SIX MAJOR PSYCHOLOGICAL

THEORIES

SUBMITTED TO: JOSEPHINE CHAVEZ

SUBMITTED BY: ELMER MACASLING
A BRIEF HISTORY OF PSYCHOANALYSIS THEORY

Sigmund Freud was the founder of psychoanalysis and the psychodynamic approach to

psychology. Freud believed that the human mind was composed of three elements: the id, the

ego, and the superego.Freud's theories of psychosexual stages, the unconscious, and dream

symbolism are still popular among both psychologists and laypeople, but others view his work

with skepticism.Many of Freud's observations and theories were based on clinical cases and case

studies. This made his findings difficult to generalize to the larger population. Still, Freud's

theories changed how we think about the human mind and behavior and left a lasting mark on

psychology and culture.Erik Erikson is another theorist associated with psychoanalysis. Erikson

expanded on Freud's theories and stressed the importance of growth throughout the lifespan.

Erikson's psychosocial stage theory of personality remains influential today in our understanding

of human development.According to the American Psychoanalytic Association (APsaA),

psychoanalysis can help people understand themselves by exploring their unrecognized impulses

that are hidden in the unconscious.2

Today, psychoanalysis encompasses:

Applied psychoanalysis (which applies psychoanalytic principles to the study of art, literature,

and real-world settings and situations)Neuro-psychoanalysis (which applies neuroscience to

psychoanalytic topics such as dreams and repression)Psychoanalytic therapyMany of the

criticisms of psychodynamic approaches are based on the earlier Freudian approaches to

treatment. More recently, however, research has demonstrated that this approach can have a

number of benefits.3 While traditional Freudian approaches have fallen out of favor, modern

approaches to psychoanalytic therapy emphasize a non-judgmental and empathetic approach.

In psychotherapy, people are able to feel safe as they explore feelings, desires, memories, and

stressors that can lead to psychological difficulties. Research has demonstrated that the self-

examination utilized in the psychoanalytic process can contribute to long-term emotional growth.

Psychoanalysis is a theory discovered by Sigmund Freud and Eric Erickson. The discipline was
established in 1980. Psychoanalysis is a set of theories and therapeutic techniques. The theory
created by Freud and Erickson is a study of the unconscious mind, which deals with mental
health disorders. Sigmund Freud’s main theories of the psycho sexual stage are as followed:

Oral stage (birth to 18 months) between this age ranges the child becomes focused and situated
on sucking.

Anal stage (18 months to 3 years) Derived from controlling bladder and bowel movements.

Phallic stage (3 years to 6 years) the libido (desire) centers upon his or her genitalia as the
erogenous zone.

Latency stage (6 years to puberty) Sexual urges play a large roll on the child/teen.

Genital (puberty on wards) an individual switches interests to the opposite sex.

Erik Erickson expresses that eight different stages are present in the human’s development
changes, each and every one of Erickson’s stages express crisis or conflict that must be resolved
at some point in time. Erik’s eight stages are:

Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1) Babies learn to trust their parents as well as others involved in their lives.

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (2-3) Toddlers begin to develop independence.

Initiative vs. Guilt (4-6) Children learn more independence and start to do things on their own.

Industry (competence) vs. Inferiority (7-12) Children begin developing self-confidence.

Identity vs. Role Confusion (13-19) Teenagers begin to care about what others think of them.

Intimacy vs. Isolation (20-35) Adults tend to fall in love, get married and start a family.

Generativity vs. Stagnation (35-65) longest point of a human’s life.

Ego Integrity vs. Despair (65+) Begin to look back on there life.

Freud, the wise man that he was, decided that human psychoanalysis is split into three main and
organized parts. His three main parts are:
The ID: instincts: devil: your wants in life.

The Ego: reality: human: your reality in life.

