
.. (2)
128. Wallis' Formula.

In the expression of Art. 122 put 0 = , and we have
=
----
22 . ad inf.
5.7
= T1.3 3.5 • (2n - 3) (2n - 1) (2n - 1) (2n + 1 ) "
2 22 42 62 ...... (2n - 2) (2n)2
where n is infinite,
i.e. 12.32.52.72......(2n -
− 1 )² . (2n + 1)
π 22.42.62........(2n)² •
2.4.6......2n
i.e. =
1.3.5...... (2n − 1) √ (2n + 1), where n is infinite .
It follows that when n is very great (but not necessarily infinite) then
2.4.6...... 2n
= (2n + 1) very nearly
1.3.5. . (2n - 1)
=√n , ultimately.
This is called Wallis' Formula, and gives in a simple form a very near
approach to the product of the first n even numbers divided by the first n
odd numbers when n is very great.
156 TRIGONOMETRY.
129. Ex. Prove that

1 1 1
tan 0=80 322-402 + 522-402
T2-402 …..] .
From Art. 123 we have
- 402 402
log cos 0 = log (1-10
( 1-102)) + log (1 323) + log (1 ....... (1).
52π
In this equation substituting 0 + h for ✪ we have
4 - 4 + .....
[ 1-
log cos (0+ h) = log [1 ( 0 + h) ²] + log [11 32T2 (0 + h) .(2).
Now log cos (0+ h) = log [cos 0 (cos h- tan e sin h)]
h2 h3
=log cos 0 + log [ 1-2-2-+ ...... - tan eh.
( -1+ 3
......
·) ] (Art. 33)
-
= log cos + log [ 1 − h tan 0 + higher powers of h]
= log cos -- h tan + powers of h. (Art. 8.)
4 T2-402 80h
Also log [ 1- (0+ h) ] = log - 16 + 108 [ 1 -. -. - . +.
.....
- ]
- 80h
[1-40 ] . π2-402 + powers of h,
log [
= log
and
Jog [1 - 322 ( +AF]
- 402 80h
322-402 + powers of h.
= log [1 32T2
Substituting these values in (2) and equating on each side the coeffi-
cients of h we have
80 80 80
tan 0 = + + ............. (3)
T2-402 322-402 522-402
r=∞ 80
= >
r=0 (2r + 1)²² - 402 °
The series (3) may also be written
2 2 2 2
tan 0= + + ......
π--20 π+20 3π - 20 3π +20
[The student who is acquainted with the Differential Calculus will
observe that equation (3) is obtained by differentiating (1) with respect
to 0.]
EXAMPLES. 157
130. Ex. Prove that

cosh 2a cos 20
= 2 sin² 0 1+ α 2-
20 [
[ 11 ++ 2/2 [1 +
02]] [ + ( 40 ) *]
]
a α a
1+ 1+
[² + (π- - ) ] [² + ( 20) [¹ ] + ( - ) ".... ad iny.
α
=2 sin² 0II 1+
( ++ ) "],
where r is zero or any positive or any negative integer.
We have
cosh 2a - cos 20 = cos 2ai - cos 20 = 2 sin (0+ ai) sin (0 -
– ai)
= (0 +ai)2- (0 +ai)27
- 2 (0+ ai) [ 1 - ( + )][ 1 - ( 22T2
+ )....
ai)2 (0 - ai)2
x ((0 -ai) [ 10 - 1) ]
][ 1 - ( 22T2 . (1).
(4)
Now (0 - ai)2
[1- (0+ai)27 [ 1
(π − 0-— ¯( π -
−
- [(x + 0 + a() (x - 9 - a¹)] [ ( x + - all (r - 0 + ail]
(π + 0)² + α² (π - 0)² +a²
π2 T
Hence (1) gives
cosh 2a - cos 20 = 2 (0² + a²) (π + 0)² + (π − 0)² + a²- (2π +0)² +0
π-2
(2π - 0)² + a²
ad inf…………………………….. ( 2) .
π2
In (2) put a =0 and we have
2 sin20 =202 . (π+ 0)² (π - 0)² (2π + 0)2 (2π – 0 )² ad inf............. (3).
T2 π-2 π2
Dividing (2) by (3) we have
cosh 2a - cos 20
a α a
= 2 sin² 0 + + π 1+ +k 1+
Lπ- 6)]
a
ad inf.
[1+ (27+0)*]...
The factors of cosh 2a + cos 20 may now be obtained by changing
Τ α
into + and they are found to be 2 cos² 0 II + where r is
any odd integer, positive or negative.
158 TRIGONOMETRY.
EXAMPLES. XXI.
Prove that
1- 1 1 - 1 πT2
1. 12 + 32 ...... ad inf. = 12
1 1
2. 16 + 26 + 36 × ...... ad inf. 6 (2π)6
1 1 1 1 π2
3. 1.2 + 2.4 + 3.6 + 4.8 + ...... ad inf. = 12
3 6 10 п2
4. 34 + 54 + 7+ + 9+ + ...... ad inf. = 64 12
(1-5)
5. Prove that the sum of the products, taken two and two together,
of the reciprocals of the squares of all odd numbers is 384
6. Prove that the sum of the products , taken two and two together,
П4
of the reciprocals of the squares of all numbers is 120 '
Prove that
1 20 20
7. cot 0 = - 02 222-02
1 1 1 1
= + ad inf.
-π + 0 + π + - 2π + 0 + 2π ......
1 1 - 1 1 1 1 - 1
8. cosec = --- +
8 -π 0+ π 8 2π + 0 + 2π 0 - 3п 0 + 3п +...
22=00 -- 1)n
=1+20 Σ 02-12T '
n=1 2
and hence that
1 + 0 cosec 0 = 1 1 1
+ ad inf.
202 0202 - π2 02-22T2
Use the relation cosec =12 Ө
[Use + cot
(tan 2 1) ]
1 3 5
—1 sec = π2-402 ad inf.
9. 4π 32T2-402 + 522-402
π π
Use the relation 2 sec = tan + + cot +
[Use 4 *) 4
[Exs. XXI. ] INFINITE PRODUCTS. EXAMPLES. 159
1 1 1 1
10. 7 sec
s ²0 = + + + + ad inf.
(π- 20)² (π +20)² (3π - 20)2 (3π + 20)²
[Apply the process of Art. 129 to the result obtained in that article.]
1 1 1 1 1
11. cosec2 0 = + + + ad inf.
·0² + (0 − π)² + ( 0 + π)² ™ (0 − 2 π)² + ( 0 + 2π)² '
Prove that
0) =
12. ain ( - ) - ( 1-9) (1+ ) (1-÷)
(1+ 2π ) (1-3 ) .....

0
=II ( 1 , where r is any positive or negative integer or zero.
а + rπ:):
sin (a + 0) 0
13. sin a = II ( ( 1+
a +rπ " where r is any positive or negative
integer, including zero.
20 20 20
14. cos (a + 0) -
cos a ( 1 + 22a) (1 π-- 2aa) (1 + 372092a) :) (1- 3п - 2а
20
= II [1+ 2a , where r is any odd integer positive or negative .
cos (a - 0)= II 1 20
15. where r is any odd integer, positive
cos a [ 2α + γπ .
or negative.
cos + cos a 02 02 02
16. =
1+ cos a (3π + a)2
02
-a)³]
[ 1- (3π -a)²......
= II 1.
(rπ+a)²] ,
where r is any odd integer positive or negative.
[Multiply together the results of Exs . 14 and 15 and then change 20
and 2a into 0 and a.]
cos - cos a
17. =
1 - cos a {1-6} { 1-12#+ 2)}}
02 02
{1 (2π - (4π + α)2)
02
= Π| 1
T)2 ]
(a + rπ)
where r is any even positive or negative integer, including zero.
Hence deduce the factors of cosh x cos a.
160 TRIGONOMETRY. [Exs. XXI.]
sin a - sin 0
18. sin a · = (1-2 ) (1--- ) (1++ )
(1+9 - a) (1 ---+-a)
....
19. 2 cosh @ +2 cos a
02 02
cos² 1+ 2] 1+
= 4008 [ + (a [ + ).......
02
cos²
= 400811 [1++r)
(a ²] +
where r is any odd integer positive or negative.
20. Prove that
U
r=n - 1 sinh2
1+ 2
sinh nu = n sinh u II Tπ
r=1 sin 2
2n
and deduce the expression for sinh u in the form of an infinite product of
quadratic factors in u.
[Start with the result, when 0 is zero, of Ex. 1, Art. 121. In this
result put & equal to zero and divide.]
21. Prove that the value of the infinite product
..ad inf.
(1 + 1) (1 + 1) (1 + 12)..
is sinha .
π
22. A semicircle is divided into m equal parts and a concentric and
similarly situated semicircle is divided into n equal parts. Every point
of section of one semicircle is joined to every point of section of the
other. Find the arithmetic mean of the squares of the joining lines and
prove that when m and n are indefinitely increased the result is
8ab
a²+ b² where a and b are the radii of the semicircles.
a a
2000
23. The radii of an infinite series of concentric circles are a, 2 , 3
From a point at a distance c ( > a) from their common centre a tangent
is drawn to each circle. Prove that
с Ta
sin 0, sin 0, sin g......= sin
πα
where 01 , 02, 0....... are the angles that the tangents subtend at the
common centre.
[Exs. XXI.] INFINITE PRODUCTS. EXAMPLES. 161
24. An infinite straight line is divided by an infinite number of points

