CEMENT - Introduction

 Cement is the mixture of calcareous, siliceous, argillaceous materials.

 Cement is used as a binding material in cement mortar, concrete,
etc. It has both adhesive and cohesive properties in the presence of
water.
 Its name is derived from its similarity to Portland stone [LIMESTONE –
SEDIMENTARY ROCK] which was quarried on the Isle of Portland
in Dorset, England.
 Thus the name for cement has become ORDINARY PORTLAND
CEMENT. [OPC]
 The name OPC was given by Joseph Aspdin who obtained a patent
for it in 1824, UK.
 Cement can be manufactured either from natural cement stones
(ROMAN CEMENT, PUZZOLONA CEMENT) or artificially (OPC)
[OUR COURSE WORK IS WITH ARTIFICIAL CEMENTS only]
 CEMENT
 What are calcareous, siliceous, argillaceous materials
??????

 REMEMBER STONES ????????

 CEMENT

The grade of cement written on the bag refers to the COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH of
cement at 28 days.
Some definitions for better understanding
 Pulverize: Make into a powder by breaking up or causing to
become dust.
 Clinker: A hard brick used as paving stone. (resembling to
something very hard).
 Calcination: The process of heating a substance to a high
temperature but below the melting point, causing loss of moisture,
reduction on oxidation and dissociation into simpler substances.
 Soundness: property of hardened cement paste to NOT undergo
large change in volume. [UNSOUND IS OPPOSITE]
 Setting: Changing from liquid / plastic state to Solid /Rigid state.
However during this state the compressive strength is very low.
 Setting time: Time measured from the first instance when water is
added to the cement to the instance cement starts loosing its
plasticity.
 Hardening: The process of gain of strength with time is known as
hardening. It is found that ordinary cement achieves about 70% of
its final strength at 28 days and about 90% in 1 year.
 CONSTITUENTS OF CEMENT
Constituent % composition Importance

Lime 60% to 65% • Presence of lime in a sufficient

quantity is required to form silicates
(CaO) and aluminates of calcium.
Average 63 %
(major • Imparts the strength and
soundness of cement.
constituent)
• If in deficiency it reduces the
strength quickly and causes it to set
quickly.
• If present in excess it makes the
cement unsound, causes it to
expand and disintegrate.
 CONSTITUENTS OF CEMENT
Constituent % Importance
composition
17% to 25% • Sufficient quantity of silica should be
Silica present in cement to form dicalcium
(SiO2) and tricalcium silicate.
Average 20 % • Silica also imparts strength to cement.
• Excess though increases the strength
of cement but causes slow setting.

Alumina 3% to 8% • Imparts quick setting property to the

cement.
(Al2O3) • Further it acts as FLUX and helps in
Average 6% reducing the clinkering temperature
during burning of cement.
• Excess weakens the cement.
• It also generates high heat during
hydration.
 CONSTITUENTS OF CEMENT
Constituent % Importance
composition
Iron Oxide 0.5% to 6% • It imparts colour [Reddish
(Fe2O3) brown tint, grey tint],
Average 3%
strength, hardness,
toughness to cement.
• It also acts as a FLUX, and
also helps in fusion of
different ingredients in the
cement.
 CONSTITUENTS OF CEMENT
Constituent % Importance
composition
Magnesia 0.5% to 4% • It also imparts colour and
(MgO) hardness to cement.
Average 2%
• It gives yellowish tint to
cement.
• If in excess it makes
cement unsound, thus
reducing strength of
cement. [That is there is high
volume change during setting]
 CONSTITUENTS OF CEMENT
Constituent % Importance
composition
Alkalies Traces • Presence of alkalis in cement leads to
efflorescence and staining of
(Na2O, structures in which cement is used.
Average <
K2O) • This is due to the alkalis absorbing
1% moisture leading to development of
white-grey spots.
• Also higher alkali content of cement
when used in CONCRETE causes
ALKALI AGGREGATE REACTION,
causing cracks and overall collapse of
structure.
• Also accelerates setting time of
cement.
 CONSTITUENTS OF CEMENT
Constituent % Importance
composition
Sulphur 1% to 2% • It is responsible for inducing the
soundness [Change in volume] in
Trioxide the cement.
Average 1.5 %
(SO3)

Gypsum 3% to 4% • It helps in increasing the initial

(CaSO4.2H2O) setting time of cement.

It is added Average 4% • Thus cement does not set very

quickly and can be used for
separately
after clinkers
moulding in different shapes,
formation for required purposes.
 All these compounds are present in raw materials
(argillaceous and calcareous) which are put in kilns
[REMEMBER IN BRICKS] and final product obtained
[CALLED CLINKER] is pulverised to obtain ordinary
portland cement.
 Generally one bag of cement weighs 50 Kg.
Some definitions for better understanding
 Hydrolysis / Hydration: It is a chemical reaction of a compound with water,
usually resulting in the formation of one or more new compounds.
 Flash Set: The rapid development of rigidity in a freshly mixed Portland
cement paste, mortar, or concrete, usually with the evolution of considerable
heat. This rigidity cannot be dispelled, nor can the plasticity be regained, by
further mixing with or without addition of water.
 False set: The rapid development of rigidity in a freshly mixed portland
cement paste, mortar, or concrete without the generation of much heat; this
rigidity can be dispelled and plasticity regained by further mixing without
addition of water.
Either the formation of gypsum crystals or the excessive formation
of ettringite causes it.
 Ettringite:
 Ettringite is a hydrous calcium aluminium sulfate mineral. In the cement
system, the presence of ettringite depends on the ratio of calcium
sulfate to tri-calcium aluminate (C3A); when this ratio is low, ettringite
forms during early hydration and then converts to the calcium aluminate
monosulfate (AFm phase or (Al2O3-Fe2O3-mono)). Ettringite formation is
associated with expansion.
Some definitions for better understanding