The Super Ego: morality: angel: you doing the right thing in life
 A Brief History of Behaviorism
Behaviorism was formally established with the 1913 publication of John B. Watson's classic
paper, "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It."3 It is best summed up by the following quote
from Watson, who is often considered the "father" of behaviorism:"Give me a dozen healthy
infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take
any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select—doctor, lawyer,
artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants,
tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors."Simply put, strict behaviorists believe
that all behaviors are the result of experience. Any person, regardless of his or her background,
can be trained to act in a particular manner given the right conditioning.From about 1920 through
the mid-1950s, behaviorism grew to become the dominant school of thought in psychology.
Some suggest that the popularity of behavioral psychology grew out of the desire to establish
psychology as an objective and measurable science.At this time, researchers were interested in
creating theories that could be clearly described and empirically measured but also used to make
contributions that might have an influence on the fabric of everyday human lives.

Key Concepts

There are several principles that distinguish behavioral psychology from other psychological
approaches.

Two Types of Conditioning

According to behavioral psychology, there are two major types of conditioning, classical
conditioning and operant conditioning.

Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is a technique frequently used in behavioral training in which a neutral

stimulus is paired with a naturally occurring stimulus. Eventually, the neutral stimulus comes to
evoke the same response as the naturally occurring stimulus, even without the naturally
occurring stimulus presenting itself.

Throughout the course of three distinct phases, the associated stimulus becomes known as the
conditioned stimulus and the learned behavior is known as the conditioned response.4

How Classical Conditioning Works

Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a method of
learning that occurs through reinforcements and punishments. Through operant conditioning, an
association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior.

When a desirable result follows an action, the behavior becomes more likely to occur again in
the future. Responses followed by adverse outcomes, on the other hand, become less likely to
happen again in the future
 BRIEF HISTORY OF COGNITIVISM

Cognitivism, like behaviorism, emphasizes the role that environmental conditions play in
facilitating learning. Instructional explanations, demonstrations, illustrative examples and
matched non-examples are all considered to be instrumental in guiding student learning.
Similarly, emphasis is placed on the role of practice with corrective feedback. Up to this point,
little difference can be detected between these two theories. However, the “active” nature of the
learner is perceived quite differently. The cognitive approach focuses on the mental activities of
the learner that lead up to a response and acknowledges the processes of mental planning, goal-
setting, and organizational strategies (Shuell, 1986). Cognitive theories contend that
environmental “cues” and instructional components alone cannot account for all the learning that
results from an instructional situation. Additional key elements include the way that learners
attend to, code, transform, rehearse, store and retrieve information. Learners’ thoughts, beliefs,
attitudes, and values are also considered to be influential in the learning process (Winne, 1985).
The real focus of the cognitive approach is on changing the learner by encouraging him/her to
use appropriate learning strategies.

WHAT IS THE ROLE OF MEMORY?

As indicated above, memory is given a prominent role in the learning process. Learning results
when information is stored in memory in an organized, meaningful manner. Teachers/designers
are responsible for assisting learners in organizing that information in some optimal way.
Designers use techniques such as advance organizers, analogies, hierarchical relationships, and
matrices to help learners relate new information to prior knowledge. Forgetting is the inability to
retrieve information from memory because of interference, memory loss, or missing or
inadequate cues needed to access information.

HOW DOES TRANSFER OCCUR?

According to cognitive theories, transfer is a function of how information is stored in memory

(Schunk, 1991). When a learner understands how to apply knowledge in different contexts, then
transfer has occurred. Understanding is seen as being composed of a knowledge base in the form
of rules, concepts, and discriminations (Duffy & Jonassen, 1991). Prior knowledge is used to
establish boundary constraints for identifying the similarities and differences of novel
information. Not only must the knowledge itself be stored in memory but the uses of that
knowledge as well. Specific instructional or real-world events will trigger particular responses,
but the learner must believe that the knowledge is useful in a given situation before he will
activate it.
WHAT TYPES OF LEARNING ARE BEST EXPLAINED BY THIS POSITION?