into portions each of length a. If any point P be taken so that y is its
distance from the straight line and x is its distance measured along the
straight line from one of the points of division, prove that the sum of the
squares of the reciprocals of the distances of the point P from all the
points of division is
2π
sinh у
π a
ay cosh 2πυ COS 2πχ
a a
[Use the result of Ex. 7.]
25. If a, b, c...... denote all the prime numbers 2, 3, 5 ...... prove that
6
=
(1-1 ) (1-1) (1-1).
and
( 1+ )
(1 + 1) ( 1 + 1) ( - 15
26. Prove that
m=∞
II
m=1 [1 -m²~ ]
с sin { √√c² + x} .
c² + x sin Tс
L. T. II. 11
CHAPTER X.
PRINCIPLE OF PROPORTIONAL PARTS .
131. IN the present chapter we shall consider the

Principle of Proportional Parts, the truth of which we
assumed in Chapter XI. , Part I.
We then assumed that if n be any number and n + 1
the next number, whose logarithms were given in our
tables, and if h be any fraction, then, to 7 places of
decimals, it is true that
log (n + h) -
— log n -
= h.
log (n + 1 ) - log n
The truth of this statement we shall now consider.
132. Common Logarithms. We have, by Art.

12 .
-
log» ( n + h) — log, n = log„ " n
+ h = µ loge ( 1 + 4 ) ,
where μ = 43429448 ...

μη μ h2 μi h³
log₁0 (n + h) -
— log10 n = n ....... (1).
+
2 n² 3 n³
PRINCIPLE OF PROPORTIONAL PARTS. 163
Now in our ordinary logarithm tables n contains

5 digits, i.e. n is not less than 10000 . Hence, if h be less
μ h2
than unity, we have less than
2 n²
1 1
2 ( 43429448 ...) × 1089
21714724 ...
i.e. less than i.e. 0000000021 ....
108
h³
Also μ is less than one-ten thousandth part of this.
3 n³
Hence in ( 1 ) the omission of all the terms on the right-
hand side after the first will make no difference at least as
far as the seventh place of decimals. To seven places we
therefore have
- μη
log₁0 (n + h) — log10 n = n
μ.1
So log10 (n + 1) -log₁on = n
Hence, by division,
logo (n + h) -login
== h.
logo (n + 1) -login
The principle assumed is therefore always true for the
logarithms of ordinary numbers as given in our tables.
133. We may enquire what is the smallest number in the tables to

which we can safely apply the principle of proportional parts. We must
find that value of n which makes μh2 < 1 so that n² > μ.107.h³.
2n2 107,
The greatest value of h being unity, we then have
n²> 107, i.e. > 2171472 4......
.. n > 1473.
The number 1473 is therefore the required least number.
11-2
164 TRIGONOMETRY.
134. Natural Sines. Suppose we have a table

calculated for successive differences of angles , such that
the number of radians in these successive differences is h.
[In the case of our ordinary tables h = number of
radians in l'
π
= = 000290888 ..., i.e. h < 0003.]
60 x 180
Also let k be less than h. Then our principle was that
sin (0 +k) sin = k

sin (0 + h) — sin ✪ ¯h'
We shall examine this assumption.
We have
-
sin (0+ k) — sin 0 = sin 0 cos k + cos e sin k - sin
k2 L3
-= sin @ 1- + + cos ek - + ... - sin 0
2 13 ]-
(Arts. 32 and 33)

k2 k³
= k cos 0 -
= sin - cos e ...
1
The ratio of the third term to the first = k2 and this
1
is always less than 6 ( 0003 ) , i.e. always less than '00000002 .
The third and higher terms may therefore be safely neg-

lected, and we have
- sin ...... (1).
sin (0 + k) — sin 0 = k cos 0
12
The numerical ratio of the second term to the first
term
1
== k tan e (2).
π
This ratio is small, except when O is nearly equal to 2
Hence, except when the angle is nearly a right angle, the

second term in (1) may be neglected, and we have
sin (0+ k) - sin 0 = k cos 0.

So sin (0+h) -sin 0 = h cos 0,
sin (0+k) - sin @ = k

and hence (3).
sin (0 + h) - sin h
When is very nearly a right angle we cannot say

that
sin (0+ k) — sin 0 = k cos 0,
and hence in this case the relation (3) does not hold and
the difference in the sine is not proportional to the
difference in the angle. In this case then the differences
are irregular. At the same time the differences are
π
insensible ; for, when is nearly , cos is very small.
In fact k cos has nothing but ciphers as far as the

seventh place of decimals, so long as is within a few
minutes of a right angle. Also
12 (*0003)²
sin is always < i.e. < 00000005 ...
12 2
Hence when the angle is nearly a right angle a com-

paratively small change in the sine will correspond to a
comparatively large change in the angle ; also at the same
time these changes are irregular.
135. Natural Cosines . Since the cosine of an angle

is equal to the sine of its complement this case reduces to
166 TRIGONOMETRY.
that of the sine. The principle is therefore true except

when the angle is nearly zero, in which case the differences
are insensible and irregular .
136. Natural Tangents. With the same notation

as before we have
tan k sec²0
- tan = tan + tank - -tan 0 =
tan (0+ k) — ✪ 1 - tan tank
1 - tan 0 tan k
= tan k sec²0 ( 1 + tan 0 tan k + tan² 0 tan² k……
.)
k3 k3
= sec² 0 k + 1 + tan (k + +
3 +... ] [ (k + 1/35 ...)
+ tan² 0 (k² + )] ( Art . 34)
sin 1
=
= k sec² 0 + k². + k³ sec² 0 + tan20 + ...... (1).
coss Ꮎ •]
The third and higher terms may be omitted as before,

except when is nearly a right angle.
sin
Unless the quantity k be large we shall then
Cos³
have
.......
tan (0+ k) -tan 0 = k sec² 0 …………………………….( 2),
and the rule is approximately true.
π
When is > the second term of the equation (1) is
4
> 2k³, so that taking the greatest value of k, viz. about
0003, this would give a significant figure in the seventh
place. The principle is therefore not true for angles
π
greater than 4' when the differences of the tabulated
angles are 1'.

137. Natural Cotangents. As in the last article it

can be shewn that the principle must not be relied upon
for angles between 0 and 45° .
138. Natural Secant. We have sec (0+ k) — sec

1 1
=
cos e cos k - sin sin k cos e
1
- 1
= sec 0 1
1 - k tan e - k2 ...
2
+ tan² +
= sec | k tan 0 + k² (
== k sec 0 tan 0 + k² sec 0 + tan2 0+......... (1).

( 0)
The ratio of the second to the first term

1
+ tan² 0
2
=k = cot + tan e
tan = k [ cot
П
This is small except when is nearly zero or Hence,
2
except in these two cases, we have
sec (0+ k) - sec 0 = k tan 0 sec

and the rule is proved .
When is small the term k sec 0 tan 0 is very small,
so that the differences are insensible besides being
irregular.
π
When is nearlythis term is great, so that the
2
differences are not insensible.
168 TRIGONOMETRY.
139. Natural Cosecant. Just as in the case of the

secant it may be shewn that the differences are insensible
and irregular when is nearly 90°, and irregular when
is nearly zero. Otherwise the principle holds.
140. Tabular Logarithmic Sine. We have
sin (0+ k)
L10 sin (0+ k) — L₁0 sin 0 = log10 sin
ka
-
= log₁ [cos k + cot 0 sin k ] = log₁0 | 1 + k cot 0 — 2 ...
(Arts. 32 and 33)

k2 1
= μk cot e —
== - k² cot² 0 + ...
2 | (Arts. 8 and 12)
μk²
= μk cot 0 - cosec² 0 ....
2

1 1 k
= k· =
sin e cos 0 sin 20'
This is small except when is near zero or a right angle.

