2021/2022

MECH3429 AIR CONDITIONING AND REFRIGERATION

AIR CONDITIONING AND VENTILATION: Chapter 1 Introduction

Yuguo Li

THE PITTSBURGH PRESS - JUL 5, 1955

This Course

• Course code: MECH3429

• Course Title: Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Engineering
• Level: BEng
• Study loads: 180 hours; Lecture (39), Tutorial (2)
• Assessment: 20% IA + 15 PW (Lab)+65% EX
• Educational Objectives
• 1.to introduce students to the basic requirements for thermal
comfort and good indoor air quality in the built environment.
• 2.to enable students to understand the fundamental principles of
air conditioning and refrigeration engineering.
• 3.to study the characteristics and engineering design of heating,
ventilating, air conditioning and refrigeration (HVAC&R) systems.
• 4.to enable students to achieve effective and efficient design
solutions.
• By 30 August 2021, 64 students enrolled
Course content
Yuguo Li: Environmental control systems in buildings; importance and history of air conditioning and
refrigeration; system design factors, selection criteria and design strategies.
Basic psychrometric relationships for moist air; thermodynamic principles; use of psychrometric chart;
psychrometric processes for buildings; advanced psychrometric analysis and software.
Basic principles of thermal comfort; thermal environment and heat balance; comfort chart and equations;
environmental indices and important design factors; thermal comfort measurements and software tools.Basic
concepts of building thermal load estimation; outdoor and indoor design conditions; cooling load components
and principles; cooling and heating load determination; load calculation software and analysis. Objectives and
basic principles of energy calculations; calculation methodology; energy calculation methods; computer-based
building energy simulation and modelling; software tools and building energy analysis. Purpose of ventilation;
determination of ventilation rates; indoor air quality control measures; ventilation standards and calculations;
methods of ventilation; practical applications.

Ben Ho: Air-conditioning system classification and comparison; basic sub-systems of HVAC&R; major
equipment and components; system selection and design parameters; performance requirements and design
constraints; control devices; energy conservation. Types of heating systems; boilers, furnaces and other
heating devices; selection of fuels; combustion process and efficiency; types of boilers and major components.
Basic concepts and terminology; types of air side systems; design issues and selection criteria; air handling
units; air filtration; air duct and fan; smoke management. Types and properties of refrigerants; basic
refrigeration cycles and major system components; heat pumps; absorption refrigeration; selection and design
calculations of refrigeration systems.Types of condensers
of 56
in HVAC&R systems; evaporative cooling equipment;
3`
design considerations, operation and thermal analysis of cooling towers.
Mid-term: 8 October 2021 Mid-term

MECH3429 Air Conditioning and Refrigeration

Day: Tuesdays 13:30-15:20 (2 hrs.) + Fridays 14:30-15:20 (1 hrs.)
Venue: TBC
Lecturer: Prof. Yuguo Li (liyg@hku.hk) Course coordinator
Dr. Benjamin P.L. Ho (benjamin.ho@hku.hk)
First date of teaching Sept 3 and Last day Nov 30
Date
Topics Lecturer
Tue (2 hrs) Fri (1hr)
1 3-Sep Basic air conditioning and heat transfer Yuguo Li
2 7-Sep 10-Sep Basic air conditioning and heat transfer Yuguo Li
3 14-Sep 17-Sep Psychrometric principles and air conditioning systems Yuguo Li
4 21-Sep 24-Sep Heat and moisture transfer in buildings, and cooling and heating loads Yuguo Li
5 28-Sep 1-Oct Heat and moisture transfer in buildings, and cooling and heating loads Yuguo Li
6 5-Oct 8-Oct Airflow Yuguo Li
12-Oct 15-Oct Reading week
7 19-Oct 22-Oct Airflow / Refrigeration and use of refrigerants Yuguo Li / Benjamin Ho
8 26-Oct 29-Oct Vapour compression cycle Benjamin Ho
9 2-Nov 5-Nov Vapour compression cycle - components Benjamin Ho
10 9-Nov 12-Nov Absorption cycle Benjamin Ho
11 16-Nov 19-Nov Heat rejection Benjamin Ho
12 23-Nov 26-Nov Indoor air quality and ventilation Benjamin Ho
30-Nov Benjamin Ho

In-course Assessment – 20% (Yuguo – 10 %, Benjamin – 10%)

Laboratory – 15%
Examination – 65% Attempt 5 out of 6 questions (20 marks each) (Section A – 3Qs (Yuguo), Section B – 3Qs (Benjamin))
of 56 4`
Midterm feedback (2017-2018)
• The average mark was 72.4, though the standard derivation was a bit high (27).
• I am rather happy with the general performance.
• During marking, I found that a few students could not get the units right. This is a serious issue and it is observed not only for this year or for this subject.
I also observed in other tests that a small number of students get this wrong.
• The most common error in unit occurred for the enthalpy-humidity ratio. A small number of student also get the unit for refrigeration capacity OF THE
COOLING COIL wrong (the right unit should be kW).
• The conceptual questions in the mid-term are actually very simple. Many students go them right. Hope this is a good starting point for you to appreciate
the importance of some important concepts in air conditioning and ventilation.
• About 5 students appeared to know nearly nothing, which suggests to me that you might not have attended the class or facing some particular
difficulties. Please feel free to contact me for help if needed.

