Abstract

Published on Sep 29, 2021

Earth block is a construction material made primarily from soil. Types

of earth block include compressed earth block (CEB), compressed
stabilized earth block (CSEB), and stabilized earth block (SEB).

Stabilized mud block (SMB) or pressed earth block is a building

material made primarily from damp soil compressed at high pressure
to form blocks. If the blocks are stabilized with a chemical binder
such as Portland cement they are called compressed stabilized earth
block (CSEB) or stabilized earth block (SEB). Creating SMBs differs
from rammed earth in that the latter uses a larger formwork into
which earth is poured and manually tamped down, creating larger
forms such as a whole wall or more at one time rather than building
blocks and adobe which is not compressed. Stabilized mud block
uses a mechanical press to form block out of an appropriate mix of
fairly dry inorganic subsoil, non-expansive clay, aggregate, and
sometimes a small amount of cement.

Typically, around 3000 psi is applied in compression, and the original

soil volume is reduced by about half. The compression strength of
properly made SMB can meet or exceed that of typical cement or
adobe brick. Building standards have been developed for SMB.
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 Soil Identification

A very few laboratories can identify soils for building purposes. But
soil identification can be performed by anybody with sensitive
analyses. The main points to examine are:

Grain size distribution, to know quantity of each grain size

Plasticity characteristics, to know the quality and properties of the

binders (clays and silts)

Compressibility, to know the optimum moisture content, which will

require the minimum of compaction energy for the maximum density.

Cohesion, to know how the binders bind the inert grains.

Humus content, to know if they are organic materials which might

disturb the mix.

Soil stabilization

Many stabilizers can be used. Cement and lime are the most
common ones. Others, like chemicals, resins or natural products can
be used as well.
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 The selection of a stabilizer will depend upon the soil quality and the
project requirements:

Cement will be preferable for sandy soils and to achieve quickly a

higherstrength.

Lime will be rather used for very clayey soil, but will take a longer
time to harden and to give strong blocks.

Soil Suitability and Stabilization

Not every soil is suitable for earth construction and CSEB in

particular. But with some knowledge and experience many soils can
be used for producing CSEB. Topsoil and organic soils must not be
used. Identifying the properties of a soil is essential to perform, at
the end, good quality products. Some simple sensitive analysis can
be performed after a short training. A soil is an earth concrete and a
good soil for CSEB is more sandy than clayey. It has these
proportions:

Fig 3.1 Proportions

According to the percentage of these 4 components, a soil with

more gravel will be called gravely, another one with more, sand,
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 sandy, others silty or clayey, etc. The aim of the field tests is to
identify in which of these four categories the soil is. From the simple
classification it will be easy to know what to do with this soil.

Raw Materials

Soil characteristics and climatic conditions of an area must be

evaluated before manufacturing soil building blocks. A dry climate,
for example, needs different soil blocks from those used in
temperate, rainy or tropical areas. All soils are not suitable for every
building need. The basic material, however, required to manufacture
compressed stabilized earth building blocks is a soil containing a
minimum quantity of silt and clay so as to facilitate cohesion. Soils
are variable and complex materials, whose properties can be
modified to improve performance in building construction by the
addition of various stabilizers. All soils consist of disintegrated rock,
decomposed organic matter and soluble mineral salts. Soil types are
graded according to particle size using a system of classification
widely used in civil engineering. This classification system, based on
soil fractions shows that there are 4 principal soil fractions - gravel,
sand, silt and clay.

For soil stabilization, the clay fraction is most important because of

its ability to provide cohesion within a soil. The manufacture of good
quality, durable compressed stabilized earth blocks requires the use
of soil containing fine gravel and sand for the body of the block,
together with silt and clay to bind the sand particles together. An
appropriate type of stabilizer must be added to decrease the linear
expansion that takes place when water is added to the soil sample.
The stabilizer has further benefits that are described in a later
section.