Hence, with the exception of these two cases, we have
L sin (0+ k) - L sin 0 = μ cot 0 × k,

so that the rule holds in general.
If be small the term µk cot is large , so that the
differences are large as well as irregular. We cannot
therefore apply the principle to small angles in the case
of tables constructed with difference of 1'.
Even if the tables were constructed for differences of
10" we are not sure of being free from error in the 7th
place of decimals unless be > 5°.
π μια
If Ꮎ be nearly 2 the terms uk cot 0 and 2 cosec² are
both small, so that if the angle be nearly a right angle the

differences are insensible as well as irregular.
141. Tabular Logarithmic Cosine. The rule

holds approximately, since the cosine is the complement
of the sine, except when the angle is small , in which case
the differences are insensible as well as irregular, and
except when the angle is nearly a right angle, in which
case the differences are large.
142. Tabular Logarithmic Tangent. Here

tan (0 + k)
L tan (0+k) -L tan = log10
tan e
1 + cottan k 1 + k cot 0
= log10 = log10
1- tan tan k 1 - k tan 0
= log₁0 [(1 + k cot 0) (1 + k tan 0 + k² tan² 0 + …..)]
k Ic2
=
= log10 1+ sin e cos e + cos² + ...
]
k 12 1 12
- + ...
μ sin cos 0 + cos 2 sin² 0 cos20
(Arts. 8 and 12)
s
13 μι - 2μk2 co 20 + ....
sin e cos 0 sin2 20
== k cot 20. This is small except when is near zero or a
right angle.
Hence, with the exception of these two cases, we have
2μ
L tan (0+ k) -
– L tan 0 = sin 20 k,
so that the principle is in general true.

TRIGONOMETRY .
170
k is not small, so
In each of the exceptional cases sin 20
that the differences are then irregular but not insensible .
The same statements are true for the tabular loga-
rithmic cotangent .
143. Tabular Logarithmic Secant and Cose-
cant . We have
= L cos 0 − L cos (0 + k)
Lsec (0+ k) - L sec
L cosec (0+ k) - L cosec = L sin 0 −-L sin ( 0 + k).
and
Hence the results for the L sin and L cos are also true
for the L cosec and L sec.

CHAPTER XI.
ERRORS OF OBSERVATION.
144. WE have up to the present assumed that it is

possible to observe any angles perfectly accurately. In
practice this is by no means the case. Our observations
are liable to two classes of errors , one due to the instru-
ments themselves, which are hardly ever in perfect adjust-
ment, and the other class due to mistakes on the part of
the observer.
145. An error in any of our observations will clearly,

in general, cause an error in the value of any quantity
calculated from that observation. For example, if in Art.
192, Part I., there be a small error in the value of a, there
will be a consequent error in the value of which, as
we see from the result of that article , depends on a.
146. The importance of an error in a length depends,

in general, upon its ratio to that length. For example in
measuring a piece of wood, about six feet long, a mistake
of one inch would be a very serious error ; in measuring a
mile racecourse a mistake of one inch would be not worth
172 TRIGONOMETRY .
considering ; whilst in measuring the distance from the

Earth to the Moon an error of one inch would be abso-
lutely inappreciable.
147. We shall assume that the errors we have to

consider are so small that their squares (when measured
in radians if they be angles) may be neglected and we
shall give some examples of finding the errors in derived
quantities.
We shall assume that our tables and calculations are
correct, so that we have not to deal with mistakes in
calculation but only with errors in the original observa-
tion.
148. Ex. 1. MP (Fig. Art. 42, Part I.) is a vertical pole ; at a

point O distant a from its foot its angular elevation is found to be 0 and
its height then calculated ; if there be an error d in the observation of 0,
find the consequent error in the height.
The calculated height ha tan 6, clearly.
If the error & be in excess, the real elevation is -8, and hence the
real height h' = a tan (0 -
– 8).
Hence the error h - h'a tan - a tan (0-8)
sin d
=α = a sec² 0.8,
cos e cos (0-8)
if we neglect squares and higher powers of d.
The ratio of the error to the calculated height
28
= sec² 0÷ tan 0 =
sin 20
Except when sin 20 is small this ratio is small since d is small . It is
π
least when sin 20 is greatest, i.e. when is •
π
The ratio is large when is near zero and when it is near
Hence a small mistake in the angle makes a relatively large mistake
in the calculated result when the angle subtended is very small or when
π
it is very nearly •
ERRORS OF OBSERVATION. 173
When is small, both the calculated height and the absolute error,
viz. a tane and a sec²0.8, are small, but the latter is great compared
with theformer.
When is nearly 90°, both these quantities are great.
Ex. 2. The height of a tower is found as in Art. 192, Part I.; if

there be an error 0 in excess in the angle a, find the corresponding correc-
tion to be made in the height.
The real value of a is a- 0; hence the real value of the height is
found by substituting a – 0 for a in the obtained answer, and therefore
sin a cos - cos a sin
= α sin (a -0) sinẞ = a sin ß
sin (B - a +0) sin (B- a) cos 0 +cos (8 - a) sin
1-0 cot a
= a sin a sin ß · (Arts. 32 and 33)
sin (8 - a) 1 + 0 cot (B.-α
a sin a sin ß
sin (8 - a) [1-0 cot a] [1-0 cot (B - a) + ......]
a sin a sin ß
(B - a) + cot a} ]
sin (B - a) [1-0 {cot
a sin a sin ß
0 a sin² ß
sin (B - a) sin² (8 − a) *
a sin² 8 and is
The error in the calculated height is therefore .
sin² (B -
− a) '
one of excess.
Also the ratio of the error to the calculated height
= ◊ sin ẞ
sin a sin (ẞ – a) *
Ex. 3. The angles of a triangle are calculated from the sides a = 2,

b= 3, and c = 4, but it is found that the side c is overestimated by a small
quantity 8; find the consequent errors in the angles.
From the given values of the sides we easily have
7 11
COS A = " cos B= cos C=
16' 4'
sin A = 2/15 sin B =-3/15 and sin C =4/15

16 16 16
174 TRIGONOMETRY.
Corresponding to the value 4 – d, let the values of the angles be A – 01,

B - 02, and C- 03 .
32+(4-6)² - 22 21-88
Then cos (A - 01) = 2 (4-8) .3 24 (1-9) .
1
i.e.
34 [ 21 − 88] [ 1 + ¦] = 24 [ 21-8] ,
cos 4 + sin 4 . 0₁ = 24
[Arts. 32 and 33]
7 - 11
i.e. 7+ 227
√/155 0₂ =
/1
16 96 8,
so that 11/15 δ ........

01 180 .. (1) .
Also (4-6)² + 2² -
− 32 =
cos (B - 02) = 11-88
16 (1-4)" ,
2 (4-8) .2
11
i.e.
16 + sin B. 02-=16 [ 11-88] [ 1+ ] = 1/1 [ 11
1-8 ]
3/15 21
i.e. -
16 02= 64 8,
so that 7/15 δ
02= 60 ........... (2).
22 +32- (4-6)² - 3 + 88
Also cos (C - 03): 2.2.3 12 •
14/15 1 28
i.e. + 4/150. - +
16 03: 39
8/15
so that ძვ := 45 d.
The errors in the angles are therefore
-11/158, -21/15 8, and 32/15 d radians,

180 180 180
so that the smallest angle has the least error.