 Concrete, usually Portland cement concrete, is a composite

material composed of fine and coarse aggregate bonded
together with a binder called cement (cement paste) that
hardens over time.
 Phase diagram of concrete can be shown below
AIR VOIDS

Cement (BINDER
MATERIAL)
TOTAL VOLUME OF
Fine aggregate CEMENT
(FILLER
MATERIAL)
Coarse aggregate
(PROVIDES THE
BASE)
 Few important points
 An increase in lime content beyond a certain value makes it difficult
to combine completely with other compounds.
 Consequently, free lime will exist in the clinker and will result in an
unsound cement. [AS LIME CONSEQUENTLY EXPAND]
 An increase in silica content at the expense of alumina and ferric
oxide makes the cement difficult to fuse and form clinker.
 When the development of heat of hydration is undesirable, the silica
content is increased to about 21%, and the alumina & iron oxide
contents are limited to 6% each.
 In adverse conditions (like construction at places near sea) where
resistance to the action of sulphate waters is required, silica content is
raised to 24% and reducing the alumina and iron contents in 4% each.
 Variation of cement (different types) largely depends on the ratio
of Lime to silica in the raw materials.
 The rate of setting of cement paste is controlled by regulating the
ratio of (Silica) /(Alumina + Iron oxide)
 BOGUES COMPOUNDS
 The major compounds formed when the raw materials
(Argillaceous and calcareous) are put in kiln, WHICH FUSE
TOGETHER, are known as BOGUES COMPOUNDS.
Principle compounds in Formula Name Symbol Average % of
Ordinary Portland compound
cement
Tri-Calcium Silicate 3CaO.SiO2 Alite C3S 45%
Di-Calcium Silicate 2CaO.SiO2 Belite C2S 35%
Tri-Calcium Aluminate 3CaO.Al2O3 Celite C3A 11%
Tetra Calcium Alumino 4CaO.Al2O3. Felite C4AF 9%
ferrite Fe2O3
 Besides two minor compounds are also formed (Na2O and K2O)
which play an important role in the ALKALI AGGREGATE
REACTION.
 Importance of BOUGES Compounds
TRI-CALCIUM SILICATE (C3S):
It is considered as best cementing material in well burnt cement.
 Hydrolysis of C3S mainly responsible for 7 days strength and
hardness. Thus it can be inferred that C3S reacts readily with water
and is responsible for early strength of Cement / Concrete.
 Rate of hydrolysis of C3S and the character of gel developed are
the main cause of hardness and EARLY STRENGTH OF CEMENT.
 Heat of Hydration is 500 J/gm.

 If any structure early development of strength is required

proportion of C3S in cement is increased.
 Examples: Pre fabricated concrete construction, Cold weather
concreting, where form work is to be reused for speedy
construction.
 Raising of C3S content beyond the specified limits increases heat
of hydration and solubility of cement in water.
 Importance of BOUGES Compounds
DI-CALCIUM SILICATE (C2S):
 It hydrates and hardens slowly and takes a long time to add to
strength (after a year or more), i.e. responsible for ULTIMATE
STRENGTH.
 At early ages, less than a month, C2S has little influence on
strength and hardness. While after one year, its contribution to the
strength and hardness is proportionately almost equal to C3S.
 Heat of hydration is 260 J/gm.

 If any structure strength is required in later stages proportion of

C2S is increased.
 Examples: Hydraulic structures, Bridges etc.,.

 Raising C2S content renders clinker harder to grind, reduces early

strength, decreases resistance to freezing and thawing at early ages
and decreases heat of hydration.
 Importance of BOUGES Compounds
TRI-CALCIUM ALUMINATE (C3A)
 On hydration, it rapidly reacts with water and is responsible for flash
set of finely grounded clinker. [It is the first compound which is formed
due to which early setting takes place]
 To control this rapidity of action, GYPSUM (3-4%) is added at the
time of grinding of clinker.
 It is responsible for almost in entirety for causing initial set, high heat
of hydration [MAXIMUM EVOLUTION OF HEAT] and has greater
tendency to volume changes causing cracking.
 Raising the C3A weakens resistance to sulphate attack and lowers the
ultimate strength, increases heat of hydration and contraction during
hardening.
 Heat of hydration is 865 J/gm.

 For Hydraulic structures, the cement used should have less C3A so that
less heat of hydration so that contraction during hardening does not
take place.
 Importance of BOUGES Compounds
TETRA CALCIUM ALUMINO FERRITE(C3AF)
 It has no specific purpose and is comparatively inactive,

i.e. does not play any important role in setting and

hardening process.
 It is also formed within 24 hrs of the addition of the

water in cement.
 It is also responsible for flash set but generates less

heat. It has poorest cementation value.

