DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE THREE WAY TIPPING

VEHICLE

VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

Jnana sangama, Belagavi-590 018

Project review report- Phase 1

“DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF THREE- W A Y TIPPING VEHICLE”

Submitted
SHASHANK.NAIK 1OX17AU034

VIKRANTH.N 1OX17AU040

ROHITH.M 1OX17AU029

RAVIKISHAN.V 1OX17AU028

Under the Support and Guidance of

Mrs. SANDEEP.K.C

Assistant professor

Dept. of AUE, TOCE

Department of Automobile Engineering

The Oxford College of Engineering
Hosur Road, Bommanahalli, Bangalore-560 068
(Affiliated in VTU and approved by AICTE Accredited by NAAC and NBA)
2020-2021

1
 THE OXFORD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Hosur Road, Bommanahalli, Bangalore-560068

(Affiliated in VTU and approved by AICTE Accredited by NAAC and NBA)

Department of Automobile Engineering

CERTIFICATE
Certified that the Project work entitled “DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF THREE WAY

TIPPING VEHICLE” carried out by SHASHANK.NAIK (1OX17AU034), VIKRANTH.N

(1OX17AU040), ROHITH.M (1OX17AU029), RAVIKISHAN.V (1OX17AU028), a bonafide students
of The Oxford College of Engineering, Bangalore in partial fulfilment for the award of degree of
Bachelor of Engineering in Automobile Engineering of Visvesvaraya Technological University,
Belagavi during the academic year 2020-21. It is certified that all the corrections/suggestions indicated for
Internal Assessment have been incorporated in the report. The Project work has been approved as it
satisfies the academic requirements in respect of project work prescribed for the said degree.

..…………………….. …….………………… ……..……………………..

Signature of the Guide Signature of the HOD Signature of the Principal
Mr. SANDEEP.K.C Dr. RAJU.B.R Dr. G.T.RAJU

Name of the Examiners: Signature with dates:

1. …………………

2. …………………
 Department of Automobile
Engineering The Oxford College of
Engineering
Hosur Road, Bommanahalli, Bangalore-560068
(Affiliated to VTU and approved by AICTE Accredited by NAAC and NBA)

DECLARATION
We Shashank.Naik, Vikranth.N, Rohith.M, Ravikishan.V, students of final year BE, at Department of
Automobile Engineering, The Oxford college of Engineering, Bangalore declare that the Project work
entitled. “DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF THREE WAY TIPPING VEHICLE”
carried out by us and submitted in partial fulfillment of the course requirements for the award of degree of
Bachelor of Automobile Engineering of Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi during the
academic year 2020-21.

NAME USN NO SIGNATURE

SHASANK.L.NAIK 1OX17AU034 ……………………

VIKRANTH.N 1OX17AU040 ……………………

ROHIT.M 1OX17AU029 ……………………

RAVIKISHAN.V 1OX17AU028 ……………………

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The satisfaction and the accomplishment that accompanies the completion of any project would be
incomplete without due acknowledgement to the people who made it possible. It is our great pleasure in
expressing our deep sense of gratitude to the founder late Shri S.N.V.L NARASA RAJU and to our
chairman Shri S.N.V.L. NARASIMHA RAJU for providing facilities for the Project. We also thankful to
Dr. K. AMARNATH the Director, Dr. G.T. RAJU. The Principal, TOCE Bengaluru and Dr. RAJU.B.R,
HOD Dept. of AUE, TOCE Bengaluru.

We accept it as a high regarded privilege in offering our genuine thanks, sincere regard and respects to our
guide, Assistant Professor & Project coordinator, Mr. SANDEEP.K.C, Associate Professor, Dept. of
AUE, Bengaluru to permit us to carry out our Project work for the co-activity and backing, which helped
us to achieve our Project work.

Additionally we are grateful to them for their important direction and inventive thoughts given us during
the span of our Project work. We proudly honor to DEPARTMENT OF AUE, THE OXFORD
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, Bengaluru and more profoundly which has given the privilege to soak
up plentiful specialized learning there by enabling us attain the quite long objective of attaining our Under
Graduate in AUE. We also grateful to all staff of our department, parents, friends for their timely
suggestions and constants supports who have helped in making our project more productive and
meaningful.
 ABSTRACT
Trailer has many applications in today’s world. In industrial and domestic considerations, tippers can pull a
variety of products including gravel, grain, sand, fertilizer, heavy rocks, etc. By considering wide scope of
the topic, it is necessary to do study and research on the topic of tipper mechanism in order to make it more
economical and efficient. In existing system, tipper can unload only in one side by using pneumatic jack or
conveyor mechanism. By this research it is easy for the driver to unload the trailer and also it reduces time
and fuel consumption. For making tipper mechanism with such above conditions hydraulic jack mechanism
can be used. This project is mainly focused on above difficulty. The vehicles can be unloaded from the
trailer in three axes without application of any impact force. The Direction control valves Which activate
the ram of the hydraulic cylinder which lifting the trailer cabin in require side. By this research it is easy
for the driver to unload the trailer and it reduces the time.
Keywords: Research Paper, Technical Writing, Science, Engineering and Technology.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