We note, as might have been assumed a priori, that the sum of the
errors in the three angles is zero. This is necessarily so, since the sum
of the angles of any triangle is always two right angles.
ERRORS OF OBSERVATION. 175
EXAMPLES. XXII.
1. The height of a hill is found by measuring the angles of elevation

a and ẞ of the top and bottom of a tower of height b on the top of the
hill. Prove that the error in the height h caused by an error in the
measurement of the angle a is 0.cos ẞ sec a cosec (a - B) times the cal-
culated height of the hill.
2. At a distance of 100 feet from the foot of a tower the elevation of
its top is found to be 30° ; find the greatest and least errors in its
calculated height due to errors of 1' and 6 inches in the elevation and
distance respectively.
3. In the example of Art. 196 find the errors in the calculated values
of the flagstaff and tower due to an error & in the observed value of a.
If a 1000 feet, a = 30°, ẞ = 15°, and there be an error of 1' in the
value of a, calculate the numerical value of these errors.
4. AB is a vertical pole, and CD a horizontal line which when
produced passes through B the foot of the pole. The tangents of the
angles of elevation at C and D of the top of the pole are found to be
3
and respectively. Find the height of the pole having given that
4
CD =35 feet.
Prove that an error of 1' in the determination of the elevation at D
will cause an error of approximately 1 inch in the calculated height of
the pole.
5. The elevation of the summit of a tower is observed to be a at a
station A and ẞ at a station B, which is at a distance c from A in the direct
horizontal line from the foot of the tower, and its height is thus found to
be c sin a sinẞ feet.
sin (a - B)
If AB be measured not directly from the tower but horizontally and
in a direction inclined at a small angle @ to the direct line shew that, to
correct the height of the tower to the second order of small quantities, the
c cos a sin²B 02 must be subtracted.
quantity
cos ẞsin (a - B) 2
6. A, B, and C are three given points on a straight line ; D is
another point whose distance from B is found by observing that the
176 TRIGONOMETRY . [Exs. XXII. ]
angles ADB and CDB are equal and of an observed magnitude ; prove
that the error in the calculated length of DB consequent on a small
error & in the observed magnitude of 0, is
2ab (a + b)² sin
(a² + b² – 2abcos 20)
approximately, where AB - a and BC= b.
7. In measuring the three sides of a triangle small errors x and y
are made in two of them, a and b ; prove that the error in the angle C
X
will be - y cot 4
a cot B, and find the errors in the other angles.
8. In a triangle ABC we have given that approximately a = 36 feet,
3
b = 50 feet, and C - tan- 1
find what error in the given value of a will
cause an error in the calculated value of c equal to that caused by an

error of 5" in the measurement of C.
9. A triangle is solved from the parts C = 15°, a = √6, and b = 2 ;
prove that an error of 10" in the value of C would cause an error of about
13.66" in the calculated value of B.
10. Two sides b and c and the included angle A of a given triangle
are supposed to be known ; if there be a small error in the value of the
angle 4, prove that
(1) the consequent error in the calculated value of B is
- 0 sin B cos C cosec A radians,
(2) the consequent error in the calculated value of a is c sin B.0,
and (3) the consequent error in the calculated area of the triangle is
e cot A times that area.
11. There are errors in the sides a, b, and c of a triangle equal to
x, y, and z respectively ; prove that the consequent error in the calculated
value of the circum-radius is
1
cot A cot B cot C [x sec A +y sec B + z sec C].
12. The area of a triangle is found by measuring the lengths of the

sides and the limit of error possible, either in excess or defect, in
measuring any length is n times that length, where n is small. Prove that
in the case of the triangle whose sides are measured as 110, 81, and
59 yards, the limit to the error in the deduced area of the triangle is
about 3.1433n times that area.
[Exs. XXII.] ERRORS OF OBSERVATION. 177
13. The three sides of a triangle are measured and found to be

nearly equal. If the measurements can be wrong one per cent. in excess
or defect, prove that the greatest error that can arise in calculating one
of the angles is 80' nearly.
14. It is observed that the elevation of the summit of a mountain at
each corner of a plane horizontal equilateral triangle is a ; prove that the
height of the mountain is
1
a tan a,
√3
where a is the side of the triangle. If there be a small error n" in the
elevation at C, shew that the true height is
1 sin n"
a tan a 1+
√3 [1 3 sin a cos a
L. T. II. 12
CHAPTER XII.
MISCELLANEOUS PROPOSITIONS.
Solution of a Cubic Equation.

149. The standard form of a cubic equation is
y³ + 3ay² + 3by + c = 0.
Put y = x - a, and this equation becomes
x³ − 3 (a² − b) x + (2a³ − 3ab + c) = 0,
i.e. it becomes of the form
x³ - 3px + q = 0 ...... (1).
Hence any cubic equation can be reduced to the form

(1 ), which has no term containing ².
150. To solve the equation x³ - 3px + q = 0.

2
Put x = " and we have
n
z³ — 3pn³z + qn³ = 0 (2).
Now, by Art. 107, we always have

cos 30 = 4 cos³ 0 - 3 cos 0,
3 1
so that Cos³ -- cos - cos 300............ (3).
4 4
SOLUTION OF A CUBIC EQUATION. 179
Now (2) and (3) are the same equation if

3
a
z = cos 0, 3pn² = 4 ' nd −1 cos 30 = qn³
Hence n=
4p/
1
and therefore cos 30 == 4q (4).
4p
The equation (4) can always be solved (by means of

the tables if necessary) if
p be positive, and 4q
+7 ( 41) < 1,
i.e. if q² < 4p³.
[The student who is acquainted with the Theory of Equations will

notice that is the case which cannot be solved by Cardan's Method. It
is the case when the roots of the original cubic are all real. ]
If be the smallest angle satisfying equation (4), then

2π 4π
the values 0+ and +
3 3
also satisfy it, so that the roots of the equation
x³ - 3px + q = 0
1 1 1
are
n cos , n cos ( +23 ) , and n cos ( + 3 ).
i.e. 2p cos 0, 2 √p cos (

(0+ %), and 2 √p cos (0 + 43 ).
0+ 2
151. Ex. Solve the equation

x² + 6x² + 9x + 3 = 0.
Put xy - 2, and the equation becomes
y³ - 3y + 1 = 0.
12-2
180 TRIGONOMETRY.
Put y = " and the equation is

z3 - 3n2z + n³ = 0 ........ . (1).
3 1
Now cos³ 0.- cos - cos 30 = 0.....…………. ...(2) .
4 4
Equations (1) and (2) are the same if
1
z=cos e, n²=· ? and - cos 30 = n³,
4
1
i.e. if n=
1
and cos 30 = cos 120°. .(3).
The roots of (3) are clearly
40°, 40° + 120°, and 40° + 240°,
so that z=cos 40°, or cos 160°, or cos 280°.
:. y = 2 cos 40°, or 2 cos 160°, or 2 cos 280°.
.. x = y - 2 = -2 +2 cos 40°, or -2-2 cos 20°, or -2 + 2 cos 80°.
On referring to the tables we then have the values of x.
EXAMPLES. XXIII.
Solve the equations

1. 2x³ - 3x - 1 = 0. 2. x³ - 3x² - 1 = 0 . 3. x³ - 24x - 32 = 0.
4. x³ - 6x² + 6x + 8 = 0. 5. x³ - 21x + 7 = 0.
6. x³ + 4x² + 2x - 1 = 0. 7. x³ - 7x + 5 = 0.
Maximum and Minimum Values.
152. In Art. 133, Part I., we have given one example

of the maximum value of a trigonometrical expression.
We add another example .
Ifx and y be two positive angles whose sum is a constant
angle a ( T), find when sin x siny is a maximum , and
extend the theorem to more than two angles.
MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM VALUES. 181
We have 2 sin x sin y = 2 sin x sin (α -— x)

= cos (a -— 2x) — cos a.
Hence 2 sin x siny is greatest when cos (a -2x) is
greatest, i.e. when a = 2x, and therefore
α
x =y = 2/2.
The product is therefore greatest when the angles x

and y are equal.
Let there be three angles x, y, and z whose sum is
equal to a constant angle ẞ ( T). If, in the product
sin x sin y sin z,
any two of the angles x and y be unequal, we can, by the
preceding part of the article, increase the product by
substituting for both x and y half their sum without
increasing or diminishing the sum of the angles.
Hence so long as the angles x, y, and z are unequal,
we can increase the given product by thus making the
angles approach to equality.
The maximum value will therefore be obtained when
the angles x, y, and z are equal.
This argument can clearly be applied whatever be the
number of the angles x, y, z……….
153. We can now shew that the maximum triangle

that can be inscribed in a given circle is equilateral.
For, if R be the radius of the circle, we have (as in
Ex. xxxvi. 10, Part I. ) the area of the triangle
= 2R2 sin A sin B sin C,
where A + B + C = 2π, a constant angle. By the preced-

ing article it follows that the triangle is greatest when
A = B = C.
182 TRIGONOMETRY.
154. Ex. Find the minimum positive value of the

quantity a² tan x + b² cot x.
Let a tan x + b cot = y,
so that a² tan² x - y.tan a + b² = 0.
Solving this quadratic equation, we have
tan x = y ± √y² - 4a²b²
2a2
Since tan x is real the quantity under the radical sign
must be positive, so that y2 must be > 4a2b2.
Hence the least value of y is 2ab, and the corresponding
b
value of tan x is
α
EXAMPLES. XXIV.
1. If x +y be a given angle, less than π, prove that