 Heat of Hydration 420 J/gm.
Contribution of strength to cement on
hydration by BOUGES COMPOUNDS
 Order of Heat of Hydration
[within 3 days] of various Bogues compounds

Tri-calcium Aluminate

Tri-calcium Silicate
Decreasing Order of
Heat of hydration

Tetra calcium alumina

ferrite

Di-calcium Silicate
 HYDRATION OF CEMENT
 When water is added to cement, a chemical
reaction between and cement takes place which is
known as hydration of cement.
 Heat liberated during this chemical reaction is
known as Heat of hydration. [EXOTHREMIC –
liberation of heat]
 It has been observed that the significant product of
hydration is (CaO.SiO2.H2O) which is called
Tobermorite gel and commonly referred to as
C-S-H gel.
 Hydration of Silicates
 Why is it important to learn about hydration of cement, especially
silicates? [Simply because silicates give strength to cement on hydration]
 From these two equations it can be seen that hydration of C3S produces lesser
C-S-H gel and more Ca(OH)2 as compared to the hydration of C2S.

Issues with Ca(OH)2 - It is not a desirable product, because

1) Soluble in water, gets leached out making the concrete porous, especially in hydraulic
structure.
2) Reacts with sulphate present in soil or water to form CaSO4 which further reacts
with C3A [Sulphates are very fond of Alumina] and causes deterioration of
concrete, which is known as SULPHATE ATTACK.
Note: However the only one advantage of Ca(OH)2 is that it is alkaline in nature,
(pH = 13) in Reinforced cement concrete and thus resists the corrosion in reinforcement.
Manufacturing
of
Cement
 Dry process
 This process is adopted when the raw material are quiet
hard.
 Limestone and clay are ground to fine powder separately
and are mixed.
 Water is added to make a thick paste and cakes of this
pate containing about 14 % of moisture are dried and are
charged into rotary kiln and the product obtained after
calcination in rotary kiln is called clinker.
 Clinker is obtained as a result of incipient fusion and
sintering at a temperature of about 1400oC.
 Clinker is then cooled and ground in tube mills, where
3 – 4% of gypsum is added so that the cement particles are
interfered with the process of hydration easily. Thus GYPSUM
RETARDS the SETTING TIME of cement.
Dry process – Flow diagram
Animation of Dry process manufacturing
 Wet process
 In the wet process Crushed raw materials are fed in to the ball mill and
a water is added.
 During the operation a ball mill, the steel balls in it pulverize the raw
materials which from a slurry with water.
 This slurry is passed to silos (storage tanks), where the proportioning
of the compounds is adjusted to ensure desired chemical composition.
 Corrected slurry having about 40% moisture content, is then fed into
rotary kiln where it uses moisture and forms into lumps or nodules.
 Then it is finally burned at 1400oC and nodules change to clinker at
this temperature. The Clinker is then cooled and then ground in tube
mills.
 While grinding the clinker, about 3 - 4% gypsum is added. GYPSUM
RETARDS the SETTING TIME of cement.
 The cement is then stored in silos from where it is supplied.
Wet process – Flow diagram
Animation of Wet process manufacturing
Comparison of Dry and Wet Process

 Dry process is considered to be economical as

compared to wet process because of LESS
CONSUMPTION OF FUEL in kiln.
 Advantages of the wet process are the low cost of
grinding raw materials, the accurate control of
composition and homogeneity of slurry.
 But longer kilns are required in wet process which
are more costly and less responsive to a variable
clinker demand than the short kilns which can be
used in dry process.
 TYPES OF CEMENT
1) Ordinary Portland cement
2) Rapid hardening cement
3) Extra rapid hardening cement
4) Quick setting cement
5) Low heat cement
6) Hydrophobic Cement (or) water repellent cement
7) Air Entraining Cement
8) High Alumina Cement
9) Sulphate resisting Cement
10) White or Coloured cement
11) Portland slag cement
12) Portland Pozzolana Cement
 ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT
 This is by far the most common cement in use: about 70 % of
all cement used in India is of the ordinary type.
 Prior to 1987, there was only one grade of OPC governed by IS
269: 1976. Only after 1987 the OPC was being classified into 3
grades as 33 grade, 43 grade, 53 grade.
 In modern construction activities, higher grade cement have
become so popular that 33 grade of cement is almost out of the
market.
 Although OPC are little costlier then low grade cement; they offer
many benefits like 10 – 20 % saving in cement consumption,
faster rate of development of strength and higher strength.
 OPC are generally recommended when there is no exposure to
sulphates in the soil or in ground water.
 RAPID HARDENING CEMENT
 As the name implies, it develops strength rapidly and therefore can be
called as high early strength cement. The rate of setting is same as that of
ordinary Portland cement.
 The strength of RHC at the age of 3 days is equal to the 7 days strength
of OPC with the same w/c ratio. The increased rate of gain of strength of
RHC is achieved by a higher C3S Content and by finer grinding of clinker.
 The rapid gain of strength is accomplished by a high rate of heat
evolution and hence it should NOT be used in mass concrete
constructions like concrete gravity dam, concrete retaining walls.
 The Use of RHC is recommended in the following situations
 In pre-fabricated concrete construction

 For Road repair works

 Where form-work is required to be removed early for re-use elsewhere.