Because of the emphasis on mental structures, cognitive theories are usually considered more
appropriate for explaining complex forms of learning (reasoning, problem-solving, information-
processing) than are those of a more behavioral perspective (Schunk, 1991). However, it is
important to indicate at this point that the actual goal of instruction for both of these viewpoints
is often the same: to communicate or transfer knowledge to the students in the most efficient,
effective manner possible (Bednar et al., 1991). Two techniques used by both camps in achieving
this effectiveness and efficiency of knowledge transfer are simplification and standardization.
That is, knowledge can be analyzed, decomposed, and simplified into basic building blocks.
Knowledge transfer is expedited if irrelevant information is eliminated. For example, trainees
attending a workshop on effective management skills would be presented with information that
is “sized” and “chunked” in such a way that they can assimilate and/or accommodate the new
information as quickly and as easily as possible. Behaviorists would focus on the design of the
environment to optimize that transfer, while cognitivists would stress efficient processing
strategies.

WHAT BASIC ASSUMPTIONS/PRINCIPLES OF THIS THEORY ARE RELEVANT

TO INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN?

Many of the instructional strategies advocated and utilized by cognitivists are also emphasized
by behaviorists, yet usually for different reasons. An obvious commonality is the use of
feedback. A behaviorist uses feedback (reinforcement) to modify behavior in the desired
direction, while cognitivists make use of feedback (knowledge of results) to guide and support
accurate mental connections (Thompson, Simonson, & Hargrave, 1992).

Learner and task analyses are also critical to both cognitivists and behaviorists, but once again,
for different reasons. Cognitivists look at the learner to determine his/her predisposition to
learning (i.e., How does the learner activate, maintain, and direct his/her learning?) (Thompson
et al., 1992). Additionally, cognitivists examine the learner to determine how to design
instruction so that it can be readily assimilated (i.e., What are the learner’s existing mental
structures?). In contrast, the behaviorists look at learners to determine where the lesson should
begin (i.e., At what level are they currently performing successfully?) and which reinforcers
should be most effective (i.e., What consequences are most desired by the learner?).

Specific assumptions or principles that have direct relevance to instructional design include the
following (possible current ID applications are listed in italics and brackets following the listed
principle):

Emphasis on the active involvement of the learner in the learning process [learner control,
metacognitive training (e.g., self-planning, monitoring, and revising techniques)]
Use of hierarchical analyses to identify and illustrate prerequisite relationships [cognitive task
analysis procedures]

Emphasis on structuring, organizing, and sequencing information to facilitate optimal processing

[use of cognitive strategies such as outlining, summaries, synthesizers, advance organizers, etc.]

Creation of learning environments that allow and encourage students to make connections with
previously learned material [recall of prerequisite skills; use of relevant examples, analogies]

HOW SHOULD INSTRUCTION BE STRUCTURED?

Behavioral theories imply that teachers ought to arrange environmental conditions so that
students respond properly to presented stimuli. Cognitive theories emphasize making knowledge
meaningful and helping learners organize and relate new information to existing knowledge in
memory. Instruction must be based on a student’s existing mental structures, or schema, to be
effective. It should organize information in such a manner that learners are able to connect new
information with existing knowledge in some meaningful way. Analogies and metaphors are
examples of this type of cognitive strategy. For example, instructional design textbooks
frequently draw an analogy between the familiar architect’s profession and the unfamiliar
instructional design profession to help the novice learner conceptualize, organize and retain the
major duties and functions of an instructional designer (e.g. Reigeluth, 1983, p. 7). Other
cognitive strategies may include the use of framing, outlining, mnemonics, concept mapping,
advance organizers and so forth (West, Farmer, & Wolff, 1991).

Such cognitive emphases imply that major tasks of the teacher/designer include (1)
understanding that individuals bring various learning experiences to the learning situation which
can impact learning outcomes; (2) determining the most effective manner in which to organize
and structure new information to tap the learners’ previously acquired knowledge, abilities, and
experiences; and (3) arranging practice with feedback so that the new information is effectively
and efficiently assimilated and/or accommodated within the learner’s cognitive structure (Stepich
& Newby, 1988).