Preparation of Raw Materials

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 The Requirements for Preparation

The basic materials required for the production of compressed

stablised earth building blocks are soil, stabiliser, and water. The
stabiliser, whether lime or cement or some other material, is usually
available in powder or liquid form, ready for use. The soil may be wet
or dry when it is first obtained, and will probably not be
homogeneous. In order to have uniform soil, it is often necessary to
crush it so that it can pass through a 5 to 6mm mesh sieve.

Different soil types may also need to be used together so as to

obtain good quality products. For instance, a heavy clay may be
improved by addition of a sandy soil. It is not only important to
measure the optimum proportion of ingredients, but also to mix them
thoroughly. Mixing brings the stabiliser and soil into direct contact,
thus improving the physical interactions as well as the chemical
reaction and cementing action. It also reduces the risk of uneven
production of low quality blocks. Various types and sizes of mixing
equipment are available on the market.

Breaking up Soil

In most developing countries the soil is usually dry when dug out of
the borrow pit or it will dry soon after digging. Simple hand tools are
available as well as a range of more complicated machinery which
can be used to reduce the soil grains to an appropriate size.

In order to obtain a uniform mix of the mineral components, water

and stabiliser,lumps more than 200mm in diameter after excavation
must be broken up. Grains with a homogeneous structure, such as
gravel and stones, must be left intact, and those having a composite
structure (clay binder) broken up so that at least 50 percent of the
grains are less than 5mm in diameter. The soil must be dry as wet
soil can only be handled by certain mechanised systems.
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 Grinding followed by screening

The material is pressed between two surfaces - a rather inefficient

and tedious process in which bigger stones are broken up, however,
only simple machinery is required. The broken up lumps of soil are
then passed through a screen.

Pulverisation of soil

The material is hit with great force so it disintegrates. The machinery

required is complex but performs satisfactorily. At the delivery end,
any large pieces left can
be removed by means of screen.

Sieving

Soil contains various sizes of grain, from very fine dust up to pieces
that are still too large for use in block production. The oversized
material should be removed by sieving, either using a built-in sieve,
as with the pendulum crusher, or as a separate operation.

The simplest sieving device is a screen made from a wire mesh,

nailed to a supporting wooden frame and inclined at approximately
45º to the ground. The material is thrown against the screen, fine
material passes through and the coarse, oversized material runs
down the front. Alternatively, the screen can be suspended
horizontally from a tree or over a pit. The latter method is only
suitable in the case where most material can pass through easily
otherwise too much coarse material is collected, and the screen
becomes blocked and needs frequent emptying.

Proportioning

Before starting production, tests should be performed to establish

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 the right proportion of soil, stabiliser and water for the production of
good quality blocks. The proportions of these materials and water
should then be used throughout the production process. To ensure
uniformity in the compressed stabilised earth blocks produced, the
weight or volume of each material used in the block making process
should be measured at the same physical state for subsequent
batches of blocks. The volume of soil or stabiliser should ideally be
measured in dry or slightly damp conditions. After establishing the
exact proportion required of each material, it is advisable to build a
measuring device for each material. The dimensions of each
measuring box should be such that their content, when full, is
equivalent to the proportion which should be mixed with other
materials measured in other gauge boxes. Alternatively, a simple
gauge box may be used for all materials. In this case, the amount of
material for the production of a given batch of blocks may be
measured by filling and emptying the gauge box a number of times
for each separate material. For example, a batch of blocks may
require ten gauge boxes of soil for one gauge box of stabiliser. Water
may be measured in a small tank or container.It is advisable to mix
enough materials to allow the block-making machine to operate for
approximately one hour. Thus, the volume of the mixed material will
depend on the hourly output of the block making equipment.

Mixing

In order to produce good quality blocks, it is very important that

mixing be as thorough as possible. Dry materials should be mixed
first until they are a uniformcolour, then water is added and mixing
continued until a homogeneous mix is obtained. Mixing can be
performed by hand on a hard surface, with spades, hoes,
or shovels.