 In Cold weather concreting [as reaction between water and cement slows
down]
EXTRA RAPID HARDENING CEMENT [ERHC] (OR)
ULTRA RAPID HARDENING PORTLAND CEMENT
 This cement is obtained by intergrading admixture calcium
chloride (CaCl2) with RHC.
 The quantity of calcium chloride however should not exceed
2 %. If this limit is breached it causes excessive shrinkage of
concrete which causes cracks in set concrete.
 It is necessary that the concrete made by using extra rapid
hardening cement should be transported, placed,
compacted and finished within 20 min.
 The cement must be stored under dry conditions and should
generally be used within one month of dispatch from the
factory.
 This type of cement is suitable for very cold weather
concreting. It is also suitable where a very high early
strength is required.
 QUICK SETTING CEMENT
 This cement sets very early but does not gain strength early.
 The early setting property is brought out by reducing the gypsum content
at the time clinker grinding. Further the clinker is grinded much finer than
OPC.
 Also sometimes aluminum sulphate is added to accelerate the setting
process.
 It contains higher percentage of C3A. It is required at places where
mixing, placing and compaction are required at an early stage.
 Initial setting time = 5 min, Final setting time = 30 min, but does not
harden quickly.
 The use of quick setting cement is recommended under the following
conditions:
 Under Water Construction.

 Grouting operations.
 LOW HEAT CEMENT
 The reaction of cement with water is exothermic and produces a
considerable quantity of heat.
 Thus such rise in temperature in the interior of a large concrete mass due
to the heat of hydration, can lead to serious cracks.
 A low heat evolution is achieved by reducing the content of more
hydrating compounds like C3A and C3S and increasing C2S.
 For low heat cement the rate of gain of strength is slow but the ultimate
strength is the same as that of ordinary Portland cement.
 The use of low-heat cement is recommended in the following situations:
 Mass Concrete Construction
 Where it is necessary to produce resistance to sulphate attack.
 Hot weather concreting [increased potential for plastic shrinkage cracking,
thermal cracking & potential strength reduction due to high water demand
and high curing temperatures
 SULPHATE RESISTING CEMENT
Why required ? [REASON IS SULPHATE ATTACK]
 Ordinary Portland Cement is susceptible to the attack of
sulphates, in particular to the action of magnesium sulphate.
 Sulphates react both with the free calcium hydroxide in set cement

to form calcium sulphate and with hydrate of calcium aluminate to

form calcium sulphoaluminate, the volume of which is about
227% of the volume of the original aluminates.
 Their expansion within the framework of hardened cement paste

results in cracks and subsequent disruption. This phenomenon is

known as sulphate attack.
 Thus we require cement which arrests this sulphate attack.

[Sulphate resisting cement]

 Contd…
 Sulphate resisting cement is very similar to OPC except the quantity
of C3A which is the least stable compound is strictly limited to
about 5 %. [Normally 11 %] The low C3A content and
comparatively low C4AF content in sulphate resisting cement give it a
high strength. [REMEMBER SILICATES ONLY GIVE STRENGTH]
 The heat of hydration is not much higher than that of low heat cement.
 The use of Sulphate resisting cement is recommended under the
following conditions
 Concrete to be used in marine conditions

 Concrete to be used in the construction of sewer treatment plant.

 Concrete used for fabrication and basement where soil is infested

with sulphates.
 Concrete to be used in the construction of chemical industry.
 SUPER SULPHATED CEMENT (GGBFS cement –
Ground Granulated Blast furnace slag)
 This cement is manufactured by intergrinding well-granulated blast furnace
slag [Mostly sililcates], a waste by product of Steel industry (not less than
70%) and together with small quantity of Portland cement. In this cement
C3A which is susceptible to sulphates is limited to less than 3.5 %.
 Sulphate resisting cement may also be produced by the addition of extra
iron oxide before firing; this combines with alumina which would otherwise
form C3A, instead forming C4AF which is not that affected by sulphates.
 It is highly resistant to chemical attack and has less heat of hydration.
 The use of super sulphated cement is recommended under the following
conditions:
 In foundations, where chemically aggressive condition exists.

 In marine works.

 RCC pipes likely to be used in sulphate bearing soils.