Consider the following example of a learning situation utilizing a cognitive approach: A manager
in the training department of a large corporation had been asked to teach a new intern to
complete a cost-benefit analysis for an upcoming development project. In this case, it is assumed
that the intern has no previous experience with cost-benefit analysis in a business setting.
However, by relating this new task to highly similar procedures with which the intern has had
more experience, the manager can facilitate a smooth and efficient assimilation of this new
procedure into memory. These familiar procedures may include the process by which the
individual allocates his monthly paycheck, how (s)he makes a buy/no-buy decision regarding the
purchase of a luxury item, or even how one’s weekend spending activities might be determined
and prioritized. The procedures for such activities may not exactly match those of the cost-
benefit analysis, but the similarity between the activities allows for the unfamiliar information to
be put within a familiar context. Thus processing requirements are reduced and the potential
effectiveness of recall cues is increased.
 Ecological Systems Theory

The Five Environmental Systems

The ecological systems theory holds that we encounter different environments

throughout our lifespan that may influence our behavior in varying degrees. These
systems include the micro system, the mesosystem, the exosystem, the macro
system, and the chronosystem.

1. The Micro System

The micro system's setting is the direct environment we have in our lives. Your
family, friends, classmates, teachers, neighbors and other people who have a direct
contact with you are included in your micro system. The micro system is the
setting in which we have direct social interactions with these social agents. The
theory states that we are not mere recipients of the experiences we have when
socializing with these people in the micro system environment, but we are
contributing to the construction of such environment.

2. The Mesosystem

The mesosytem involves the relationships between the microsystems in one's life.
This means that your family experience may be related to your school experience.
For example, if a child is neglected by his parents, he may have a low chance of
developing positive attitude towards his teachers. Also, this child may feel
awkward in the presence of peers and may resort to withdrawal from a group of
classmates.

3. The Exosystem

The exosystem is the setting in which there is a link between the context where in
the person does not have any active role, and the context where in is actively
participating. Suppose a child is more attached to his father than his mother. If the
father goes abroad to work for several months, there may be a conflict between the
mother and the child's social relationship, or on the other hand, this event may
result to a tighter bond between the mother and the child.

4. The Macrosystem
The macrosystem setting is the actual culture of an individual. The cultural
contexts involve the socioeconomic status of the person and/or his family, his
ethnicity or race and living in a still developing or a third world country. For
example, being born to a poor family makes a person work harder every day.

5. The Chronosystem

The chronosystem includes the transitions and shifts in one's lifespan. This may
also involve the socio-historical contexts that may influence a person. One classic
example of this is how divorce, as a major life transition, may affect not only the
couple's relationship but also their children's behavior. According to a majority of
research, children are negatively affected on the first year after the divorce. The
next years after it would reveal that the interaction within the family becomes more
stable and agreeable.
 The Humanistic Theory in Education.

In history humanistic psychology is an outlook or system of thought that

focuses on human beings rather than supernatural or divine insight. This system
stresses that human beings are inherently good, and that basic needs are vital to
human behaviors. Humanistic psychology also focuses on finding rational ways to
solve these human problems. At its root, the psychology of humanism focuses on
human virtue. It has been an important movement throughout history, from Greek
and Latin roots to Renaissance and now modern revivals.

This theory and approach in education takes root in humanistic psychology, with
the key concepts focusing on the idea that children are good at the core and that
education should focus on rational ways to teach the “whole” child. This theory
states that the student is the authority on how they learn, and that all of their needs
should be met in order for them to learn well. For example, a student who is
hungry won’t have as much attention to give to learning. So schools offer meals to
students so that need is met, and they can focus on education. The humanistic
theory approach engages social skills, feelings, intellect, artistic skills, practical
skills, and more as part of their education. Self-esteem, goals, and full autonomy
are key learning elements in the humanistic learning theory.

The humanistic learning theory was developed by Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers,
and James F. T. Bugental in the early 1900’s. Humanism was a response to the
common educational theories at the time, which were behaviorism and
psychoanalysis. Abraham Maslow is considered the father of the movement, with
Carl Rogers and James F.T. Bugental adding to the psychology later down the line.

Maslow and the humanists believed that behaviorism and other psychology
theories had a negative perception of learners—for example operant conditioning
in behaviorism psychology suggested that students only acted in a good or bad
manner because of the reward or punishment and could be trained based on that
desire for a reward. Maslow and humanistic psychology suggests that students are
inherently good and will make good decisions when all their needs are met.
Humanistic psychology focuses on the idea that learners bring out the best in
themselves, and that humans are driven by their feelings more than rewards and
punishments. Maslow believed this and wrote many articles to try and demonstrate
it.