S.NO CHAPTER NAME PAGE NO

1. INTRODUCTION 7

2. OBJECTIVES 8

3. PURPOSE OF PROJECT 9

4. LITERATURE SURVEY 10-11

5. METHODOLOGY 12-18

5.1. THREE WAY TIPPING MODEL

5.2. PNEUMATIC AND HYDRAULIC SYSTEM

5.3. BALL AND SOCKET JOINT MECHANISM

5.4. UNIVERSAL JOINT

5.5. LOCK NUT MECHANISM

6. EXPECTED RESULT 19

7. CONCLUSION 20

8. FUTURE SCOPE 21

9. REFERENCES 22
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

A trailer is a vehicle designed for carrying bulk material, often on building sites. They are distinguished
from dump trucks by configuration: a dumper is usually an open 4- wheeled vehicle with the load skip
in front of the driver, while a dump truck has its cab in front of the load. The skip can tip to dump the
load; this is where the name Trailer comes from. Trailers are normally diesel powered. Trailers with
rubber tracks are used in special circumstances and are popular in all over world. Early trailers had a
payload of about a ton and were two-wheel drive driving on the front axle . And steered at the back
wheels. We used hand cranking for single cylinder diesel engine. Back wheels are moved by steering
wheels. Having neither electrics nor hydraulics there was not much to go wrong. The skip was secured
by a catch by the driver's feet. One of the problem are cited with dumper in the time and energy for
setting the huge dumper in the proper direction to dump the material. It is carrying and hence the need of
the project work rises which is about 3 way dropping dumper. Which can dump the material in any
direction except the frontal one without moving the truck in any direction. A dump truck (or, UK,
dumper truck) is a truck used for transporting loose material (such as sand, gravel, or dirt) for
construction. A typical dump truck is equipped with a hydraulically operated open-box bed hinged at the
rear, the front of which can be lifted up to allow the contents to be deposited on the ground behind the
truck at the site of delivery. In the UK and Australia the term applies to off-road construction plant only,
and the road vehicle is known as a tipper, tipper lorry (United Kingdom) or tip truck (AU) Modern
dumpers have payloads of up to 10 tones (11 short tons; 9.8 long tons) and usually steer by particulate
the middle of the chassis (pivot steering). They have multi cylinder diesel engines, some turbocharged,
electric start and hydraulics for tipping and steering and are more expensive to make and operate. An A-
frame known as a Roll Over Protection frame may be fitted over the seat to protect the driver if the
dumper rolls over. Some dumpers have Falling Object Protection as well. Lifting skips are available for
discharging above ground level. Dumpers are the most common cause of accidents involving
construction plant. A dumper is an integral part of any construction work and hence its role is important
for completion of any constructional site. One of the problem are cited with dumper in the time and
energy for setting the huge dumper in the proper direction to dump the material. It in carrying and hence
the need of the project work riser which is about 3 way dropping dumper which can dump the material
in any direction except the frontal one without moving the truck in any direction.
 CHAPTER 2: OBJECTIVES
1. To provide 3- way damping facility for the dumper or tipper trailer.
2. To reduce the tipping time in vehicle and to increases the efficiency.
3. To improve the mechanical stability of the hydraulic ram by using joints in tipping vehicles.
These joints were replaced with Ball and socket joints or Universal joint.
4. To compare actual project model to the conventional trailer tipping system.
5. To compare Ball and socket joint with the Universal joint. Then to prefer the suitable
mechanism for tipping.
 CHAPTER 3: PURPOSE OF PROJECT

 To provide three axis damping facility for the tipping vehicle. Which improve dumping or tipping
characteristic of the tipping vehicle. This makes the vehicle compact and suitable for the very
small or narrow sites such as cites and town.

 It reduces the tipping time of the vehicle. The only one axis or one way tipping vehicle consumes
more time and energy than the three-way tipping vehicle for damping. It should give the vehicle a
back-and-forth moment for the vehicle to get into proper dumping position. Which is where waste
of time and energy takes place.

 The mechanical stability of joints used for the movement of the hydraulic ram must be improved
by replacing them with the two different joints such as Ball and socket joint and Universal joint.
These two joint posses there own mechanical superiority.

 To compare the traditional tipping vehicle or one way tipping vehicle with the three way tipping
vehicle. And to note the advantages and the disadvantages of them and to find their reliable
tipping technique for the dumping vehicle.

 To camper the Ball and socket joint mechanism with the Universal joint mechanism .And to check
there stability for the mechanical application which among them can sustain more mechanical
load. There stress application and concentration. To check which among this is reliable and
suitable for the three way tipping process.
 CHAPTER 4: LITERATURE SURVEY

A.S.Pal, A.G.Shahu, D.P.Mandaokar, R.I.Meshram, Ms. U.T.Dhanre, this paper concluded that the dumper
is a vehicle use for carrying various materials from one place to another and dump to a specific place. A
Dumper is a vehicle designed for carrying bulk material, often on building sites such gravels, sand, debris
or rubbles. Dumper are different from tipper trucks by motion: a dumper is usually an open 4- wheeled
vehicle, has its cabinet in front side of the load. A typical dump truck is equipped with an open-box bed,
which is hinged at the rear and equipped with hydraulic pistons to lift the front, allowing the material in the
trolley to be deposited ("dumped") on ground behind the truck at site of delivery. Ganesh Shinde, Prachi
Tawele, Laukik Raut, this paper concluded the survey in this regard in several automobile garages,
revealed the facts that mostly some difficult methods were adopted in unloading the materials from the
trailer. This paper has mainly focused on above difficulty. Hence a prototype of suitable arrangement has
been designed. The vehicles can be unloaded from the trailer in three axes without application of any
impact force. The flow control valve, which activates the ram of the hydraulic cylinder. Which lifting the
trailer cabin in require side. Further changes and working limitations will put this work in the main league
of use.

Sivasubramanian S Anandhu G K , Adarsh P , Joshua O , Logeshwaran K , this paper concluded that

Design of multiside tipper tilting mechanism is done to help unloading loose material on three side of the
tipper as per the availability of area. The design is safe for the maximum load of 16 MT which is rigid
enough to transport bulk material from one site to another site. Design of hinge is the more important part
for side tilting of the trolley. The benefits of 3D CAD and FEA packages can be taken for designing of
three way dumper construction trucks.Three way tipper can undump materials in all three sides. To control
the sides of tipping there needs to be required one more hudraulic cylinder apart from the main hydraulic
cylinder. Also we require special types of hinge joints .

Iftikarahamad H. Patel, Tushar M. Mudhe, Prasad M. Sherkar, Nilesh N. Saykar, Dinesh S. Pendawale ,
this paper concluded that In industrial applications and domestic considerations, tippers can pull a variety
of products including gravel, ,bulk material ,grain, sand, fertilizer, heavy rocks, etc. By considering wide
scope of the topic, it is necessary to do study on the topic of tipper mechanism in order to make it most
economical and efficient. In conventional system, tipper can unload only in one side by using hydraulic
jack or conveyor mechanism. By this research, it is easy for the driver to unload the trailer in three sides
and also it reduces time and fuel consumption.

Ganesh Shinde et al studied the „Modern 3 Ways dropping dumper‟ which has been conceived by
observing the difficulty in unloading the materials. The survey in this regard in several automobile
 garages, revealed the facts that mostly some difficult methods were adopted in unloading the materials
from the trailer. They have mainly focused on above difficulty. Hence a prototype of suitable arrangement
has been designed. The vehicles can be unloaded from the trailer in three axes without application of any
impact force. The Direction control valve which activates the ram of the hydraulic cylinder. Which lifting
the trailer cabin in require side? Further modifications and working limitations will put this work in the
main league of use. This concept saves time & energy which leads to efficient working.