(1) sin x + sin y, and (2) cos x cos y
both have their greatest values when x =y.
π
2. If x +y be a given angle, < 2 , prove that both cosx + cos y and
cos2x + cos2y have their greatest values when x = y.
Find the greatest, or least, values of
2 cos 0 √3
3. + 4. a sec0 - b tan 0.
√√3 2 cos 0'
cosec20 - cot @
5. cosec20 + 6. a2 sin20 +b² cosec²0.
cot
7. a2 sec²0 + b² cosec² 0.
If x +y be equal to a given angle 2a, which is less than π, find the
minimum value of
8. tan x +tan y.
9. secx + secy.
[We can easily prove that
1 1
secx + sec y = cos a
[cos (a - x) - sin a cos (ax) + sin a
π
10. If x + y = a, where a is , find when tan x tan y is a maximum,
2 cos a
We have 1 - tan x tan y =
cos a + cos (a -2x)
11. Prove that the maximum triangle having a given perimeter is

equilateral.
The area of a triangle can be proved to equal s² tan tanta
2 n
12. If x, y, z ... be angles whose sum is equal to a given angle, and if

each of the angles be positive and less than a right angle, prove that the
product cos x cos y cos z...... is greatest when the angles are equal.
13. If ABC be a triangle, prove that the quantities sin A + sin B + sin C
and sin A sin B sin C have their greatest values when the triangle is
equilateral.
14. Prove that the area of the pedal triangle of an acute-angled
triangle is never greater than one quarter of the area of the latter.
15. If ABC be a triangle, prove that the least value of
3
cos 24+ cos 2B + cos 2C is
2'
Prove also that cos A + cos B + cos C is always > 1 and not greater
3
than
2'
16. If ABC be a triangle, prove that the quantities

cot A +cot B + cot C and cot24 + cot2B + cot2C
both have their least value when the triangle is equilateral.
On the geometrical representation of complex

quantities.
155. In Chap. IV. , Part I. , we pointed out that if a

distance in any direction (say, horizontally towards the
-
right) be represented by a, then a represents the same
distance drawn in an opposite direction, i.e. horizontally
towards the left.
184 TRIGONOMETRY.
The effect of prefixing - to a is therefore (Fig.

Art. 48, Part I. ) to rotate OA in the positive direction
through two right angles. The operation -1 performed
on a therefore means turning a through two right angles.
156. Now Ix -1 = -1 ; hence whatever mean-

ing we give to the operation -1 it must be such that
performing that operation twice shall be the same thing as
-
performing the operation — 1 .
Let us therefore assign to the operation -1 the
turning any length through one right angle in the
positive direction. Performing the operation √- 1 on a
twice will therefore, as it should do, turn a through two
right angles.
Hence, with this interpretation, √1 a means a line
drawn at right angles to the line denoted by a.
157. We can now shew what is denoted by
x + √ = 1y.
Draw OX and OY two lines at right angles. Measure

along OX a distance OM equal to x and
then draw MP parallel to OY and equal
to y, so that MP represents √1 y.
Then P is the point that represents the
quantity + √1y, or, again, we may M

say that OP is the line representing this quantity.
We have OP = √OM² + MP² = √x² + y²,

MP ་
and ▲ MOP = tan-¹ -1Y •
= tan-1
OM Ꮳ
Hence the length of OP represents the modulus and

MOP the principal value of the Amplitude of x + iy.
(Art. 18.)
158. Addition of two complex quantities .

Let OP represent the complex quantity x + iy and
OQ represent u + iv, so that
ON == x, NP = y, OM = u,
and MQ = v.
Complete the parallelogram
OPRQ, and draw RL perpendicu- OM N L X
lar to OX and PS perpendicular to RL.
Since PR is equal and parallel to OQ, we have
NLPS = OM, and SR = MQ.
Hence OL = ON + NL = x + u,
and LR = LS + SR = y + v.
Therefore OR represents the complex quantity

x + u + i (y + v),
so that the sum of two complex quantities is repre-
sented by the diagonal of the parallelogram whose two
adjacent sides represent the two given complex quantities.
159. Let
x + iy = r (cos + i sin ),
as in Art. 18.
Then
(cos a + i sin a) (x + iy) = r (cos a + i sin a) (cos + i sin 0)
= r [cos (a + 0) + i sin (a + 0) ] .........
... (1).
Now r [cos Ꮎ + i sin 0]
means, with our interpretation, a line of length r drawn at
an angle with OX.
186 TRIGONOMETRY.
Also r [cos (a + 0) + i sin (a + 0)]

means a line of the same length r drawn at an angle a +0
with OX (Art. 157).
Hence, by ( 1), the effect of multiplying + iy by
cos a + i sin a is to turn through an angle a the line that
represents + iy.
160. Geometrical meaning of De Moivre's Theorem.

The quantity
(cos a +i sin a) (cos B +i sin B) (cos y + i sin y) (cos + i sin d)

means the line represented by cos & + i sin & turned first
through an angle y, then through B, and finally through
a, i.e. altogether turned through a +B + y.
But this total operation gives the same line as
[cos (a + B + y) + i sin (a + B + y) ] [ cos d + i sin d].

Similarly for any number of factors.
Hence De Moivre's Theorem expresses algebraically
the geometrical fact that to turn a line through a number
of angles successively has the same effect as turning the
line through an angle equal to the sum of the angles.
Ex. The three cube roots of unity are easily found to be

2π 2π
cos 0 +i sin 0, cos + i sin
3 3"
4- 2π
and COS + i sin
3'
so that we have
(cos 0+i sin 0) (cos 0+ i sin 0) (cos 0+i sin 0) = 1,
2T 2T 2π 2π 2π
COS + isin COS + i sin COS + i sin
3 3
풍)(ㅇ 3F) = 1,
Απ
COS
and (cos + sin ) (cos + sin ( cos 3+isin ) = 1.
GEOMETRICAL REPRESENTATION. 187
The first of these equations states that turning a line three times in
succession through a zero angle gives the original line.
The second states that turning it three times in succession through
2π
an angle 3 (i.e. altogether through 2π) gives the original line.
The third states that turning it three times in succession through an
4π
angle 3 (i.e. altogether through 47) gives the original line.
These statements are all clearly true.
161. Multiplication of two complex quantities.

If x + iy = r (cos +i sin ),
and u + iv = p (cos + i sin ),
we have
(u + iv) (x + iy) = rp [ cos ( 0 + $) + i sin (0 + 4)].
The effect of multiplying a complex quantity x + iy

by another u + iv is therefore to turn the line repre-
senting xiy through an angle
V
$ i.e. tan-1
and to alter its length in the ratio

1 : p, i. e. 1 : √u² + v².
Hence the multiplying of one complex quantity by

another is represented by " a turning and a stretching."
188 TRIGONOMETRY .
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES. XXV.
1. Prove that the equation tan x = kx has an infinite number of real

roots.
2. If A, B and C be the angles of a triangle, prove that
1-8 cos A cos B cos C
is always positive.
3. If a and ẞ be the imaginary cube roots of unity prove that
x
3x
aeax + Beβα = -e /3x
sin √37 + cos
[ sin 2 2 ].
√3
3-3 cos x
4. If x be less than a radian prove that x = 2 , very
5+ cos x
x5
nearly, the error in the left-hand member being nearly 480 radians.
5. If cos (0 + ip) = sec (a + iß), where a, ß, 6, and ø are all real , prove
that
tanh² cosh² ß = sin² a and tanh2 ß cosh2 = sin² 0.
6. If x=2 cos a cosh ẞ and y = 2 sin a sinh ß,
prove that
4x
sec (a +iẞ) +sec (a -
— iß) : 2
x²+y² ,
4iy
and sec (a + iß) — sec (a -
— iß) = x² + y² •
7. Prove that
sin" cos no +n sin^-1 o cos (n -
− 1) 0 sin (0-4)
n(n - 1) -
+ 1.2 sinn-2 p cos (n − 2) 0 sin² (0 − 4) + . + sin" (0 − p)
= sin" 0 cos np.
8. Prove that the roots of the equation
n (n - 1)
x² sin no -
– nx^-1 sin (no + 4) + 1.2 2 sin (no + 2p)
-... to (n + 1) terms = 0,
are given by x = sin (0+

(0+ + -k ) cosec -
where n is an integer and k has any integral value from 0 to n − 1.