This belief that humans are driven by feelings causes educators who understand
humanistic psychology to focus on the underlying human, emotional issues when
they see bad behavior, not to just punish the bad behavior. The humanistic learning
theory developed further and harnesses the idea that if students are upset, sad, or
distressed, they’re less likely to be able to focus on learning. This encourages
teachers to create a classroom environment that helps students feel comfortable and
safe so they can focus on their learning. Emotions are at the center of humanism
psychology.

The principles of humanistic learning theory.

There are several important principles involved in the humanistic learning theory
that all lead to self-actualization. Self-actualization is when all your needs are met,
you’ve become the best you’ve can, and you are fulfilled. While Maslow and the
humanists don’t believe that most people reach self-actualization, their belief is
that we are always in search of it, and the closer we are, the more we can learn.

Student choice. Choice is central to the humanistic learning theory and humanistic
psychology. Humanistic learning is student-centered, so students are encouraged to
take control over their education. They make choices that can range from daily
activities to future goals. Students are encouraged to focus on a specific subject
area of interest for a reasonable amount of time that they choose. Teachers who
utilize humanistic learning believe that it’s crucial for students to find motivation
and engagement in their learning, and that is more likely to happen when students
are choosing to learn about something that they really want to know.

Fostering engagement to inspire students to become self-motivated to learn. The

effectiveness of this psychology approach is based on learners feeling engaged and
self-motivated so they want to learn. So humanistic learning relies on educators
working to engage students, encouraging them to find things they are passionate
about so they are excited about learning.
The importance of self-evaluation. For most humanistic teachers, grades don’t
really matter. Self-evaluation is the most meaningful way to evaluate how learning
is going. Grading students encourages students to work for the grade, instead of
doing things based on their own satisfaction and excitement of learning. Routine
testing and rote memorization don’t lead to meaningful learning in this theory, and
thus aren’t encouraged by humanistic teachers. Humanistic educators help students
perform self-evaluations so they can see how students feel about their progress.

Feelings and knowledge are both important to the learning process and should not
be separated according to humanistic psychology. Humanistic teachers believe that
knowledge and feelings go hand-in-hand in the learning process. Cognitive and
affective learning are both important to humanistic learning. Lessons and activities
should focus on the whole student and their intellect and feelings, not one or the
other.

A safe learning environment. Because humanistic learning focuses on the entire

student, humanistic educators understand that they need to create a safe
environment so students can have as many as their needs met as possible. They
need to feel safe physically, mentally, and emotionally in order to be able to focus
on learning. So humanistic educators are passionate about the idea of helping
students meet as many of their needs as possible.

Will There Be Teaching Jobs When Schools Reopen

The role of teacher and student in humanistic learning theory.

In the humanistic learning theory, teachers and students have specific roles for
success. The overall role of a teacher is to be a facilitator and role model, not
necessarily to be the one doing the teacher. The role of the teacher includes:

Teach learning skills. Good teachers in humanistic learning theory focus on

helping students develop learning skills. Students are responsible for learning
choices, so helping them understand the best ways to learn is key to their success.

Provide motivation for classroom tasks. Humanistic learning focuses on

engagement, so teachers need to provide motivation and exciting activities to help
students feel engaged about learning.
Provide choices to students in task/subject selection. Choice is central to
humanistic learning, so teachers have a role in helping work with students to make
choices about what to learn. They may offer options, help students evaluate what
they’re excited about, and more.

Create opportunities for group work with peers. As a facilitator in the classroom,
teachers create group opportunities to help students explore, observe, and self
evaluate. They can do this better as they interact with other students who are
learning at the same time that they are.

Humanistic approach examples in education.

Some examples of humanistic education in action include:

Teachers can help students set learning goals at the beginning of the year, and then
help design pathways for students to reach their goals. Students are in charge of
their learning, and teachers can help steer them in the right direction.

Teachers can create exciting and engaging learning opportunities. For example,
teachers trying to help students understand government can allow students to create
their own government in the classroom. Students will be excited about learning, as
well as be in-charge of how everything runs.