Amboji Sudhakar R. et al studied that Tipper has lots of applications in today’s world. In industrial and
domestic considerations, tippers can haul a variety of products including gravel, potatoes, grain, sand,
compost, heavy rocks, etc. By considering wide scope of the topic, it is necessary to do study and research
on the topic of tipper mechanism in order to make it more economical and efficient. In existing system,
tipper can unload only in one side by using hydraulic jack or conveyor mechanism. By this research it is
easy for the driver to unload the trailer and also it reduces time and fuel consumption. For making tipper
mechanism with such above conditions both mechanisms namely hydraulic jack and conveyor mechanism
can be used. But eventually it comes with question that how both systems can arrange in single set up?
Answer to this question is nothing but this research work.

Alley & McLellan of Glasgow studied hydraulics was being incorporated into truck mounted dump bodies
relatively early in which record shows one of the first hydraulic dump bodies was the Robertson Steam
Wagon with a hydraulic hoist that received power from the truck’s engine. An independent steam engine
was developed another early hydraulic dump body in 1907 that was power-driven by steam.

Comparative advantages of Pneumatic power

The diaphragm pneumatically operated 2/2-way diaphragm valve has a low maintenance actuator.
Normally Closed, Normally Open and Double Acting control functions are available. The
modular actuator system permits a variety of options to be used such as tank bottom valves, T valves,
sampling valves, multi-port valves and tandem welded configurations. Pneumatic. Pneumatic cylinders
Our pneumatic cylinders will vary in appearance, size and function, they generally fall into one of the
specific categories.
 FACTOR AIR ELECTRICITY HYDRAULICS
Reliability Poor Good Good
Weight Light Heavy Light
Installation Simple Simple Simple
Control Mechanism Valves Switches and solenoids Valves
Maintenance Constant attention necessary Difficult, requiring Simple
skilled personnel
Vulnerability High pressure bottle Good Safe; broken
dangerous; broken lines cause lines cause
failure and danger to failure
personnel and equipment
Response Slow for both starting and Rapid starting, slow Instant starting
stopping stopping and stopping
Controllability Poor Fair Good
Quietness of Poor Poor Good
Operation
 CHAPTER 5: METHODOLOGY

THREE WAY TIPPING MODEL

Three-way tipping prototype

The three-way dumper or tipping vehicle uses the only one pneumatic or hydraulic ram as seen in the
regular tradition. The one-way tipping vehicle has a hydraulic moment which is controlled by the
universal joint or ball and socket joint which help for the right and left moment of hydraulic ram. The
hydraulic ram is placed on the fixed chassis where the chassis end of hydraulics ram is connected to the
ball and socket joint or universal joint mechanism then this joint is mounted to the chassis. And the piston
end of hydraulic cylinder is connected to the body pivoted joint. A special lock nut mechanism is used for
constraint the movement of the tipping body to the required fixed direction there lies a four-lock nut at the
four different corners of the tipping body. As the tipper need to lift the body in the backward direction as
they move the hydraulic ram lifts the body at the middle position of damper body while the rear end of
the damper body is hinged or fixed to the chassis rear end by the lock nut mechanism. For the left
moment of the damper the hydraulic ram lifts the mid of dumper. The one top and one rear lock nut
locked which are in the left direction of damper body. Due to the constrained moment of body in left
direction the hydraulic ram is pull towards left. The ball or universal joint gives the left moment of ram
similar process is carried in right direction.
PNEUMATIC AND HYDRAULIC SYSTEM

Pneumatic and hydraulic pressure sensors are transducers, generating an electrical signal in proportion to
the pressure they measure. This allows pressure to be monitored by a range of electronic devices.

The technology used most often in pneumatic and hydraulic pressure sensors uses a physical diaphragm,
often made of silicon, which bends as pressure is applied to it. The diaphragm is a strain gauge, which
varies its electrical resistance when force is applied – in this case, from pressure exerted by air, gas or
hydraulic liquid on the sensor. This resistance is used to modify the output voltage of the sensor

Some pressure sensors for power-steering applications use a linear variable differential transformer. This
includes a core that moves within a hollow tube to monitor the movement of a directional control valve
with high precision, allowing hydraulic fluid to flow into different areas of the system.

Many pressure sensors are now standalone, incorporating all the electronics and temperature compensation
technology they need into the unit itself.

However, as the pressure used in hydraulics systems increases to drive efficiency, and systems overall
become smaller and more compact, this isn’t always possible. An alternative is embedded sensors, where
the electronic components are located away from the sensor itself. This allows the sensor to work in
environments characterized by high temperature, vibration and radiation.

To withstand harsh environments, pressure-sensing chips have been designed such that the medium (gas or
liquid) only comes into contact with silicon, helping to protect electronic components. Some pressure
sensors for pneumatics and hydraulics function by measuring the expansion of a flexible tube, rather than
the pressure in the gas or liquid directly. This can help to detect blockages within the tube and monitor
pump performance
 A cross-section linear
variable differential transformer pressure sensor

Options and specifications

Pneumatic and hydraulic pressure sensors will usually have a range of pressures they can measure – for
example, 0 to 200 bar. They may also specify a safe limit of pressure, above which the unit may
malfunction, and a temperature range within which they will provide accurate readings (for example, -40ºC
to 85ºC).Most pneumatic and hydraulic pressure sensors will also specify an error band – for example,
±0.05% – indicating the level of accuracy of the sensor. Other options may include input and output
connection type and output signal, as well as physical specifications such as material (including for parts in
contact with liquid), dimensions and thread sizes.

Limitations

Hydraulics, in particular, are used in harsh and challenging environments involving extreme heat, water,
dust and even radiation. Hydraulics on heavy vehicles may be subject to physical shocks and vibration, and
may also be subject to sudden pressure spikes. Pressure sensors therefore need to be able to withstand these
conditions and still function correctly.
Basic Components of a Pneumatic System
A pneumatic system carries power by employing compressed gas, generally air, as a fluid for
transmitting energy from an energy-generating source to an energy-using point to accomplish
useful work. Figure 1.3 shows a simple circuit of a pneumatic system with basic components.

Figure 1.3 Components of a pneumatic system.