[Misc. Exs. XXV.] EXAMPLES. 189
9. Prove that the sum to infinity of the series

1 sin³ 0 1.3 sin5 0
sin 0 + + ......
2 3 + 2.4 5
is 0, if ◊ be acute, and, generally, is nπ + ( − 1)" 0, where n is so chosen
that n + ( -1) lies between and + π •
2
10. If the arc of a circle of radius unity be divided into n equal arcs,
and right-angled isosceles triangles be described on the chords of these arcs
as hypothenuses and have their vertices outwards, prove that when n is
indefinitely increased the limit of the product of the distances of the
a
vertices from the centre is e , where a is the angle subtended by the arc
at the centre.
11. The sides of a regular polygon of n sides, which is inscribed in a
circle, meet the tangent at any point P of the circle in A, B, C, D......
Prove that the product PA . PB.PC. PD...... = a" tan ne or a" tan² no,
according as n is odd or even, where a is the radius of the circle and is
the angle which the line joining P to an angular point subtends at the
circumference.
12. A regular polygon of n sides is inscribed in a circle and from any
point in the circumference chords are drawn to the angular points ; if
these chords be denoted by c₁ , C2, ... Cn, beginning with the chord drawn
to the nearest angular point and taking the rest in order, prove that the
quantity
C1C2 + C2C3 + + Cn-1ºn - CnC1
is independent of the position of the point from which the chords are
drawn.
13. A series of radii divide the circumference of a circle into 2n equal
parts ; prove that the product of the perpendiculars let fall from any
point of the circumference upon n successive radii is
sin no ,
2n-1
where r is the radius of the circle and is the angle between one of the
extreme of these radii and the radius to the given point.
14. If a regular polygon of n sides be inscribed in a circle, and I be
the length of the chord joining any fixed point on the circle to one of the
angular points of the polygon , prove that .
2m
212m = na2m
{ \m } 2 °
190 TRIGONOMETRY. [Misc. Exs. XXV.]
15. ABCD ... is a regular polygon of n sides which is inscribed in a

circle, whose radius is a and whose centre is O ; prove that the product of
the distances of its angular points from a straight line at right angles to
OA and at a distance b ( > a) from the centre is
bn - sinn
6" [ cos " ( sin- 12 )-- ( sin-19)].
16. Prove that there is one, and only one, solution of the equation
П
0=cose and that it is less than
4'
17. Prove that the general value of 0 which satisfies the equation
(cos +i sin 0) (cos 20+i sin 20) ...... to n factors = 1
4mT
is where m is any integer.
n (n + 1) '
18. Prove that

ad inf.
e* +e¯* = 2 { 1 +2³} {1+ (3) *} {1+ (3)*
}·
19. Prove that
x3 /3x
1+ + + ...ad inf. ex+ 2e COS
·(√32 )].
20. Shew that

x10
x+ + ad inf.
4 710
1 - x /3
= ex --e COS √3 sin 2/3).
(
21. Shew that the sum of the series

874
- 1.
2 [ (3-1) + (3r + 1 )+ ] is 729-
r=1
22. Prove that
2π 4π 6П 14π 16π
COS 17 +cos + cos + cos + cos =
17 17 + ... 17 17 2
2π 4π 14π 16π
and sec sec
sec 17+800 17 +...+800 147 +8ec1678.
[Misc. Exs. XXV.] EXAMPLES . 191
23. If a = 2π , prove that the values of

cos a + cos 5a + cos 17a
and cos 11a + cos 13a + cos 19a
21-1 and - ་ 21-1
are respectively
4
24. Prove that
tan a +tan·
5)
(a + 25 ) + tan (a +27
+tan ( + 5 ) + tan (a + 5) =5 tan 5 .
Tπ
25. Shew that the equation whose roots are tan 15 ' where r is any
number including unity less than and prime to 15, is
x8-92x6 + 134x4 – 28x² + 1 = 0.
26. From the sum of the series

1 1
sin 40+ sin 60--
sin 20 - Bin ad inf.,
or otherwise, shew that
TN 1 1 1 1 1 -
=1 + - - + + ad inf.
3 11 ...
27. Assuming equation (4) of Art. 53, shew that

2 sin¹ 0 2.4 sin0
02=sin² 0 + + 3.5 3 +.........
3
28. Prove that

1 sinh t 1 1∞ 1 1
ΕΣ +
2x cosh x - COS a a² + x² n=1 (2nπ − a)² +x² + (2n + a)² + x²)
29. Prove that the general value of sinh-¹x is
ik +(- 1 )* log [ + √1 + x²],
where k is any integer.
30. The side BC of a square ABCD is produced indefinitely, and

along it are measured CC1 , C1C₂ , C2C3 , ... each equal to BC.
If 01, 02 , 0g , ... be the angles BAC₁ , BAC₂ , BAC3 ........
, prove that
π
sin 0, sin 02 sin 0g ... ad inf. = 2
192 TRIGONOMETRY. [Misc. Exs. XXV. ]
31. If P1, P2, ...Pn be the distances of the vertices of a regular

polygon of n sides from any point P in its plane, prove that
1 1 1 n p2n - a2n
2 + 2+ + 2=
P2 Pn r² — a² r²n – 2a²™n cos no + a²n '
where a is the radius of the circumcircle of the polygon, r is the distance
of P from its centre O, and 0 is the angle that OP makes with the radius
to any angular point of the polygon.
32. If 0 ++ y = 2π, prove that

cos20 + cos² +cos² - 2 cos e cos cos = 1.
Hence deduce the relation between the six straight lines joining
4 points which are in one plane.
ANSWERS TO PART II.
I. (Pages 9-11 . )
8. log, 2. 9. log, 3 - loge 2.
II. (Pages 24-26.)

π
1. √3 (cos + i sin ).
2. /
√ 2 [ cos ( -3 ) + i sin ( -3 )] .
5п 5п
3. COS 4. 5
2 [con 6 +isin 6 ].
√2 +1 + i 1
5. √4 + 2√2√4 + 2√2 √4 +2
5п 5π
6. (√6 - √2) cos 12 + i sin 12
2 ) [ cos
7. cos (100+ 12a) - i sin (100+ 12a).
8. cos (a + B - y - 8) + i sin (a + ẞ -
− y −8).
9. cos 1070 - i sin 1070. 10. - 1 .
11. sin (4a + 5ẞ) - i cos (4a + 5ẞ).
12. 2 +1 sin" 0 - ф cos n 7 + 0 + ф
2 2
π 3п 3п
23. COS + isin ; cos + i sin
5 5 5
III. (Page 30.)

-1 +i√3 - √3 +i
1. 1 ;
2 2. ±+ ii ;; √3+ i ;
2 2
TT μπ
3. cos + i sin where r = 3, 7, or 11.
(co 12 12 "
Υπ Υπ
4. + i, and ± COS + i sin where r == 1 or 3.
10 10 "
L. T. 13
ii TRIGONOMETRY. (PART II.)
Υπ Υπ
+ i sin where r = 1, 9, or 17.
5. +1/2 (cos 24 24
Υπ Υπ
6. 3/2048 [ COS 9 + i sin 9 where r = 5, 11 , or 17.
Υπ Υπ
7. - i sin where r = 1 or 7 .
12[cos 12
+ √2 12
Υπ Υπ
8. 3/2 COS + i sin where r = 1 , 13, or 25.
18 18
Υπ Υπ
9. COS + i sin where r = -
– 1 , 5 , 11 , 17, or 23.
‫اشد‬/4
‫ب‬ 15 15 ,
10.2 and + 2i.
Υπ Υπ
COS si where r = 2 or 4.
11. 2 , and 2 [co 5 sin 5 "
i + √3 and + i√3-1 14. 1.
12. 1024. 13. + 2 2
16. ± 1, ± i, ± ( cosi
6 sin ) , and + (cos + isin ).
The last four values.
Υπ Υπ
17. - 1 and cos + i sin , where r = 1, 3, or 5.
7 7
18. + COS
-1 , cosisin , (cos 4+ isin ) ,
3п
and +
+ COS + i sin
4 in 3T).
Υπ wher
19. 23/2 cos e r = 1 , 7 , or 13.
9
IV. (Pages 36, 37.)