It is much better to add a little water at a time, sprinkled over the top
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 of the mix from a watering can with a rose spray on the nozzle. The
wet mix should be turned over many times with a spade or other
suitable tool. A little more water may then be added, and the whole
mixture turned over again. This process should be repeated until all
the water has been mixed in.

When lime is used as a stabiliser, it is advisable to allow the mix to

stand for a short while before moulding starts to allow better
moistening of soil particles with water. However, if cement is used for
stabilisation, it is advisable to use the mix as soon as possible
because cement starts to hydrate immediately after it is wetted and
delays will result in the production of poor quality blocks. For this
reason the quantity of cement-sand mix should not exceed what is
needed for one hour of operation. Even so, the blocks produced at
the end of one hour may be considerably weaker than those
produced immediately after the mixing. A concrete mixer, even if
available, will not be useful for mixing the wet soil, since the latter will
tend to stick on the sides of the rotating drum. If machinery is to be
used for mixing, it should have paddles or blades that move
separately from the container. However, field experience shows that
hand-mixing methods are often more satisfactory, more efficient and
cheaper than mechanical mixing, and are less likely to produce small
balls of soil that are troublesome at the block moulding stage.

Quantity of Materials Needed

Compressed stabilized earth building blocks are usually larger in size

than traditional burnt bricks. A typical block size is 290 x 140 x
90mm. Its production will need about 7.5 to 8.5kg of materials
depending on the compaction pressure. The exact amount of
stabiliser necessary must be established for any particular project.
The fraction of lime or cement usually varies between 5% to 8% by
weight. Similarly, the optimum water content (OMC) for any
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 particular soil must be determined experimentally. The moisture level
varies widely with the nature of the soil. An approximate estimate of
about 15% by weight is often assumed.

Moulding of Stabilized Mud Block

Standards for Block Production

Many aspects should be taken into consideration before launching

an operation to produce compressed stabilised earth building
blocks:

amount and type of stabiliser required,

soil properties and its suitability for stabilisation,

building standards and hence quality of blocks required,

load bearing requirements of construction i.e. single storey or

more.

One of the purposes of this handbook is to make the reader aware of

the problems associated with compressed earth blocks in the
construction industry especially in developing countries where
building standards have not yet been developed in the field of earth
construction.

Generally, there is a wide variation of acceptable standards that vary

according to local weather conditions. Blocks with wet compressive
strengths in the range or 2.8MN/m2 or more should be adequate for
one and two-story buildings. Blocks of this type would probably not
require external surface protection against adverse weather
conditions. For one-storey buildings, blocks with a compressive
strength in the order of 2.0 MN/m2 will probably be strong enough,
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 but where rainfall is high an external treatment is necessary. Since
the wet strength of a compressed stabilised earth block wall may be
less than two-thirds of its dry strength. It should be remembered that
all compressive strength tests should be carried out on samples
which have been soaked in water for a minimum of 24 hours after the
necessary
curing period.

The final wet compressive strength of a compressed earth block

depends not only on soil type, but also on the type and amount of
stabiliser, the moulding pressure, and the curing conditions.

In 1998, standards for compressed earth blocks were ratified as

African Regional Standards (ARS) under the auspices of the African
Regional Organisation for Standardisation (ARSO) technical
committee on building and civil engineering (ARSO/TC3) after having
satisfied procedures for the approval of regional standards .

Testing Soil Prior to Block Production

Various soil-testing methods are described in Chapter 2 which are

used to determine the suitability of different soils for block making
and the type of stabiliser required. For block production, the soil mix
must be checked for each batch of blocks so as to attain the
optimum moisture content (OMC).

Two simple field tests can be carried out. These are explained below:

Take a handful from the soil mix for block production and squeeze
it in the hand, the mix should ball together. When the hand is
opened, the fingers should be reasonably dry and clean.