Teachers can create a safe learning environment for students by having snacks,
encouraging students to use the bathroom and get water, and creating good
relationships with students so they will trust speaking to their teacher if there is an
issue.

Teachers can utilize journaling to help students focus on self-evaluation and their
feelings as part of learning. Using prompt questions can help students better
understand their feelings and progress in learning.
 An Evolutionary Theory of Education

The theory of education with which this paper deals considers evolution of education and culture
as a natural process. Being based on learning, the evolution of education is based in the evolution
of species. We therefore first consider the evolution of learning. We then consider the evolution
of training, which is carried out by many species in which parental and other care of the young is
provided. We next discuss how this training is most advanced in humans, largely because of they
have evolved a facility for complex language. It is this ability that makes human cultures and
institutionalized education possible. The paper concludes by considering what the next step in
educational and cultural evolution might be.

The evolution of learning

Along with other properties of organism, the capacity to learn is a product of evolution. Learning
occurs because it promotes the propagation of the genetic code of the organism that possesses the
capacity to learn ( ). There are several types of learning, including sensitization,
habituation, imprinting, classical or respondent conditioning, and instrumental or operant
conditioning. Of these, it is the last with which we are concerned here; roughly speaking, operant
conditioning is the modification of behavior by its consequences. Education is mostly concerned
with changing behavior by arranging for favorable consequences to follow desirable behavior.
For example, when a student's excellent essay receives praise from the teacher, we expect that
the student will write praiseworthy essays in the future.

Operant conditioning evidently appeared quite early in evolutionary history. It exists in the
earliest vertebrates. Any one who has kept fish knows that they swim expectantly to the sight or
sound of someone getting ready to feed them. This is operant conditioning, because the fish
receives the food faster if it is nearer the location in which the food enters the water. Fish will
also learn to push a response key if this results in food dropping into the fish tank (
). The operant conditioning of similar responses in rats, pigeons,
and monkeys is well known to every student in an introductory psychology course. What is
perhaps not so well know is the pervasiveness of operant conditioning; it occurs in organisms
whose evolutionary paths diverge considerably from that of the vertebrates. For example, it
occurs in insects, such as ants ( ) and honey bees  ). Since these
invertebrates have nervous systems that are quite different from those of vertebrates, there is a
suggestion that the ability to learn through operant conditioning may have evolved independently
in different genetic lines.

The evolutionary advantage of operant conditioning is fairly obvious in a changing environment.

A location that once provided food may no longer do so; an unfamiliar potential prey item may
turn out to provide a nutritious meal or an illness-producing toxin. Another unfamiliar animal
may turn out to be relatively harmless or a dangerous predator. An animal that is to survive and
pass on its genetic material must adjust to these diverse circumstances, and learning obviously
permits it to do so. What may not be so obvious, however, is the connection this all has to
education. Physical survival does not usually depend on being able, for example, to write a
commendable essay. However, the same process that enabled our ancestors learn to how to hunt
efficiently can be enlisted to enable us to learn to write effectively. Both involve small shaping
steps punctuated by positive feedback. In the case of hunting, the feedback was from the physical
environment (a successful kill) and from other humans (praise for performing actions that led to
a successful kill). In the case of essay writing, the shaping steps and feedback is from the teacher,
who incidentally has been operantly conditioned to provide this feedback.

Training of the young

For many species, the parental function consists simply in reproduction. For certain others (i.e.,
those unable to fend for themselves at birth), however, there is care-giving from one or both
parents and perhaps other members of the social group, until the young are able to make it on
their own. Inevitably, animals learn from their caretakers and other members of their social
group, but most of this learning occurs incidental to other activities. There is no deliberate
attempt to teach. In some cases, deliberate teaching appears to occur but can be explained as
phylogenetic; e.g., a mother lion teaching her young to hunt or a bird teaching its young to fly.
Although the teacher may employ sound pedagogical principles (e.g., shaping, fading,
scaffolding), their utilization has been developed by evolution rather than by learning.