5 tan 0-10 tan³ 0 + tan5 0
6. 1-10 tan20 + 5 tan¹0
7 tan 0-35 tan³ 0 + 21 tan5 0- tan" 0
1 21 tan² 0 + 35 tan¹ 6-7 tan6 0
9 tan 084 tan³ 0 + 126 tan³ 0-36 tan7 0 + tanº 0
8. 1-36 tan² 0 + 126 tan* 0 - 84 tan6 0 + 9 tan³ 0
ANSWERS. iii
V. (Pages 46-48.)
1 2 α 1
6. 3° 48′51 ″. 7. 8. 10.
6 m². 9. %. 2*
a² a² + ab + b²
11. 3. 12. 13. 0. 14.
b2 ab
1 1 25
15. 16. 2. 17. 18.
2' 6 14'
ǹ² - m² 21. 1
19. - 20. 2
p2 60
22. 2 (m — n)² 23. 24. 24. 0.
3 mn
α
25. log 26. e. 27. e³. 28. - 9.
Ъ
29. 1. 30. 0. 31. 1. 32. e
8 1
33. 0. 37 . - ·
6 6
VI. (Pages 52, 53.)

8. x5-55x + 330x³- 462x² + 165x - 11 = 0.
IX. (Page 73.)

1 1 n
1. cos no, (n odd) ; 1 )² - cos n0] , (n even).
2n-1 2″-1 [(− 1)"
n-1 1 n 1
2. (-1)2 2n-1 sinne, (nodd) ; (-1)2 2n−1( 1 − cosno), (neven).
1
no
3. n³ cosec² nº, (n odd) ; n² cosec²
2 9 (n even).
n
4. n²sec²n0 — n, (n odd) ; n² ÷ [1 − (− 1 )³ cos nº] — n, ( n even).
5. - n cot 6. n cot no.
(™ 2T + no).
n-I n
22
7. (-1) tan ne, (n odd) ; (− 1)", (n even) .
Nπ
8. n² cot² + no ) + n (n -
− 1) .
2
iv TRIGONOMETRY. (PART II.)
1 n²
10. 0 or n according as n is odd or even.
2
(−1 )² cos no – 1
XI. (Pages 86--88.)

17. cos a cosh ẞ- i sin a sinh ß.
sin 2a -– i sinh 26
18.
cosh 28 - cos 2a
19. 2 sin a cosh ẞ - i cos a sinh ß
cosh 2ẞ - cos 2a
20. 2 cos a cosh ẞ + i sin a sinh ß
cos 2a + cosh 2ß
21. sinh a cos ẞ + i cosh a sin ß.
22. sinh 2a + sin 28
cosh 2a + cos 2ß
23. 2 cosh a cos ẞi sinh a sin ẞ

cosh 2a + cos 2ß
XII. (Page 92.)

Π i 1 + sin 0
1. + + log
1 - sin 0 " according as cos is positive or
negative.
2. /1 + sin ✪ - √sin 6].
sin-¹ (√sin ) + i log [ √1
XIII. (Page 99.)
1 v
15. where
2 log (u² + v²) + i tan -¹ >
1 cosh 2y - cos 2x an
u = 2log d v == tan ~ (cot æ tanh y).
2
XV. (Pages 112, 113.)

1. 3. 2. 2. 3. 5. 4. - 1. 5. - 3.
XVI. (Pages 117, 118.)
4 sin a
1.
5-4 cos a
2. 0, provided a does not equal a multiple of #.
ANSWERS.
sin² a sin a (cos a - sin a) ·

3. • 4.
sin 2a + sin² a 1- sin 2a + sin² a
5. sina - c sin (a - ẞ) − c² sin (a + nß) + c²+¹sin { a + (n − 1 ) ß} ,

;
1- 2c cos ẞ + c²
sin a- c sin (a - ẞ)
1- 2c cos ẞ + c²
1- c cosh a c” cosh na + c² +¹ cosh (n − 1) a
6.
12c cosh a + c²
c sinh a
7.
1- 2c cosh a + c² °
8. cos a + (− 1 ) -¹ { (n + 1 ) cos (n -
− 1 ) a + n cos na}
2 (1 + cos a)
9. sin a + (2n + 3) sin na − (2n + 1 ) sin (n + 1 ) a

2 (1 - cos a)
10. 0, if n = 4m or 4m - 1 , and 1 , if n = 4m - 2 or 4m - 3 ;
0, if n == 4m or 4m – 3 , and − 1 , if n = 4m −1 or 4m – 2.
11.
(2 cos 2)" . sin (a + 18
2 ).
12. (2 sin a) * sin ( +3) , except when a = n .

22
13. 0, if n be odd ; (- 1 )² sin" a, if n be even.
-n ηπ - κα
14. · sin if n be < 1 .
(22 sinc ) 2 2
π π
15. √cos (1 + cos 0), if ◊ be between and +
2 2'
n+2
16. (2 cosh 2) . sinh W.
2
XVII. (Pages 121-123 .)

1. eccos sin (a + c sin ß). 2. eccosẞ cos (a + c sin ß).
3. e-Cos a cosẞ cos (cos a sin ẞ).
13-3
vi TRIGONOMETRY. (PART II.)
4. sin a cos (cos ẞ) cosh (sin ẞ)

– cos a sin (cos B) sinh (sin B).
5. sin (cos B) cosh (sin ẞ) cos (a - B)
-
cos (cos B) sinh (sin B) sin (a – B).
α
6. ecosh a cosh (sinh a). 7. ecosh a sinh ( sinh a ).
8. ecos (sin a) cos {y sin (sin a)}, where y = ecos a
eycos (cos a) sina
9. '. cos y sin (cos a) }, where y = eⓇ
1 COS
10. e {cos (0+ sin 0) + 4 cos (sin 6)}
2
1 cos e
e+ {cos (0 - sin 0) -4 cos (sin 0) }.
2
c sin a
11. tan -1 except when c = 1 and a = (2n + 1 ) π.
1+ c cos a "
1 2c sin a
12. tan--1 "
2 1 c² except when c = 1 and a = nπ.
1 1 + 2c cos a + c²
13.
|
log
4 12
1- 2c cos a + c²
2c cos a 1 1 + 2c sin a + c²
14. tan -1 15 . log
1 - c² 4 1- 2c sin a + c² °
π
16. + --- π " or 0 according as cos a is positive, negative,
4
or zero.
1 2c cos B - 1 2c sin B
17.
2 cos (a - ẞ) tan-¹ 1-22 2sin (a − B ) tanh -1 1 + c²
=
1 a + ß Cosec
18. 2 log ( sin 2 a-2 B ),, except when a ± ẞ is a
©)
multiple of 2π.
1
19 . 2 log [ ((11 + c) ÷ √1 + 2c cos 2a + c²].
α 1
20. 9/2 21. - (cos B cosech a).
2 tan-1
1
22. [ 2√3 log. (2 + √√3 ) – π].
ANSWERS. vii
XVIII. (Pages 125, 126.)

0
1. cot ---- cot 2n-1 0.
2 2. cosec Ө {cot - cot (n + 1) 0}.
3. Ꮎ -
cosec {tan (n + 1 ) 0 − tan 0}.
4. cosec {tan (0 + np) – tan 0}.
1
5. -
·cosec ✪ {tan (n + 1 ) 0 — tan 0}.
1 Ꮎ 1
6. Sn = 2n-1 cot 2n-1 2 cot 20 ; S∞ 2 cot 20.
-
Ꮎ
1 Ө
7. 2 coth 20 - coth 8. tan 20 - tan 0.
2n-1 2n -1 °
0
9. tan 0- tan
2n ; tan 0.
10. sin (cot 0 — cot 2″ 0).
1 1
11. sin 20+ ( -
− 1 )~+¹
2 2n+1 sin 2n +1 0.
1 1
12. sin 20--
2 2n +1 sin 2n +1 0.
1 Ө 2n 1
13. 4 cosec 2( see 2 + 0 - sec ).
1
14. Sn 2n-1 tan 2n a 2 tan a ; S = 2a - 2 tan a.
1 n-1
15. 3n
4
} {3 cos 0+ (3 ) cos 3" 0} .
1 Ө
3n
16. 4¦ ( 3ª sin 3n - sin 6) .
1
17. 8 [3" tan 3" 0 - tan 0].
1
18. -
2 [cot 0 3" cot 3" 0].
19. tan¹ {(n + 1 ) (n + 2)} - tan -¹ 2.
n
20. tan-¹ (n + 1 ) – tan - ¹ 1 , i.e. tan - ¹
n+2
π
21. Sn = tan-¹ 2" - tan - ¹1 ; S •
4
viii TRIGONOMETRY. ( PART II.)
-1 1 π
22. Sn =
- sin -11 - sin -¹ =
2
√n + 1
XIX. (Pages 131, 132.)