Drop the ball sample onto a hard surface from a height of about
one metre. If the sample:- completely shatters, this shows that it is
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 not sufficiently moist,- squashes into a flattened ball or disc on
impact with the hard surface, this implies too high a moisture
content,- breaks into four or five major lumps, this shows that the
moisture contents or the soil mix is close to the optimum moisture
content (OMC).

To manufacture blocks of uniform size and density, special

precautions must be taken to fill the mould with the same amount of
mix for each compaction by using
a small wooden box as a measuring device.

To facilitate development of the pressed blocks and to ensure good

neat surfaces it is advisable to moisten the internal faces of the
machine mould with a mould releasing agent (reject oil) which can be
applied with either a rag, brush or spray

Curing

To achieve maximum strength, compressed stabilised earth blocks

need a period of damp curing, where they are kept moist. This is a
common requirement for all cementitious materials. What is
important is that the moisture of the soil mix is retained within the
body of the block for a few days. If the block is left exposed to hot
dry weather conditions, the surface material will lose its moisture and
the clay particles tend to shrink. This will cause surface cracks on
the block faces. In practice, various methods are used to ensure
proper curing. Such methods include the use of plastic bags, grass,
leaves, etc. to prevent moisture from escaping.
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 After two or three days, depending, on the local temperatures,
cement stabilised blocks complete their primary cure. They can then
be removed from their protective cover and stacked in a pile, as
shown in Figure 4.1. As the stack of blocks is built up, the top layer
should always be wetted and covered, and the lower layer should be
allowed to air-dry to achieve maximum strength. Alternatively, freshly
moulded blocks can be laid out in a single layer, on a non-absorbent
surface, and covered with a sheet to prevent loss of moisture. The
required duration of curing varies from soil to soil and, more
significantly, which type of stabiliser is used. With cement
stabilisation, it is recommended to cure blocks for a minimum of
three weeks. The curing period for lime stabilisation should be at
least four weeks. Compressed stabilised earth blocks should be fully
cured and dry before being used for construction.

Soil Testing Methods

Laboratory analysis of the raw material is always necessary for large-

scale production of compressed stabilized earth blocks. For small-
scale production, however, it is not essential to employ sophisticated
tests to establish the suitability of a soil. Simple field tests can be
performed to get an indication of the composition of the soil sample.
Such tests are discussed briefly below

Smell test

Smell the soil immediately after it has been sampled. If it smells

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 musty it contains organic matter. This smell will become stronger if
the soil is heated or wetted. Soil containing organic matter is not
suitable for production of compressed stabilized earth blocks.

Nibble test

Care should be taken to ensure that it is safe to place any samples in

the mouth. Nibble a pinch of soil, crushing it lightly between the
teeth. If it grinds between the teeth with a disagreeable sensation,
the soil is sandy. If it can be ground between the teeth, without a
disagreeable sensation the soil is silty. If it has a smooth or floury
texture and if when a small piece is applied to the tongue it sticks,
the soil is clayey (Houben & Guillaud.

Touch test

Remove the largest grains and crumble the soil by rubbing the
sample between the fingers and the palm of the hand. If it feels
rough and has no cohesion when moist the soil is sandy. If it feels
slightly rough and is moderately cohesive when moistened the soil is
silty. If, when dry, it contains lumps or concretions which resist
crushing, and if it becomes plastic and sticky when moistened the
soil is clayey .

Sedimentation test
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 The tests mentioned previously make it possible to form a general
idea of the texture of the soil and the relative particle sizes of the
different fractions. To obtain a more precise idea of the nature of
each soil fraction, a simplified sedimentation test can be carried out
in the field. The apparatus required is straight forward: a transparent
cylindrical glass bottle with a flat bottom and a capacity of at least
one litre, with a neck wide enough to get a hand in and a lid to allow
for shaking.

Fill the bottle to one-third with clean water. Add approximately the
same volume of dry soil passed through a 6mm sieve and add a
teaspoonful of common salt.