The functions of various components shown in Fig. 1.3 are as follows:

1. The pneumatic actuator converts the fluid power into mechanical power to perform useful
work.
2. The compressor is used to compress the fresh air drawn from the atmosphere.
3. The storage reservoir is used to store a given volume of compressed air.
4. The valves are used to control the direction, flow rate and pressure of compressed air.
5. External power supply (motor) is used to drive the compressor.
6. The piping system carries the pressurized air from one location to another.
Air is drawn from the atmosphere through an air filter and raised to required pressure by an air
compressor. As the pressure rises, the temperature also rises; hence, an air cooler is provided
to cool the air with some preliminary treatment to remove the moisture. The treated pressurized air
then needs to get stored to maintain the pressure. With the storage reservoir, a pressure switch is
fitted to start and stop the electric motor when pressure falls and reaches the required level,
respectively.
 The three-position change over the valve delivering air to the cylinder operates in a way
similar to its hydraulic circuit.

Comparison between Hydraulic and Pneumatic Systems

Usually hydraulic and pneumatic systems and equipment do not compete. They are so dissimilar that
there are few problems in selecting any of them that cannot be readily resolved. Certainly,
availability is one of the important factors of selection but this may be outweighed by other
factors. In numerous instances, for example, air is preferred to meet certain unalterable
conditions, that is, in“hot spots” where there is an open furnace or other potential ignition hazard or in
operations where motion is required at extremely high speeds. It is often found more efficient to use
a combined circuit in which oil is used in one part and air in another on the same machine or
process. Table 1.2 shows a brief comparison of hydraulic and pneumatic systems.

Table 1.2 Comparison between a hydraulic and a pneumatic system</table>

S. No. Hydraulic System Pneumatic System

It employs a pressurized liquid It employs a compressed gas, usually air, as

1. a fluid
as a fluid

2. An oil hydraulic system operates at A pneumatic system usually operates

pressures up to 700 bar at 5–10 bar

3. Generally designed as closed system Usually designed as open system

The system slows down when leakage occurs Leakage does not affect the system much
4.

5. Valve operations are difficult Valve operations are easy

6. Heavier in weight Lighter in weight

Pumps are used to provide Compressors are used to provide compressed

7. gases
pressurized liquids

8. The system is unsafe to fire hazards The system is free from fire hazards
 Automatic lubrication is provided Special arrangements for lubrication are
9.
needed

Comparison of Different Power Systems

There are three basic methods of transmitting power: electrical, mechanical and fluid power.
Most applications actually use a combination of the three methods to obtain the most efficient
overall system. To properly determine which method to use, it is important to know the salient
features of each type. For example, fluid systems can transmit power more economically over
greater distances than mechanical types. However, fluid systems are restricted to shorter
distances compared to electrical systems. Table 1.3 lists the salient features of each type.

Table 1.3 Comparison of different power systems</table>

Property Mechanical Electrical Pneumatic Hydraulic

Input energy I C engines I C engines Water/gas I C engines I C engines

source
Electric motor turbines Pressure tank Electric motor Air

turbine

Energy transfer Levers, gears, Electrical cables Pipes and hoses Pipes and hoses
element shafts and magnetic field

Energy carrier Rigid and elastic Flow of Air Hydraulic

objects electrons liquids

Power-to-weight Poor Fair Best Best

ratio

Torque/inertia Poor Fair Good Best

Stiffness Good Poor Fair Best

Response speed Fair Best Fair Good

Dirt sensitivity Best Best Fair Fair

Relative cost Best Best Good Fair

 Control Fair Best Good Good

Motion type Mainly rotary Mainly rotary Linear or rotary Linear or rotary

Future of Fluid Power Industry in India

The automation market in India is estimated to be 1/10ththat of China. If India has to become
one of the leading economies in the world, based on manufacturing, it will have to attain higher
technological standards and higher level of automation in manufacturing.

In the past 30 years, fluid power technology rose as an important industry. With increasing
emphasis on automation, quality control, safety and more efficient and green energy systems, fluid
power technology should continue to expand in India.

Fluid power industry is gaining a lot of importance in Indian industry. According to a recent
survey, it has shown a growth of 20% over the last 10 years and the size of market is estimated
to be close to 5000 crores per annum. This makes it a sizable industry segment in India. The
growth rate of this industry in India is typically about twice the growth of economy.
The reasons for this are three-fold:

1. As the economy grows, this industry grows.

2. There is a lot of automation and conversion into more sophisticated manufacturing methods
which increases the rate.

3. One of the interesting things happening in this industry is that India is becoming an attractive
destination for manufacturing and outsourcing of some of the products.

So these three aspects together create a situation where the growth of this industry is twice the
growth of GDP in India.

The fluid power sector in India consists of many sophisticated Indian industries and partnership
with number of global fluid power technology leaders that include Festo, Rexroth, Vickers,
Eaton, Parker Hannifin, Norgen, , Saucer Donfos, Yuken, Siemens, Shamban, Pall and Gates, ,
Rotex, , Janatics, Maxwell, Wipro Dynamatic Technologies and many more.
One of the major segments for hydraulic industry in India is mobile hydraulics. Because of massive
programs on road construction, there is a major expansion of construction machinery industry as
well. In addition to this, a trend toward the usage of more sophisticated hydraulics in tractors and
farm equipment is witnessed. The manufacturing industry in India is working toward higher
automation and quality of output. As Indian industry moves toward modernization to meet the
productivity and to compete in the global market, an excellent potential for the pneumatic
industry is expected in India.

Another area of interest for fluid power industry would be the opportunities in defense equipment.
Defense is a major market segment in Indian fluid power industry and contributes to over 40% of
the market demand. There is also a move toward products with miniature pneumatics, process
valves, servo drives, hydraulic power steering with new controls and sophisticated PLC,
microprocessor controls.