 Mass Concreting.
 PORTLAND POZZOLANA CEMENT
 Manufactured by grinding Portland cement clinker and pozzolana
(Usually fly ash 10 – 30 % by mass of PPC) and uniformly blending the
materials.
 Pozzolana is a volcanic powder found in ITALY near Vesuvius.
 Pozzolana (burnt clay or shale or fly ash) has no cementing properties of
itself but has the property of combining with lime to produce a stable
lime-pozzolana compound [Ca(OH)2 reacts with pozzolana forming
calcium hydrosilicate] which has definite cementitious properties.
[REMEMBER C-S-H Gel, here you get secondary C-S-H gel]
 Free lime present in cement is thus removed and hence resistance to chemical
attack increases making it suitable for marine works.
 These have a low rate of development of strength but ultimate strength is
comparable with OPC.
 It has a low heat of evolution and thus used at places of mass concrete such
as dams and in places of high temperature
WHITE OR COLORED CEMENT (WHITE CEMENT)
 The Grayish color of Portland is due to the presence of Iron Oxide. The Process
of manufacturing of white cement is the same as that of Portland cement but the
amount of iron oxide is limited to less than 1 %. [Generally 3 %]
 The kind of limestone required for manufacturing white cement is only
available near Jodhpur in Rajasthan.
 The raw material used are high purity lime stone (96 % CaCO3 and less than
0.07 % Iron oxide) [GIVES WHITE CEMENT]
 Sodium alumino ferrite (Cryolite) is added during burning which acts as catalyst
in place of iron oxide.
 Colored cement consists of Portland Cement with 5 -10 % of pigment like
 Chromium oxide gives green color, Cobalt imparts blue color, Manganese di
oxide imparts black or brown color.
 The following are the use of White/ Colored Cement:
 To fill joints of Glazed tiles in W.C. Bathrooms, kitchens & terrazzo flooring,
ordinary flooring.
 HYDROPHOBIC CEMENT
 Hydrophobic Cement is obtained by adding water repellant film forming
substances such as oleic acid, stearic acid and pentachlorophenol to OPC
clinkers at the time of grinding.
 The water-repellant film formed around each grain of cement, prevents
the entry of atmosphere moisture and reduces the rate of deterioration
of the cement during long storage, transport or under unfavorable
conditions. [ESPECIALLY IN HUMID CLIMATIC CONDITIONS]
 The film is broken out when the cement and aggregate are mixed
together at the mixer exposing the cement particles for normal
hydration.
 The film forming water-repellant substance will entrain certain amount
of air in the body of concrete which will improve the workability of
concrete.
 The cement is mostly used in basement construction and water tight
concrete.
 AIR ENTRAINING CEMENT
 Air entraining cement is made by mixing a small amount of an air- entraining agent
with OPC clinkers at the time of grinding.
 The main air-entraining agent used are:
 Alkali salts of wood resins.
 Calcium salts of glues and other proteins.
 Animal and vegetable fats, oils etc.
 Bleaching Powder, Hydrogen Peroxide
 The air entraining agents may be used in powder or in liquid forms to the extent of
0.025 – 1.0 percent.
 Air-entraining agents will produce at the time of mixing, tiny discrete non-
coalesceing air bubbles in the mass of concrete which will modify the properties of
 plastic concrete with respect to workability, segregation and bleeding.
 hardened concrete with respect to resistance in frost action and reduction in density.
 This Cement is used to produce light weight Concrete. [Foam concrete is using foam
instead of above air-entraining agents. Here foam is of 20 % volume.]
 HIGH ALUMINA CEMENT
 High alumina cement is obtained by fusing or sintering of
limestone and bauxite (40 %) [CHIEF ORE OF ALUMINIUM].
 This cement is very different in its composition and also in some
properties from Portland cements [WHICH CONSISTS OF CALCIUM
SILICATES but here we have CALCIUM ALUMINATES] so that its
structural use is severally limited but the concreting techniques are
similar.
 The main active constituent of calcium aluminate cements is
monocalcium aluminate (CaO · Al2O3 or CA). Since C3A is not
present it has good resistance to attack to chemical attack
(Sulphates attack)
 It is also known as aluminous cement or aluminate cement.
 Contd..
 The uses of high alumina cement are
 Under sea and Sub-sea works

 Refractory concrete

 Widely used for Pre-casting

 Sewer pipe networks

 Twice the amount of water, required for OPC is necessary for full
hydration of high alumina cement and the workability is quiet
high.
 It should not be mixed with OPC or other cements to avoid flash set.
 OTHER TYPES OF CEMENT
13) Masonry cement
14) Water Proof cement
15) Expanding cement
16) Oil well cement
17) Acid resistant cement
18) Natural cement

And the list goes on and

on………
Pictures for clarity of students

Form work with

Form work with Steel
wooden bamboo
Pictures for clarity of students

Cement / Concrete
Cement bags in CBIT
works in CBIT
 FIELD TESTS ON CEMENT
Mostly give a rough indication of the quality of cement.
 Date of Manufacturing

 Colour

 Presence of lumps

 Temperature check

 Physical properties

 Smoothness test

 Water sinking test

 Strength of cement
 FIELD TESTS ON CEMENT
 Date of Manufacturing: As the strength of cement reduces with
age, the date of manufacturing of cement bags should be
checked.
 Cement Color: The color of cement should be uniform. It should
be typical cement color i.e. gray color with a light greenish
shade. This is not always a reliable test. But it gives an
indication of excess lime or clay and degree of burning.
 Presence of lumps: Cement should be free from any hard
lumps. Such lumps are formed by the absorption of moisture
from the atmosphere. Any bag of cement containing such lumps
should be rejected.
 FIELD TESTS ON CEMENT
 Physical properties:
 Temperature Inside Cement Bag: If the hand is plunged into a
bag of cement, it should be cool inside the cement bag. If
hydration reaction takes place inside the bag, it will become
warm.
 Smoothness Test: When cement is touched or rubbed in between
fingers, it should give a smooth feeling. If it felt rough, it indicates
adulteration with sand.
 Water Sinking Test: If a small quantity of cement is thrown into the
water, it should sink without floating on the surface of water.
 The Cement Paste: A thin paste of cement with water should feel
sticky between the fingers. If the cement contains too much-
pounded clay and silt as an adulterant, the paste will give an
earthy smell.
 FIELD TESTS ON CEMENT
 Strength:
The strength of cement can be roughly ascertained by the
following ways.

 Block Test: A 25mm × 25mm × 200mm block of cement with

water is made. The block is then immersed in water for seven
days. After removing, it is supported 150mm apart and it is
loaded with a weight of 340 N. If it shows no sign of failure
the cement is good.
 Glass Plate Test: A thick paste of cement with water is made
on a piece of a glass plate and it is kept under water for 24
hours. It should set and not crack.
LABORATORY TESTS ON CEMENT

These are exhaustive tests carried out in laboratory to

decide precisely the quality of cement. The
representative samples should be such that
 When the cement is loose: It should be taken from

atleast 12 points from heap or heaps of cement.