1. 1- a cos 0 + a² cos 20 -– a³ cos 30 + ... ad inf.
2. cos ◊ + a cos (0 + $) + a³ cos (0 + 24) + ... ad inf.
3. sin + a sin ( 0 + $) + a² sin (0 + 26) + ... ad inf.
a² a³
4. cos + a cos (0 + $) + cos (0 +26) + cos (0 + 36)
2
+ ... ad inf.
202 2303
5. ro sin + sin 24 + sin 30+ ... ad inf. ,
2 13
b
where ´r = + √a² + b² and = tan -¹
a
1 1 1
9. x cos a asin 2a - acos 3a + x¹sin 4a fa
2 3
1
x5 cos 5a--... ad inf.
5
1
10. x + y - rπ = — cos a sin x 2 cos² a sin 2x 13cos³ a sin 3x
ad inf.
α
12. (1 ) m = tan3 (2) m = - tan³ a.
1 1 1
13. log 2 - sin 20+ cos 40 + sin 60- cos 80
3 4
1
sin 100+ ... ad inf.
5
1
2
14. [ sinin 30+ 5 sin 50 —... ad inf. ]
15. log (( COS B).+ (tan a + cot a) cos

1 1
(tan² a + cot² a) cos 20 + 3 (tan³ a + cot³ a) cos 30 -... ad inf.
ANSWERS. ix
XX. (Pages 144–146 .)

2π
1. II x² + 2x cos (3r + 1) 9 + 1 where r = 0, 1 , or 2.
1] ,
2. II x² -2x cos (6r + 1 ) +1 where r = 0, 1 , 2 , or 3.

12 1] ,
3. II - 2x cos (6r + 1 ) 15 +1] ,

where r = 0, 1 , 2, 3 , or 4.
4.
4 II။ - 2x cos (3r + 1) 9 +1] ,
where r = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5.
5.II x²- 2x cos cos (6r + 2)

(6r + 2) +1 ] ,
where r = 0, 1 , 2, 3, 4 , 5, or 6.
2rπ
6. x² — 2x cos + where 1 or 2.
(≈ − 1 ) 11 [ 2ª . 5 1],
π
7. II [ a² 2a
– cos (2r + 1 ) + 1] , where r = 0, 1 , or 2.
21π
8. x²- 2x COS + 1 where r = 1 , 2, or 3.
(≈ – 1) ¤ [ 7 1] ,
π
-- 2x cos (2r + 1) 9 + 1]
9. (x + 1 ) II [ x² –
where r = 0, 1 , 2, or 3.
10. (x² – 1 ) II [
| x² - 2x
200cos 5 + 1 ], where r = 1 , 2 , 3, or 4.
π
11. (x + 1 ) II [ x² - 2x cos (2r + 1) 13 + 1 ] ,
where r = 0, 1, ...5.
- Υπ
-2x cos
12. (x² – 1 ) II [ x²
2² . 7
+ 1
1],
where r = 1 , 2 , ...6.
π
13. II x² - 2x cos (2r + 1) + 1], where r = 0 , 1 , 2, ... 9.
20
29. Take the logarithm of both sides of the expression of
Art. 115 reading r instead of x ; differentiate with respect to r
and then integrate with respect to 0.
X TRIGONOMETRY . (PART II. )
XXII. (Pages 175, 177.)

2. 32746 ... ft., and +24989 ... ft.
3. a cos 2B a sin² ß
S and 8:
cos² (a + 2B) cos² (a + 2B)
10/3 5 (2 - √3) T
and fect.
54 54
x -y cos C y - x cos C
and radians.
c sin B c sin 4
π
8. - inches.
40
XXIII . (Page 180.)
1. −1 , and ¹ ± √³¸.
2. - 1 + 2 cos 40°, − 1 + 2 cos 160°, and - 1 + 2 cos 280°.

3. - 4, and 2 + 2 /3. 4. 4, and 1 ± √3.
5. -
2/7 cos 0, where = 33 ° 37 ′ 52″, 153° 37′ 52″, and
273° 37' 52".
4 2/10
6. + and
3 3 cos 0, where = 39 ° 5′ 51 ″ , 159 ° 5′ 51 ″,
279° 5' 51".
2
7. -
= 44° 50′ 49 ″, 164° 50′ 49 ″, and
3 √21 cos 0, where
284° 50′ 49″.
XXIV. (Page 182.)

3. The least value is - 2.
4. The least value is √a² – b³.
1
5. The greatest and least values are 3 and 3 respectively.
6. The least value is 2ab.
7. The least value is (a – b)².
8. 2 tan a. 9. 2 sec a.
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This is a reproduction of a library book that was digitized

by Google as part of an ongoing effort to preserve the

SECOND EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED.

[All Rights reserved. ]

THE following work will, I hope, be found to be a

As Trigonometry consists largely of formulæ and the

These more important formulæ are distinguished in the

On a first reading also the articles marked with an

trouble they have taken.

ROYAL HOLLOWAY COLLEGE,

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

The Second Edition has been carefully revised, and it

April 25, 1895.

ANSWERS. Part I. i-xvi

I. Circumference of a circle = 2π1. (Art. 12. )

II. sin² + cos² 0 = 1 ;

III. sin 0° = 0 ; cos 0° --- 1 . (Art. 36.)

sin ( 180° - 0) = sin 0 ; cos (180° -

V. If sin = sin a, then 0 = nπ + (− 1)"α. (Art. 82. )

VI. sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B.

cos (A + B) = cos A cos B - sin A sin B. (Art. 88. )

2 sin A cos B = sin (A + B) + sin (A – B).

2 cos A cos B = cos (A + B) + cos (A – B).

sin 24 -= 2 sin A cos A.

cos 24 = cos² A - sin² A = 1 − 2 sin² A = 2 cos² A -

sin 34 = 3 sin A - 4 sin³ A.

VII. loga mn = logam + loga n.

loga m² = n loga m. (Art. 136. )

sin A sin B sin C

Area of a quadrilateral inscribable in a circle

Area of a circle = Tr². (Art. 233. )

X. sin a + sin (a + ß) + sin (a + 2ß) + to n terms

cos a + cos (a + B) + cos (a + 2ẞ) + ... to n terms

a² = 1 + x log, ɑ + (loge a)² + ... ad inf. (Art. 5.)

when X--1 and 1. (Art. 8. )

XII. (cos Ө + i sin 0)" = cos n✪ + i sin 0. (Art. 21. )

XIII. sin no = n cos"-10 sin

n (n - 1 ) (n - 2) (n - 3) Cosnn -40 sin¹ 0 -

XIV . sin a = a ad inf. (Art. 33.)

cos a = 1 - ad inf. (Art. 32. )

exi - e -xi exi + -xi

XV. Log (a + Bi) = log. √a² + ẞ² + i (2nπ + 0),

where x is numerically not greater than unity. (Art. 95. )

402 402 402

MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES , SEXAGESIMAL, CENTESIMAL ,

AND CIRCULAR MEASURE.

1. IN geometry angles are measured in terms of a

2. In the Sexagesimal system of measurement a

The symbols 1 °, 1 ', and 1 ″ are used to denote a degree ;

3. On this account another system of measurement

4. This system would be much more convenient to

5. To convert Sexagesimal into Centesimal Measure,

Hence, to change degrees into grades, add on one-

If the angle do not contain an integral number of

In practice it is generally found more convenient to

6. Angles of any size.

For any position between OB and OA' , such as OP₂,

7. If the revolving line OP be between OA and OB,

9. A third system of measurement of angles has

The unit used is obtained thus ;