However, the key input required for the effective utilization of fluid power is education and
training of users. So there is a big need for education and training in design application and
maintenance of fluid power systems. Rexroth recently opened many competence centers in India
to train the manpower and to create awareness about the use of fluid power in Indian industry.
BALL AND SOCKET JOINT MECHANISM

Ball joints are spherical bearings that connect the control arms to the steering knuckles are used on
virtually every automobile made. They biologically resemble the ball-and-socket joints found in
most tetrapod animals. A ball joint consists of a bearing stud and socket enclosed in a casing; all these parts
are made of steel. The bearing stud is tapered and threaded, and fits into a tapered hole in the steering
knuckle. A protective encasing prevents dirt from getting into the joint assembly. Usually, this is a rubber-
like boot that allows movement and expansion of lubricant. Motion-control ball joints tend to have an
internal spring, which helps to prevent vibration problems in the linkage. The "offset" ball joint provides
means of movement in systems where thermal expansion and contraction, shock, seismic motion, and
torsional motions, and forces are present. A spherical rolling joint is a high-precision ball joint consisting
of a spherical outer and inner race separated by ball bearings. The ball bearings are housed in a spherical
retainer and roll along both the inner and outer surfaces. This design allows the joint to have very low
friction while maintaining a large range of motion and backlash as low as 1 μ m. SRJs are often used in
parallel robotics applications like a Stewart platform, where high rigidity and low backlash are essential.
Most SRJs designed with an offset housing, allowing the higher compressive loads in a smaller space.
Alternatively, the joint is assembled backwards for higher tensile load capability but moderate range of
motion. An alternative to the SRJ is the universal joint, which consists of two revolute joints. By using
spherical rolling joints instead of universal, designers can reduce the number of joints to achieve the same
result. Using a spherical joint as opposed to a universal joint also eliminates the problematic possibility of
a kinematic singularity plain spherical bearings can also introduced in place of SRJs. The cost of increased
friction, but offer an opportunity to preload the joint further. An automobile ball joint is a pivoting element
used to allow rotational motion between the parts of the steering and suspension systems. Depending on the
car development, in general, most automobile ball joints are made of a socket, bearing, plug, and ball stud.
The manufacturing process of assembling these parts is called as caulking process. Existing studies have
tried to simulate the caulking process, because it can affect the performance of the ball joint. Based on the
simulation results, it is possible to evaluate the caulking process, qualitatively, by inspecting the plastically
deformed shape. The numerical analysis of a ball joint is a set of coupled problems of rigid body and
flexible body. In this research, 3D flexible multibody dynamic analysis for a caulking process using cold
forging is simulated by DAFUL, which adopts an implicit integration method. In general, it is known that
results calculated from an implicit solver have less noise and are more stable. The structural responses of
stiffness and pull-out strength were then calculated, to check if the design satisfies the related requirements.
This analysis are sequentially performed by following the caulking process. In this process, the
deformation and stress results obtained from the analysis are saved. Sequential analysis has a strong
advantage, in that it can be analyzed by considering the deformed shape and residual stress. The axial and
lateral forces were applied to obtain its stiffness. This axial stiffness and this lateral stiffness can be
measured by the axial displacement and lateral displacement, respectively, which are generated in the ball
stud when the specified loads are applied. The pull-out strength means the required force to pull the ball
stud out from the ball joint assembly. A low pull-out strength can deteriorate the structural stability and
safety performances. Three process variables in caulking were set up as design variables. These were the
revolution speed, downward distance, and downward time of the roller. The process variables in the
existing products were determined through empirical case study, not by the systematic design methodology
proposed in the research. That is, the process variables in the existing products were set up by changing
them 5 to 10 times, performing dynamic analyses, and selecting one adequate case. The effects of design
variables with respect to pull-out strength, deformed depth of socket, and maximum stress generated in the
socket were obtained by introducing the DOE. The DOE is a statistical technique used to study the effects
of multiple variables simultaneously [8–10]. In this research, the extent of the DOE is confined to
conducting orthogonal array experiments and the ANOVA and selecting optimum levels. Furthermore,
conducting experiment in this study means performing numerical simulation. In this research, 𝐿9
orthogonal array was utilized, in which it is assumed that there is no interaction between design variables.
Then, nine flexible multibody dynamic analyses using DAFUL were performed. Based on the simulation
results, the design sensitivity over the design range was determined. In addition, the optimum process
variables were suggested. Because of such design characteristics and the calculation time of flexible
multibody dynamics, no numerical optimization algorithm could be applied. The process variables in this
study were suggested by applying DOE scheme, which could replace 27 dynamic analyses with 9 analyses
thus reducing the number of analyses by one-third while achieving the similar result. This research focuses
on the improvement of structural responses, considering the caulking process and guaranteeing the
caulking quality.
 Improved Ball-and-Socket Docking Mechanism

A proposed docking mechanism would form a ball-and-socket joint in the docked condition. The mechanism
could tolerate significant initial misalignment because it would include an alignment cone that would guide
the ball into the socket. Like other ball-and-socket joints, the joint would have three rotational degrees of
freedom. This docking mechanism would be a successor to the one described in "Passive Capture Joint With
Three Degrees of Freedom" (MFS-31146), NASA Tech Briefs, Vol. 22, No. 7 (July 1998), page 65. It would
contain most of the components of the prior mechanism, plus some additional components that would expand
its capabilities.

Like the prior mechanism, the proposed mechanism would comprise two assemblies, which are now denoted
the target ball assembly and the socket assembly (see figure). Each assembly would be a part of one of the two
vehicles or other objects to be docked with each other. As before, the socket assembly would contain all the
moving parts except the target ball. The socket would include the alignment cone, which would taper down to
a central cylindrical bore ending in a cup. The bore and cup would be dimensioned to receive the target ball.

As before, the socket assembly would include three locking balls, smaller than the target ball, that would
reside in cylindrical holes that would be bored at an angle to the cylindrical axis and that would penetrate the
wall of the central cylindrical bore. As before, the locking balls would be spring-loaded against hard stops on
a ring and the geometry of the ring and holes would be such as to allow the balls to intrude part way into the
central cylindrical bore.