 When cement is in bags: It should be taken from

atleast 12 different bags or packages.

LABORATORY TESTS ON CEMENT
Laboratory tests
The following are the laboratory tests conducted on cement
 Fineness test

 Consistency test, Initial setting test & Final setting test

 Soundness test

 Determination of strength

 Specific gravity test

 Chemical composition test

 Loss on ignition test

 FINENESS TEST ON CEMENT
 The degree of fineness of cement is the measure of the mean size of the
grains in it. There are three methods for testing fineness:
 Sieve method

 Air permeability method

 Wagner turbidimeter method [Sedimentation method]

 The last two methods measure the surface area, whereas the first measures
grain size.
Which is the best method to measure degree of fineness out of the two ???
 Since cement grains are finer than 90 micron [SIEVE NO 9], the sieve analysis
method does not represent true mean size of cement grains. Also, the tiny
cement grains tend to conglomerate into lumps resulting in distortion in the
final grain size distribution curves. Considering these demerits, fineness is
generally expressed in terms of specific area, which is the total surface area of
the particles in unit weight of material. (cm2 / gm)
Fineness of various types of cement
Specific surface area not
Type of cement
less than (cm2 / gm)
Ordinary Portland cement [OPC] 2250

Rapid hardening cement [RHC] 3250

Portland pozzolana cement [PPC] 3000

High Alumina cement 2250

 Importance of fineness of cement ??
 Finer the cement, more is the strength since surface area for
hydration will be large. With increase in fineness, the early
development of strength is enhanced but the ultimate strength
is not affected.
 Ok then, can I continuously increase fineness of
cement ??
 However, if the cement is ground beyond a certain limit, its
cementative properties are affected due to the prehydration
by atmospheric moisture.
 Finer cement reacts more strongly in alkali reactive aggregate.
 Also, the water requirement and workability will be more
leading to higher drying shrinkage and cracking.
 Sieve test
 100 g of cement sample is taken and air-set lumps,
if any, in the sample are broken with fingers.
 The sample is placed on a 90 micron sieve or
Sieve no. 9 and continuously sieved for 15 minutes.
The residue should not exceed the limits specified
below:
 Blain’s Air permeability test
 Principle of air permeability method is in observing
the time taken for a fixed quantity of air to flow
through compacted cement bed of specified
dimension and porosity.
 The fineness of cement is represented by specific
surface, i.e. total surface area in cm2 per gram or
m2 per kilogram of cement and is measured by air
permeability apparatus or by wagner
turbidimeter.
 The higher the specific surface is, the finer cement
will be.
Picture of Blain’s air permeability test
apparatus
Animation of Blain’s air permeability test
 CONSISTENCY TEST
 This test is to estimate the quantity of mixing water to
form a paste of normal consistency. It is determined
using VICAT’S APPARATUS.
Question is what is normal consistency ??
 Normal consistency is defined as that percentage water
requirement of the cement paste, the viscosity of which will
be such that the Vicat’s plunger penetrates up to a point
5 to 7 mm from the bottom of the Vicat’s mould.
Importance of the test
 The water requirement for VARIOUS TESTS of cement
depends on the normal consistency of the cement, which itself
depends upon the compound composition and fineness of the
cement.
 Generally the normal consistency for OPC ranges from
26 % to 33 %.
 Vicat’s apparatus description
 Vicat’s Apparatus
 It consists of a frame to which is attached a movable rod having
diameter and length 10 mm and 50mm respectively.
 An indicator is attached to the movable rod, on which the indicator
moves on a vertical scale and it gives the penetration reading.
 Vicat mould is in the form of a cylinder and it can be split into two
halves.
 There are three attachments, PLUNGER, SQUARE NEEDLE and
NEEDLE WITH ANNULAR COLLAR, can be attached to movable rod.
Vicat’s apparatus figure
Schematic sketch for initial setting time test

Reading for Normal consistency.