Moving up the phylogenetic scale we do not find any evidence for deliberate teaching until we
come to the apes, most notably our closest relatives, chimpanzees. These animals engage in
certain complex tool-use behaviors, such as termite fishing (with a long stem inserted into a
termite hole) and nut cracking using a hammer-and-anvil technique (using two stones). These are
complex skills that take many years to perfect. There is some evidence of mothers actively
teaching their young (thought physical guidance) proper techniques in performing these skills (
).

Only humans show clear evidence of deliberate systematic teaching. The earliest evidence of this
is from between 11,000 and 15,000 years ago. The stone chips found around certain stone-age
hearths shows that evidence a master stone chipper encircled by learners who practiced the
master's demonstration of the proper way to chip out stone tools, such as axes and knives (
;  ). Hence, humans carried out classroom-style teaching as early as
11,000 years ago.

Although there was no permanent record of it, these early teachers were undoubtedly doing more
than merely demonstrating and the students were not merely imitating. The teacher undoubtedly
was providing verbal instruction and reinforcement, and the students were responding to that
instruction and reinforcement. The human propensity for speaking and listening – for language –
probably evolved from early social bonding (Dunbar,  ,  ). In primates social bonding
occurs though physical contact (e.g., grooming) and vocalizations. Language developed when
humans evolved the capacity to imbed information more complex than simple "stroking" (e.g.,
the equivalents of "how are you?" and "fine, thank you") in their physical gestures and
vocalizations. Language enabled the development of human cultures.

Cultures

We may define a culture as a set of learned practices (including laws, values, ways of doing
things) passed on from one generation to the next. Cultures evolve in a manner similar to the way
in which species evolve (for discussions of cultural evolution and values, see  ;
Pepper,  ,  ; Skinner,  ,  ). Some cultures are well adapted to their environments
and survive. Others are not well adapted and perish. Part of a culture’s environment includes
other cultures. Hence cultures compete in a manner similar to that in which species compete. A
culture survives only if it has members that survive and perpetuate it. Hence, cultures compete
for resources and for members.

The practices of a culture may promote or hinder its survival. Some practices are more successful
in promoting a culture's survival than others are. Some practices are harmful, and may lead to the
demise of a culture. Some practices are not beneficial, or may even be harmful, but the culture
may nevertheless survive for a long time because other practices counteract them or because no
competing culture is present to exploit those weaknesses.

Education

If a culture is analogous to a species, then education is the reproductive system of a culture. Just
as the reproductive system is responsible for transmitting traits from one generation to the next,
education replicates or transmits cultural practices, including values, rules, laws, customs, and
skills. Also included in the practices of a culture is its social structure.

Education mirrors the culture in which it occurs. If the technology and social structure of a
culture is relatively simple, education is simple. In a "simple" culture, education consists of the
young learning from other members simply by participating in the activities of the culture. As the
technology and social structure become more complex, special instruction becomes necessary.
Chipping stone tools is a difficult skill but vital to a stone-age culture, hence classes apparently
were required to facilitate members learning it.

A number of cultures developed a degree of complexity in which members are stratified into
several strata or classes. These might include slaves (e.g., ancient Greece, ancient Rome, the
United States before the Civil War), and lower, middle, and upper classes. Slaves received
virtually no education, the lower classes might receive some sort of vocational training (often in
the form of apprenticeships), the middle classes received training needed to be merchants,
government administrators, and teachers, while the upper classes received training that enabled
them to rule more effectively. Simplifying somewhat, universities developed to fulfill these last-
two mentioned functions  229). Complex verbal behavior, including the
ability to discuss, reason, and argue are always useful to the governing and ruling classes. Even
in the upper classes, women throughout all complex (stratified) societies, up until recent times,
received only enough education to enable them fulfill the roles of mothers and homemakers. It is
clear that education served to maintain the social structure of these cultures.