When the target ball was inserted in the socket and pushed toward the cup, it would push the locking balls out
of the way, against their spring loads. As the target ball came to a stop in the cup, the springs would once
again push the locking balls inward against their hard stops, so that the locking balls would intrude into the
cavity behind the target ball. After this, any attempt to pull the target ball out of the socket would cause the
target ball to push the locking balls against their hard stops. The angles of the various surfaces in contact
would be such that the net forces would not push the locking balls out of the way and, instead, would lock the
balls in place even harder. Thus, the target ball could not be pulled out of the socket.
The proposed mechanism would include a preload/ejection actuator that was not part of the prior docking
mechanism. Once the target ball was latched in behind the locking balls, this actuator would push a spring
axially against the target ball to preload it against the locking balls and thereby eliminate any axial play in the
ball joint. Like the prior mechanism, the proposed mechanism would include an unlocking actuator that would
move the hard stops away from the locking balls to make it possible for the target ball to push the locking
balls out of the way and move out of the socket. Once the locking balls were unlocked by the unlocking
actuator, the preload/ejection actuator would push the target ball out of the socket.
UNIVERSAL JOINT

A universal joint (universal coupling, U-joint, Cardan joint, Spicer or Hardy Spicer joint, or Hooke's joint)
is a joint or coupling connecting rigid rods whose axes are inclined to each other, and is commonly used in
shafts that transmit rotary motion. It consists of a pair of hinges located close together, oriented at 90° to
each other, connected by a cross shaft. The universal joint is not a constant-velocity joint. A universal joint
is a connection between two objects, typically shafts, that allows relative rotation in two axes. It is made up
of two revolute joints with perpendicular and intersecting axes. The universal joint is considered to be one
of the oldest of all flexible couplings. It is commonly known for its use on automobiles and trucks. A
universal joint in its simplest form consists of two shaft yokes at right angles to each other and a four point
cross which connects the yokes. The cross rides inside the bearing cap assemblies, which are pressed into
the yoke eyes. Industrial applications operate continuously and with high torque loads. This demands
maximum strength and long life of the universal joint components. The modern universal joint has become
much more complex than its simple ancestor. The universal joints manufactured by Renold’s are made for
demanding industrial applications. Universal joints have several unique features that make them ideal for a
variety of applications. Most significant is the ability of the universal joint to operate at high misalignment
angles. Operating angles up to 15 degrees are not uncommon. Another feature of the universal joint is the
bearing and seal design that resists lubrication loss and contamination. This makes Renold’s Universal
 Joints suitable for applications where severe atmospheric conditions would put other couplings at a distinct
disadvantage. When compared to other high misalignment couplings, universal joints operate with
negligible backlash or radial clearance. The difference can be significant on applications where backlash is
critical. Renold’s Universal Joint yokes are precisely engineered using the latest design technologies. They
are manufactured as a-piece, closed bearing eye design, assuring the highest degree of strength and
minimum distortion under load. The cross design is even more important and has received careful
consideration through extensive computer analysis to match the strength characteristics of the yoke. Yokes
and crosses are both precision machined from heat treated alloy steels. They are assembled with minimum
clearance bearing units using the latest in roller bearing technology including crowned rollers that
minimize friction and provide long life.

UNIVERSAL JOINTS
GENERAL

A universal joint is a positive, mechanical connection between rotating shafts, which are usually not parallel,
but intersecting. They are used to transmit motion, power, or both.

The simplest and most common type is called the Cardan joint or Hooke joint. It is shown in Figure 1. It
consists of two yokes, one on each shaft, connected by a cross-shaped intermediate member called the spider.
The angle between the two shafts is called the operating angle. It Is generally, but n01 necessarily, constant
during operation. Good design practice calls for low operating angles, often less than 25°, depending on the
application. Independent of this gridelin ne, mechanical interference In the construction of Cardan joints limits
the operating angle to a maximum (often about 37½°), depending on its proportions.
General Characteristics of the Cardan Joint
A basic characteristic of the Cardan joint is the nonuniformity of motion transmission through the joint. The
angular-velocity ratio between input and output shafts varies cyclically at two cycles per revolution of the
input shaft. This fluctuation, which is accompanied by corresponding angular accelerations, increases with the
operating angle and can be as much as 15% of peak angular velocity (in the case of a 30° operating angle). In
selecting a joint the effect of these fluctuations on static torque, inertia torque and system performance needs
to be kept in mind.

The non-uniformity of the transmission can be eliminated by using two appropriately phased universal joints
in series, as shown in Figure 2. In such cases the velocity variation induced by one joint can be made to cancel
that of the ot her, thereby transmitting a constant (1:1) angular velocity ratio between shafts. The angular
velocity fluctuation of the intermediate shaft, however, cannot be avoided. Two universal joints in series also
permit coupling of two laterally displaced shafts (single Cardan joints are limited to intersecting shafts).

Single Cardan joints have the following advantages:

 Low side thrust on bearings.

 Large angular displacements are possible.
 High torsional stiffness.
 High torque capacity.

They have the following disadvantages:

 Velocity and acceleration fluctuation increases with operating angle.

 Lubrication is required to reduce wear.
 Shafts must lie in precisely the same plane.
 Backlash difficult to control.
 Kinematics

For a uniformly rotating input shaft, the output shaft angular - velocity and angular acceteration undergo two cycles
per revolution of the input shaft. The angular displacement of the output shaft does not precisely follow that of the
input shaft but leads or lags, again with two cycles per revolution. The angular-velocity variation as a function of
operating angle is illustrated in Figure 3.

The peak displacement lead (or laq). peak angular-velocity ratios (max. and min.) and peak angular-acceleration
ratios are shown as a function of operating angle in Table 1, which is reproduced from "The Analytical Design of
Universal Joints" by S.J. Baranyi, Design News, Sept. 1, 1969.

The table should always be consulted for exact numerical values. As a qualitative guideline, it may be kept in mind
that for small operating angles (say up to 10°), the angutar-displacement error (max. lead or lag), the deviation of
the max. and min. angular velocity ratios from unity, and the maximum angular acceleration ratio are very nearly
proportional to the square of the operating angle.

The static torque transmitted by the output shalt is equal to the product of the input to torque and the angular-
velocity ratio. The angular acceleration gives rise to an inertia torque, as well as to vibrations. The inertia torque
typically would be equal to the sum of the product of the angular acceleration of the output shaft (rad/sec²) and the
polar mass moment of inertia of the output shaft (in-lb-sec²) and the output torque (with the units indicated the
torque would be given in in-Ibs).

The inertia loading often determines the ultimate limit on the speed of operation of the joint. Recommended speed
limits vary depending on operating angle, transmitted power and nature of the applicatlon. Recommended peak
angular accelerations of the driven shaft vary from 300 rad/sec² to over 2000 rad/sec² in power drives. In light
instrument drives, the allowable accelerations may be higher. For an accurate determination of allowable speed, a
stress determination is necessary.