Firmly close the lid of the bottle and shake until the soil and water are
well mixed. Allow the bottle to stand on a flat surface for about half
an hour. Shake the bottle again for two minutes and stand on level
surface for a further 45 minutes until the water starts to clear. The
finer particles fall more slowly and as result will be deposited on top
of the larger size particles. Two or three layers will emerge, with the
lowest layer containing fine gravel, the central layer containing the
sand fraction and the top layer containing silt and clay. The relative
proportions, and hence percentages, of each fraction can be
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 determined by measuring the depth of each layer.

Adhesion test

Compact a ball of moist soil so that it does not stick to the fingers
and insert a spatula or knife. If the spatula penetrates it with
difficulty, and soil sticks to it upon withdrawal the soil is extremely
clayey. If the spatula can be pushed into it without great difficulty but
a bit of soil remains on the knife upon withdrawal the soil is
moderately clayey. If the spatula can be pushed into the mass
without encountering any resistance at all, even if the spatula is dirty
upon withdrawal the soil contains only a little clay

Washing test

Rub the hands with some slightly moistened soil. If the hands are
easy to rinse clean this implies that the soil is sandy. If the soil
appears to be powdery and the hands can be rinsed clean fairly
easily the soil is silty . If the soil has a soapy feel and the hands
cannot be rinsed easily the soil is clayey.

Linear shrinkage mould test

The linear shrink test, or Alcock's test, is performed using a wooden

box, 60cm long, 4cm wide and 4cm deep. Grease the inside
surfaces of the box before filling it with moist soil with an optimum
moisture content (OMC). Ensure that the soil is pressed into all
corners of the box using a small wooden spatula that can also be
used to smooth the surface. Expose the filled box to the sun for a
period of three days or in the shade for seven days. After this period
measure the length of the hardened and dried soil as compared to
the length of the box and calculate the shrinkage length of the soil

Water Retention Test

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 - Form a ball of fine soil, 2 or 3cm in diameter,

- Moisten the ball so that it sticks together but does not stick to the
fingers,

- Slightly flatten the ball and hold it in the palm of the extended hand,

- Vigorously tap the ball with the other hand so that the water is
brought to the surface. The ball will appear smooth, shiny or greasy,

- Press the ball flat between thumb and index finger,

- Observe the number of taps required for a reaction as well as the

consisteny of the soil.

Implications

- If a rapid reaction is achieved (5-10 taps) and the flattened ball

crumbles, the soil is very fine or a coarse silt,

- If a slow reaction is achieved (20-30 taps) and the flattened ball

does not crumble but flattens, the soil is slightly plastic silt or silty
clay,

- If a very slow reaction is achieved (over 30 taps) and the flattened

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 ball does not change appearance on pressing, the soil has a high
clay content.

ADVANTAGES OF CSEB

A local material

Ideally, the production is made on the site itself or in thenearby area.

Thus, it will save the transportation, fuel, time and money.

A bio-degradable material

Well-designed CSEB houses can withstand, with a minimum of

maintenance, heavy rains, snowfall or frost without being damaged.
The strength and durability has
been proven since half a century. But let’s imagine a building fallen
down and that a jungle grows on it: the bio-chemicals contained in
the humus of the topsoil will destroy the soil cement mix in 10 or 20
years… And CSEB will come back to our Mother Earth!

Limiting deforestation

Firewood is not needed to produce CSEB. It will save the forests,

which are being depleted quickly in the world, due to short view
developments and the mismanagement of resources.

Management of resources

Each quarry should be planned for various utilisations: water

harvesting pond, wastewater treatment, reservoirs, landscaping, etc.
It is crucial to be aware of this point: very profitable if well managed
… disastrous if unplanned!

An adapted material
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 Being produced locally it is easily adapted to the various needs:
technical, social, cultural habits.