As described above, a culture may perpetuate itself by spreading its practices to succeeding
generations. Another way it may perpetuate itself is by invading other cultures and attempting to
transform them into replicas of itself (the analogy of a virus invading a cell comes to mind here).
This is imperialism, which has been practiced so successfully by Western countries. True to its
function as a replicator, education has been critical in the success of imperialism. The
transplanting of the invaders’ educational systems into other countries (or, alternatively, sending
members of the "host" country to be educated in the invading country) is analogous to the
transplanting of viral DNA into host cells. That is, largely as a result of the transplantation of the
invader's educational system into the host, the host country becomes more like the invader. It is
interesting to note that this ultimately works to the disadvantage of the invader, because once the
ruling members of the host are sufficiently educated in the practices of the invader, the host
country tends to declare its independence. Similarly, the transfer of genetic material through
sexual reproduction does not necessarily work to the advantage of the individual making the
transfer.

In some cases the educational system of an invading country has been used to obliterate (or come
close to obliterating) an indigenous culture. A prime example is the forcible removal of Native
children from their parents and the placement of these children in residential schools, which
occurred in Canada. Forced to learn the language and practices of the dominant culture, the
children in these schools were severely punished for speaking their own language and were kept
from learning anything about their own culture.

Conflict between dominant and subordinate groups over education

Since education tend to preserve the social order, members below the ruling class strive to obtain
educational opportunities that would allow them to move into a higher class. The middle class
presses for access to universities. The lower class presses to obtain basic education such as
instruction in reading. And women press to obtain the same educational privileges men enjoy.

Cultural changes also help to bring about changes in the availability of education. By promoting
the idea that each individual should be able to interpret the Bible for him or herself, leaders of
the reformation successfully diminished the power of the Catholic Church. However, this idea
makes sense only if everyone can read the Bible. The logical consequence of the change in the
culture brought about through the reformation was that education in reading should be available
to all. For the first time, therefore, government was in the position of having to provide universal
education.

With the industrial revolution, a skilled labor force was needed. In addition, to protect the upper
classes from social disruption and mayhem, youthful industrial workers needed to be occupied
during the times that they were not at work. Hence, universal education was implemented on
Sundays, and gradually extended to other days of week.

In more recent times, members of minority cultures have successfully petitioned to right to
educate their members in their own culture. Politicians have responded favorably to this as
means of winning votes and diffusing tensions.

Conflict between educators and the state

The state – i.e., the governing or ruling body of a culture – attempts to use the educational
system to preserve itself. Dissidence is not to be tolerated if the ruling body has any say in the
matter. This can bring the educational system into conflict with the state, and with the education
administration – the representatives of the state within the educational system. One way in which
this conflict appears is in the struggle within the educational system between those who favor
restrictions on what can be taught and those who advocate academic freedom. Two important
activities of education, at least as it exists today, are examining new ideas and questioning the
status quo. These activities, however, can threaten the stability of the culture, and therefore tend
to be resisted by those outside the educational institution (and often by some within). In the long
run, similar to favorable mutations, the new ideas that are developed and promulgated in the
educational institutions may lead to changes in cultural practices that strengthen the culture. This
is why academic freedom has become a firmly entrenched value in some cultures, although it is
still suspect in others.

The Shifting Role of Educators

Ever since the printing press was invented and books became widely available, lectures have
been largely redundant. This is not to say that lectures have no value. In many cases they can be
very beneficial. But they are not of equal value for everyone; and there are some who are able to
learn quite well just by reading. Suppose, however, that a student went to the president of a
university and said, "I have read every book in your library; please have your faculty test me and
if I pass give me a degree." It is highly unlikely that such a student would have his or her request
granted. At best the student might be granted an exemption from a few classes, but would have
to sit through many more. Educators can rationalize this requirement in a number of ways;
however, a case can be made that the underlying reason for it is that such a student is seen as a
threat. It represents a loss of power. If you can learn without having to sit in our classrooms and
listen to our lectures, then we have no power over you.

Some educators may also see the new technology of web-based instruction as a threat. Students
on line do not have to be in the classroom. Some educators have attempted to adapt the lecture
method to the new technology. In this format, students "meet" at a specified time, read a text-
based "lecture" prepared by the instructor, and engage in online discussion by typing in
comments on the lecture and comments on other students comments. This approach has the
advantage that students do not have to be physically present on campus in order to take a course.
This results in an increase in the number of people who can take courses and receive the benefits
of education.