Determining the Maximum Inertia Torque

A universal joint operates at 250 RPM with an operating angle of 10°. Find the max. angular displacement lead (or
lag), max. and min. angular-velocity of output shaft and max. angular acceleration of output shaft. If the system
drives an inertia load so that the total inertial load seen by the output shaft (including its own inertia) can be
represented by a steel, circular disc attached to the output shaft (radius r = 3", thickness t = 1/4"), find the max.
inertia torque of the drive. From Table 1 with (ß = 10°, the max. displacement lead (or lag) = 0.439° = 26.3'. The
max. and min. angular-velocity ratios are given as 1.0154 and 0.9848, respectively. 
 LOCK NUT MECHANISM

These locking nuts are used to constraint the dumper to required direction as per the requirement of dumper
body moment . They are located in the four corner of the dumper. They make a locking position with the
chassis frame. As per the demanded direction elevation of the dumper body takes place . They can be
operated manually and automatically also as per the need of the user .

What is a lock nut and how does it work?

A lock nut is a nut that will resist loosening under vibration and torque. There are many types of lock nut but
they can be broadly divided into those which use friction to prevent loosening and those that have some form
of positive locking device. 
Friction lock nuts
Lock nuts that use friction to resist loosening usually require a greater torque to both tighten and loosen,
especially during the initial free rotation before they start to clamp down on the part. This means that they
cannot be spun rapidly along a long length of thread, greatly increasing manual assembly time.

Examples include:
A nylon lock nut, or nyloc nut, has a polymer collar, inserted into a recess at the top of the nut, which is
slightly smaller than the outer thread diameter. This collar deforms elastically when the nut is tightened,
causing friction. Because they rely on a polymer collar to provide friction, they are not reliable at elevated
temperatures.

Distorted thread locknuts have a section of thread that is shaped so that it must elastically deform to mate with
the threaded shaft. This causes a surface normal force and therefore the increased friction required for locking.
Because their construction is all metal they continue to work at elevated temperatures. Distorted thread
locknuts may be categorized according to where the distorted thread is located or the shape of the
distortion. For example, enter lock nuts have the distortion in the centre, allowing them to be started
from either end, while top lock nuts have a distorted thread at one end. 
  A jam nut, or half nut, is a thinner nut, designed to be tightened, or ‘jammed’ against
the primary nut. The jam nut should be tightened first and the main nut then fitted over
the top.

Positive locking nuts

Lock nuts that use a positive locking device can be freely rotated to both tighten and loosen, they
only lock when a positive action is performed to lock them in their current position, such as inserting
a pin. This can enable both more rapid assembly and more secure fastening. Examples include:

 A castellated nut, or castle nut, is a positive locking nut with a cylindrical extension at
one end containing notches. These bear against a pin inserted through the threaded
shaft, preventing the nut from rotating. A castellated nut may be secured with a cotter
pin, an R-clip or safety wire.
 A slotted nut is similar to a castellated nut but the notches are cut into the flat face of
the nut.
 CHAPTER-9

FACTORS DETERMINING THE CHOICE OF MATERIALS

The various factors which determine the choice of material are discussed below.

1. Properties:

The material selected must posses the necessary properties for the proposed application. The

various requirements to be satisfied can be weight, surface finish, rigidity, ability to withstand

environmental attack from chemicals, service life, reliability etc.

The following four types of principle properties of materials decisively affect their selection

a. Physical

b. Mechanical

c. From manufacturing point of view

d. Chemical

The various physical properties concerned are melting point, Thermal Conductivity,

Specific heat, coefficient of thermal expansion, specific gravity, electrical Conductivity,

Magnetic purposes etc.

 The various Mechanical properties Concerned are strength in tensile, compressive shear,

bending, torsional and buckling load, fatigue resistance, impact resistance, elastic limit, endurance

limit, and modulus of elasticity, hardness, wear resistance and sliding properties.

The various properties concerned from the manufacturing point of view are.

Cast ability,

weld ability,

Brazability,

forge ability,

merchantability,

surface properties,

shrinkage,

Deep drawing etc.

2. Manufacturing Case:

Sometimes the demand for lowest possible manufacturing cost or surface qualities obtainable

by the application of suitable coating substances may demand the use of special materials.

3. Quality Required:
 This generally affects the manufacturing process and ultimately the material. For example, it

would never be desirable to go for casting of a less number of components which can be fabricated

much more economically by welding or hand forging the steel.

4. Availability of Material:

Some materials may be scarce or in short supply. It then becomes obligatory for the designer

to use some other material which though may not be a perfect substitute for the material designed.

The delivery of materials and the delivery date of product should also be kept in mind.

5. Space Consideration:

Sometimes high strength materials have to be selected because the forces involved are high

and the space limitations are there.

6. Cost:

As in any other problem, in selection of material the cost of material plays an important part

and should not be ignored.

Some times factors like scrap utilization, appearance, and non-maintenance of the designed

part are involved in the selection of proper materials.

CHAPTER 6: EXPECTED RESULT

 Three way lifting of tipper or dumper is obtained.

 The tipping time of the vehicle reduces and work efficiency of vehicle increases.
 The mechanical efficiency of the joints are increased, By selecting the proper joints among ball
and universal joints. Friction among the surface is reduced by using these superior joints.
 The comparison between one and three way tipping vehicle is done. Therefore the three way
tipping vehicle is very efficient and economical for the usage than traditional tipping vehicle.
 The mechanically superior joints is choosen among the ball & socket and universal joints for
functioning of tipping model.
 CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION
The development of the project can be used to the various applications in effective manner. The
developed Prototype model exhibits the expected results. Further changes and working limitations will
put this work in the main league of use. This concept tells about saves time & energy which leads to
efficient working. This further line should be model using equations and an experimental validation. The
constructional work or the infrastructural work increase demands efficient and user friendly machinery
which will lead to more and most use of in three way dropping dumper.