A transferable technology

It is a simple technology requiring semi skills, easy to get. Simple

villagers will be able to learn how to do it in few weeks. Efficient
training centre will transfer the technology in a week time.

A job creation opportunity

CSEB allow unskilled and unemployed people to learn a skill, get a

job and rise in the social values.

Market opportunity

According to the local context (materials, labour, equipment, etc.)

the final price will vary, but in most of the cases it will be cheaper
than fired bricks.

Reducing imports

Produced locally by semi skilled people, no need import from far

away expensive materials or transport over long distances heavy and
costly building materials.

Flexible production scale

Equipment for CSEB is available from manual to motorized tools

ranging from village to semi industry scale. The selection of the
equipment is crucial, but once

Energy efficiency and eco friendliness

Requiring only a little stabilizer the energy consumption in a m3 can

be from 5 to 15 times less than a m³ of fired bricks. The pollution
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 emission will also be 2.4 to 7.8 times less than fired bricks.

Cost efficiency

Produced locally, with a natural resource and semi skilled labour,

almost without transport, it will be definitely cost effective! More or
less according to each context and to ones knowledge! done
properly, it will be easy to use the most adapted
equipment for each case.

Social acceptance

Demonstrated, since long, CSEB can adapt itself to various needs:

from poor income to well off people or governments. Its quality,
regularity and style allow a wide range of final house products. To
facilitate this acceptation, banish from your language “stabilized mud
blocks”, for speaking of CSEB as the latter reports R & D done for
half a century when mud blocks referred, in the mind of most people,
as poor building material.

DISADVANTAGES

Proper soil identification is required or lack of soil.

Unawareness of the need to manage resources.

Ignorance of the basics for production & use.

Wide spans, high & long building are difficult to do.

Low technical performances compared to concrete.

Untrained teams producing bad quality products.

Over-stabilization through fear or ignorance, implying outrageous

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 costs.

Under-stabilization resulting in low quality products.

Bad quality or un-adapted production equipment.

Low social acceptance due to counter examples (By unskilled

people, or bad soil & equipment).

CONCLUSION

We can conclude that firstly, identification tests are important

because they allow defining characteristics of the earth, in order to
situate them in relation to the suitability criteria, and therefore orient
about choice of the stabilizer.

The behaviour of the blocks differs depending on the treatment

and dosage incorporated. The compressive strengths in dry and wet
conditions increase with the dosage of binder. Mixing cement + lime
yielded the best resistance. Cement stabilized blocks are less
resistant to wet.

The different formulations have determined the best treatment. It

is the mixture of cement + lime which has proved the best suitable
treatment, and this, from the point of view of strength and of
durability.

Better compaction could generally improved behaviour blocks

moisture because as previously mentioned, the press used was
manual and required a lot of effort to compact the blocks at their
maximum density.

We finally conclude that by using available lands in the

environment, which have not necessarily ideal properties for the
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 construction, there may be an appropriate treatment that achieves
fairly satisfactory results, provided it complies with the good rules of
implementation and take into account the cost of stabilizing
products.

REFERENCES

1. "Critical Sustainability Pillars for service delivery in the Water

Sector" (PDF). Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, South
Africa. February 2008. p. 6. Retrieved 2014-04-14.

2. Jump up^ "SOUTH AFRICA: Poverty reduction winners". IRIN. 11

January 2002. Retrieved 2014-04-14.

3. Jump up^ "Housing and Jobs for a Better Future". World Bank.
2002. Retrieved 2014-04-14.

4. Jump up^ "Effect Of Varying Cement Proportions On Properties

Of Compressed Stabilized Earth Blocks (CSEB) - A Sustainable Low-
Cost Housing Material". DOI: 10.13140/2.1.4966.4963 Conference:
International Conference on Sustainable Civil Infrastructure, ASCE
India Section 17–18 October 2014, At Hyderabad, India, Volume: pg
1000-1010. Retrieved 2014-11-11.

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