 Initial setting time (IST) test
 The cement weighting 300 gm is taken and make a
cement paste of 0.85P.
 The cement paste is filled in the vicat mould
 SQUARE NEEDLE 1 x 1 mm2 is attached to the
moving rod of the vicat apparauts
 The needle is quickly released and it is allowed to
penetrate the cement paste.
 When the needle penetrates only 5 to 7mm from
the bottom, it shows that test is complete.
 Initial setting time should not be less than 30 min
for OPC.
 Final setting time (FST) test
 The cement weighting 300 gm is taken and make a
cement paste of 0.85P.
 The cement paste is filled in the vicat mould
 NEEDLE with ANNULAR COLLAR is attached to the
moving rod of the vicat apparauts, in place of SQUARE
NEEDLE.
 The needle is gently released.
 The time at which the needle makes an impression on
the test block and the collar fails to do so is noted.
 Final setting time should not be more than 600 min
(10 hours) for OPC.
Why do we do initial and final setting
time tests?
 It is essential that cement set (CHANGE FROM PLASTIC
STATE TO SOLID STATE) neither too rapidly nor too slowly.
 In the first case there might be insufficient time to transport
and place the concrete before it becomes too rigid.
 In the second case too long a setting period tends to slow up
the work unduly, also it might postpone the actual use of the
structure because of inadequate strength at the desired
age.
 Initial setting time duration is required to delay the process
of hydration or hardening. During this time it is possible to
remix the paste several times.
 Final setting time is the time when the paste completely loses
its plasticity. Determination of final setting time period
facilitates safe removal of scaffolding or form work.
 SOUNDNESS TEST
 Question is what is soundness of cement?
 The ability of cement to retain its volume after it gets hardened is
known as Soundness of Cement. That means the cement should be at
minimum volume change after it gets hardened.
 The main cause for unsoundness in Portland cement is the
hydration of the uncombined lime encased within the cement
particles.
 The test conducted to identify the excess amount of lime in
cement and magnesia which causes the cement to expand once it
has hardened.
 Thus the purpose of this test is to detect the change in volume of
cement after setting.
 Soundness of cement is tested by LE-CHATELIER METHOD or
AUTOCLAVE METHOD.
 It is very important test to assure the quality of cement since an
unsound cement produces cracks, distortion and disintegration,
ultimately leading to failure.
Le-chatelier apparatus figure
 Soundness Test procedure by
Le-chatelier apparatus
 Cement paste is prepared with 100 gm of cement sample +
0.78P (P = water required to give a paste of standard
consistency)
 A mould of 30mm diameter and height 30mm is placed on glass
plate and it is filled by cement paste.
 Now mould is covered with a glass sheet and small weight is placed
on the covering glass sheet.
 Mould is then submerged in water for 24hrs at temperature of
27 – 32oC. The distance separating the indicator points is measured.
 Mould is again submerged in water in such a way that boiling point
of water is reached in 25 to 30min and water is now boiled for
3 hours.
 Difference between the two measurements represents the
unsoundness of cement.
 Observations from Soundness Test
 For OPC cement the expansion of indicator points
shall not be more than 10mm.
 Drawbacks of the Le-chatlier’s method method:
 The Le-chatlier’s method detects unsoundness due to
free lime only.
 The excess of magnesia and sulphates is NOT
detected.
 Soundness Test procedure by
Autoclave test
 The 25 × 25 × 250 mm specimen is made with neat
cement paste. After 24 hours the moulded specimen,
length of the specimen is measured.
 Then it is placed in an autoclave [A CONTAINER
WHERE BOTH HEAT AND PRESSURE CAN BE
SIMULTANEOUSLY APPLIED] and are exposed to
saturated steam under pressure and subsequently
cooled.
 The length of the specimen is measured again. The
difference in the two measurements gives the
unsoundness of the cement.
 Water content for various tests
NAME OF TEST AMOUNT OF WATER
REQUIRED

Soundness 0.78 P (P = Standard

(Le-chatelier method) Consistency of standard cement
paste)
Setting time 0.85 P (P = Standard
(Both INITIAL and FINAL setting time by Consistency of standard cement
VICAT’S APPARATUS) paste)
Compressive strength

with combined mass of cement

and sand (1:3 ratio mix)
 Calculation of Standard consistency
for cement
Calculate percentage of water (P) by weight of dry
cement required to prepare cement paste of
standard consistency by following formula, and
express it to the first place of decimal.

Where,
W = Quantity of water added
C = Quantity of cement used
Thus, consistency refers to the relative mobility of a
freshly mixed cement paste or its ability to flow.
 Calculation of amount of water to be added
for standard consistency test
 The percentage of water is added for soundness test is “P”.

 Calculate the amount of water to be added for standard

consistency test for a cement quantity of 1 Kg:

Given,
Cement =1000 g or 1Kg
Assume that standard consistency of is 25 %.
Water required = P × Wt. of cement
= 0.25 × 1000
= 250 ml of water to be added. (1 gm = 1 ml for water)
 Calculation of amount of water to be added
for Initial / final setting time test
 The percentage of water is added for initial / final
setting time is “0.85 P”
 Calculate the amount of water to be added for initial /
final setting time test for a cement quantity of 1 Kg:

Given,
Cement =1000 g or 1Kg
Assume that standard consistency of is 25 %.
Water required = 0.85 x P x Wt. of cement
=0.85 x 0.25 x 1000
=212.5 ml of water to be added (1 gm = 1 ml for water)
 Calculation of amount of water to be added
for Soundness test
 The percentage of water is added for soundness test is
“0.78 P”
 Calculate the amount of water to be added for
Soundness test for a cement quantity of 1 Kg:

Given,
Cement =1000 g or 1Kg
Assume that standard consistency of is 25 %.
Water required = 0.78 x P × Wt. of cement
=0.78 × 0.25 × 1000
=195 ml of water to be added (1 gm = 1 ml for water)
 Calculation of amount of water to be added
for Compressive strength
 The percentage of water is added for test is
 Calculate the amount of water to be added for
Compressive strength test for a cement + sand
quantity of 0.8 Kg:

Given,
Cement =800 g or 0.8 Kg [Cement = 200g, Sand = 600g]
Assume that standard consistency of is 25 %.
Water required = ( P/4 + 3 )/100 × Wt. of cement +
sand
= (0.25/4 + 3 )/100 × 800
= 74 ml of water to be added (1 gm = 1 ml for water)
Compressive strength test on cement
 Compressive strength is the basic data required for mix design.
By this test, the quality and the quantity of cement / concrete can
be controlled.
 The test specimens are 70.6 mm cubes.
 A mixture of cement and standard sand in the proportion 1:3 by
weight is mixed with water until the mixture is of uniform color.
 Question is why we use sand and not only cement?
 Due to high heat of hydration of cement, large size specimen cubes
cannot be made since cement shrinks and thermal cracks may
develop.
 Sand is added to prevent shrinkage and development of cracks in
mortar.
 Three specimen cubes are prepared. The material for each cube
is mixed separately.
 Contd..
 The mould is filled completely with the cement paste and is
placed on the vibration table. Vibrations are imparted for
about 2 minutes at a speed of 12000±400 per minute. The
cubes are then removed from the moulds and submerged in
clean fresh water for 28days and are taken out just prior to
testing in a compression testing machine.
 The load is applied starting from zero at a rate of 35 N/sq
mm/minute. The compressive strength is calculated from the
crushing load divided by the average area over which the
load is applied. The result is expressed in N/mm2.
 Compressive strength is taken to be the average of the results
of the three cubes.
Comparisons of Compressive strengths
of various types of cement
CEMENT TYPE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (MPa)
1 Day 3 Days 7 Days 28 Days
OPC (33) — 16 22 33
OPC (43) — 23 33 43
OPC (53) — 27 27 53
PPC — 16 22 33
RHPC 16 27 - -
Low Heat - 10 16 35
 Tensile strength test
 The tensile strength may be determined by Briquette
test method or by split tensile strength test.
 Importance of the test:
 The tensile strength of cement affords quicker indications
of defects in the cement than any other test. Also, the test is
more conveniently made than the compressive strength test.
Moreover, since the flexural [BENDING] strength, is directly
related to the tensile strength this test is ideally suited to
give information both with regard to tensile and
compressive strengths when the supply for material testing
is small.
 Ordinary Portland cement [OPC] should have a tensile
strength of not less than 2.0 N/mm2 after 3 days and
not less than 2.5 N/mm2 after 7 days.
Figures showing Briquette Tensile test for cement
Figures showing Split Tensile test for cement
 Specific gravity test
 Specific gravity of cements is obtained by using
LE-CHATELIER’S FLASK.
 Generally specific gravity of OPC = 3.15
 Used for calculating the quantities of cement used in
various design mixes.
 Chemical Composition Test
Chemical composition Remarks
Ratio of percentage alumina to that should not be less than 0.66.
of iron oxide

LIME SATURATION FACTOR (ratio of should be between 0.66 to 1.02 when

percentage of lime to those of calculated using the formula
alumina, iron oxide and silica)
𝑪𝒂𝑶 − 𝟎. 𝟕 𝑺𝑶𝟑
𝟐. 𝟖 𝑺𝒊𝑶𝟐 + 𝟏. 𝟐 𝑨𝒍𝟐 𝑶𝟑 + 𝟎. 𝟔𝟓 𝑭𝒆𝟐 𝑶𝟑
Total loss on ignition should not be greater than 4%.
Total sulphur content should not be greater than 2.75 %.
(calculated as SO3)
Weight of insoluble residue should not be greater than 1.50 %

Weight of magnesia should not exceed 5%.

 Loss on ignition test
 1 g of the sample is heated for 15 minutes in a weighed
and covered platinum crucible [NOTHING BUT A CUP] of
20 to 25 ml capacity by placing it in a muffle furnace at
any temperature between 900° and 1000°C.
 It is then cooled and weighed.
 The loss in the weight is recorded as the loss on ignition
and the percentage of loss on ignition is calculated.
 The percentage loss on ignition should not exceed
4 per cent.
 A high loss on ignition can indicate pre-hydration
(presence of moisture) which may be caused by
improper and prolonged storage or adulteration during
transport or transfer.
 STORAGE OF CEMENT
 Cement should be placed in godowns in such that it does not
come into contact with moist air or moisture. If cement comes into
contact with moist air then it forms big lumps.
 If more than 2% of water / moisture is absorbed by cement, the
hardening time is retarded and the strength is reduced.
 If the absorption exceeds 5%, the cement is ruined.
 The best method of storing for over a year is to keep it in bulk in
bins 2m deep. Loose cement is thus stored in SILOS.
 Bagged cement [POLYTHENE BAGS] can be kept for months if
stored in weatherproof shed with dry floor well above the
ground level and the surrounding areas well drained.
 Cement in jute bags should be used with 3 months and if it has
been kept for longer periods, the setting and strength properties
should be tested before use.
Pics of cement storage in silo bins
Pics of bagged cement storage
 Difference between Hydraulic and
Non hydraulic cement
 Hydraulic cement is one which sets in the presence
of water. Thus it can be extensively used in water
and does not get dissolved in water.
 Example include OPC, PPC.
 Non hydraulic cement is one which sets in the
presence of air [CARBON DI OXIDE – by process
called carbonation]. For gaining strength it has to
stay completely dry.
 Forexample slaked lime [Ca(OH)2] reacts with CO2 to
become CaCO3
 THANK YOU
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Now, Lets try to test your memory on
OLD TOPICS

Aggregate impact value test gives an indication of aggregate's toughness property

(i.e. property of a material to resist impact, not gradual wearing of aggregate)
MCQ’s
 Conventional questions
1) Name and explain the ingredients functions in the
cement
2) Name any 5 important types of cement, and write a
short note about each one of them ?
3) What is use of rapid hardening cement ?
4) Explain the following
1) Quick setting cement
2) Colored cement
3) Hydrophobic Cement
5) Why do we use of sulphate resisting cement ? Briefly
describe about it.
6) What is meant by blast furnace slag cement ?
 Conventional questions
 1)
 2)
 3)
 4)

 5)

 6)
 Conventional questions
 7)

 8)
 9)

 10)
 11)
 12) Describe the manufacture of cement
 By Dry process
 By Wet process