The present material handling automobiles are having the trailer which has the lifting system to dump the
material towards one side i.e., rear side. For dumping the material at a particular point, the vehicle has to
be placed properly to affect the exact dumping point. At some places it will not be possible to position the
vehicle according to the dumping point since the roads or the space might be congested. So the material is
dumped in unrequired place which again need some manpower to shift it. In this present model an attempt
made to make the hydraulic system for rotating or tilting the trolley to any required angle. Therefore any
angle in the range of 900 towards right or left from normal position) and lift it to dump the material in that
position all by hydraulic actuation by hand lever pumping in this model and use the engine power for
hydraulic actuation in the actual vehicle.
 CHAPTER 8: FUTURE SCOPE
World progressing at faster rate which demands efficient working equipment's such as user-friendly
machinery and hence the three-way dumper may be used more than the two way or one way. The work
can be modified in further more on following basis: -Electronic sensors can be used to make the
operations easy. Oil pump can be used instead of Pneumatic cylinder. Capacity is be increased. Four-
wheel steering is adopted for more movement ability.
 CHAPTER 9: REFERENCES

 P. Shashidar, P. Laxminagaprasad, U. Anil Kumar, “Design and fabrication of modern three way
dumping trolley mechanism”, International Journal Of Advance Technology In Engineering And
Science ,Vol .No.4,Issue No.11, 2016,PP 27-34.
 Mr. Abhimanyu D. Deshmukh, Mr. VivekR.Patil Mr.Vivek S. Chavan3Mr.Mahesh M. Kadam
Mr. Dipak M. Bhosale , “3-Way Hydraulic Dumping Trolley” International Journal for Scientific
Research and Development”,Vol . ,Issue 12, ISSN:2321-0613, 2017,PP 917-920.
 Prof. R.S. Ambade, Shubham D. Navghare, Bhushan S. Kamatkar , “Universal Modern Trailer”,
International Journal of Engineering Technology Science and Research, ISSN 2394 –
3386,Volume 5, Issue 3 ,March 2018,PP 881- 888.
 Humane Yogesh A., Patil Jyotsna C., and Design and Fabrication of Three Way Tipper
Mechanism, International Journal of Research in Advent Technology, 2(4), 2014, 2321-9637.
 T. H. Fui and R. Abd. Rahman, Static and dynamics structural analysis of a 4.5 ton truck chassis.
Jurnal Mekanikal, No. 24, pages 56-67, 2007.
 Dubey and V. Dwivedi, Vehicle chassis analysis: load cases and boundary conditions for stress
analysis.‖ In 11th National Conference on Machines and Mechanisms. IIT, Delhi, India, December
2003.
 International Journal of Applied Engineering Research ISSN 0973-4562 Volume 10, Number 11
(2015) © Research India Publications.
 CHAPTER-11

LIST OF MATERIALS

Sl. No. PARTS Qty. Material

i. Pneumatic Double Acting Cylinder 1 M.S
ii. 3/2 solenoid Direction Control Valve 2 Aluminium
iv. Wheel 4 Rubber
v. Bearing with Bearing Cap 4 Fiber
vi. Polyethylene Tube - Polyurethene
vii. Hose Collar and Reducer - Brass
viii Stand (Frame) 1 Mild steel
Ix Dash Pad 1 Plastic

CHAPTER-12

COST ESTIMATION
1. MATERIAL COST:
 Sl. No. PARTS Qty. Material Amount (Rs)
i. Pneumatic Double Acting 2 M.S

Cylinder
ii. 3/2 solenoid Direction Control 2 Aluminium

Valve
iv. Wheel 4 Rubber
v. Bearing with Bearing Cap 4 Fiber
vi. Polyethylene Tube - Polyurethene
vii. Hose Collar and Reducer - Brass
Viii Stand (Frame) 1 Mild steel
Ix Dash Pad 1 Plastic
TOTAL =

2. LABOUR COST

LATHE, DRILLING, WELDING, GRINDING, POWER HACKSAW, GAS CUTTING:

Cost =

3. OVERHEAD CHARGES

The overhead charges are arrived by “Manufacturing cost”

 Manufacturing Cost = Material Cost + Labour cost
=
=

Overhead Charges = 20% of the manufacturing cost

=

TOTAL COST

Total cost = Material Cost + Labour cost + Overhead Charges

=
=

Total cost for this project =

DESIGN OF CYLINDER

Specification:-

Diameter = 40 mm
Stroke Length = 100 mm
Shaft Dia = 12 mm

LOAD CALCULATION:
 Cylinder bore = 16 Cms
= π x (16/2)²

= 201.06193 cm²

Max. Pressure = 130 kg/cm²

Load = Area x pressure

= 201.06193 x 130
= 26138.051 kg

DESIGN OF CYLINDER WALL THICKNESS:

Internal diameter = 16 Cms

Max. Internal Pressure = 130 kg/cm²

Max. Hoop stress = 360 kg/cm²

Let the external radius be r Cms.

Let the radial pressure and Hoop stress at any radius “x” be given by,

Px = (b / x²) – a --------------------- (a)

And Fx = (b / x₂) + a

At x = 8 Cms
 Fx = 360 kg/cm₂

360 = (b / 8²) + a ------------------ (b)

Subtracting Equation (a) from Equation (b)

360 – 130 = (b/64) + a – (b/64) + a

230 = 2a
∴a = 115

Substituting ‘a’ to Equation (a)

130 = (b/64) – 115

∴b = 245 x 64

b = 15680

; Px = 0We also know that x = r

0 = (b / r²) – 9

r² = b/a

r² = 15680 / 130 = 120.61538

∴r = 10.982504 Cms

Thickness of metal,
t = 10.982504 – 8 = 2.982504
t = 3 Cms (say)

DESIGN OF BALL BEARING

Bearing No. 6202

Outer Diameter of Bearing (D) = 35 mm

Thickness of Bearing (B) = 12 mm

Inner Diameter of the Bearing (d) = 15 mm

r₁ = Corner radii on shaft and housing

r₁ = 1 (From design data book)

Maximum Speed = 14,000 rpm (From design data book)

Mean Diameter (dm) = (D + d) / 2

= (35 + 15) / 2

dm = 25 mm

WAHL STRESS FACTOR

Ks = 4C – 1 + 0.65
4C – 4 C
 = (4 X 2.3) -1 + 0.65
(4 X 2.3 )-4 2.3

Ks = 1.85

DESIGN OF BALL BEARING

Bearing No. 6204

Outer Diameter of Bearing (D) = 47 mm

Thickness of Bearing (B) = 14 mm

Inner Diameter of the Bearing (d) = 20 mm

r₁ = Corner radii on shaft and housing

r₁ = 1 (From design data book)

Maximum Speed = 14,000 rpm (From design data book)

Mean Diameter (dm) = (D + d) / 2

= (47 + 20) / 2

dm = 33.5 mm
Spring index (C) = ( D /d )

= 12 / 2

C = 6

WALL STRESS FACTOR

Ks = 4C – 1 + 0.65
4C – 4 C

= (4 X 6) -1 + 0.65
(4 X 6 )-4 6

Ks = 1.258