Midterm feedback (2018-2019)

• The average mark was 59.83 out of 100, though the standard derivation was a bit high (23.57).
• I am rather happy with the general performance. The marking was a bit tough, hence I am happy to add 5 marks to each of you, with a maximum of 20 marks out
of 20 marks (or 100 marks).
• The grade distribution based on the raw marks is unfortunately bimodal. A (27%), B (21%), C (8%), D (15%) and F (29%). I hope that those students with marks less
than 50% may reflect what went wrong and how it can be improved in the final examination.
• After moderation by adding 5 marks, the grade distribution becomes A (71%), B (12%), C (5%), D (2%) and F (10%).
• During marking, I found that a few students could not get the units right. This is serious issue and it is observed not only for this year or for this subject. I also
observed in other tests that a small number of students get this wrong.
• The most common error in unit occurred for the enthalpy-humidity ratio. A small number of student also get the unit for refrigeration capacity OF THE COOLING
COIL wrong (the right unit should be kW).
• The conceptual questions in the mid-term are actually very simple. Many students got them right. Hope this is a good starting point for you to appreciate the
importance of some important concepts in air conditioning and ventilation.
• A very small number of students appeared to know nearly nothing, which suggests to me that you might not have attended the class or facing some particular
difficulties. Please feel free to contact me for help if needed. of 56 5`
• Additionally, the attendance rate has been the best. Among 100 students in the class, only one student did not attend the mid-term test.
Chapter 1: Key topics

On air conditioning
Air conditioning, ventilation, HVAC, air handling unit, humidification of air

On heat transfer
Heat conduction, convection heat transfer, radiation heat transfer, thermal
insulation materials, equivalent thermal resistance, overall heat transfer
coefficient.

of 56 6`
What are the options to keep a space cool?
1. Place ice in the room
2. Open windows if outside is cool
3. Have a fan? Desk fan or even a simple fan?
4. Buy an air-conditioner? But how does an air conditioner work?

Outdoor: 30oC, 70% Relative humidity

<400 ppm CO2

Indoor:
24oC, 50% Relative humidity
<1000 ppm CO2
The basic idea of making something cold – How to heat/cool, and how to add or remove moisture?
throttling cooling

Expansion is a cooling process: Conceptual Physics with A throttle is the mechanism by which fluid flow
Paul Hewitt is managed by constriction or obstruction.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6S88XeA6fbM In thermodynamics, the Joule–Thomson effect (also known

as the Joule–Kelvin effect, found in 1852) describes the
temperature change of a real gas or liquid (as differentiated
from an ideal gas) when it is forced through a valve or
porous plug while keeping it insulated so that no heat is
exchanged with the environment.
Air conditioning refers to the control of air temperature,
moisture, and air quality as required by occupants, a process or a
product in an enclosed space. It is the technologies to maintain an
enclosure at a desired set of physical conditions.

Ventilation refers to supply of outdoor air into a space and

distribute within it

HVAC is a commonly used acronym for heating, ventilation, and

air conditioning. In Hong Kong, MVAC is also used.

Refrigeration is a process of producing a cool or cold medium,

i.e. low-temperature reservoir, by removing heat from it and
transferring it to a high-temperature reservoir, by different
mechanisms, e.g. vapor compression. Air conditioning has become
a common application of refrigeration
 Table 1. Properties of dry air at atmospheric pressure
T (oC)  (kg/m3) cp (kJ/kg.K)  (kg/s.m)  (cm2/s) k (W/m.K)  (cm2/s) Pr (-)
Air: main components are
nitrogen, oxygen, CO2 and -50 1.582 1.006 1.45×10-5 0.092 0.020 0.130 0.72
water vapor, only physically
0 1.293 1.006 1.71×10-5 0.132 0.024 0.184 0.72
combined
10 1.247 1.006 1.76×10-5 0.141 0.025 0.196 0.72
Air composition changes by 20 1.205 1.006 1.81×10-5 0.150 0.025 0.208 0.72
place, season and space etc.
30 1.165 1.006 1.86×10-5 0.160 0.026 0.223 0.72

No energy change occurs 60 1.060 1.008 2.00×10-5 0.188 0.028 0.274 0.70
when components of air are 100 0.946 1.011 2.18×10-5 0.230 0.032 0.328 0.70
mixed 𝑘 
Table 2. Properties of water at atmospheric pressure 𝛼= 𝑃𝑟 =
𝜌𝑐𝑝 𝛼
Water: The components are
T  (kg/m3) cp (kJ/kg.K)  (kg/s.m)  k (W/m.K)  ℎ𝑓𝑔
hydrogen and oxygen,
(oC) (cm2/s) (cm2/s) (kJ/kg)
chemically combined;
0 0.9999 4.217 0.01787 0.01787 0.56 0.00133 2501.0
Water composition remains 10 0.9997 4.192 0.01304 0.01304 0.58 0.00138 2477.7
the same 20 0.9982 4.182 0.01002 0.01004 0.59 0.00142 2454.2
30 0.9957 4.178 0.00798 0.00802 0.61 0.00146 2430.4
Energy change occurs in the 40 0.9923 4.178 0.00654 0.00659 0.63 0.00152 2406.8
formation of water 50 0.9881 4.180 0.00548 0.00554 0.64 0.00155 2382.8
100 0.9584 1.011 0.00283 0.00295 0.68 0.00166 2257.0
Heating is the transfer of energy to a space or to the air in a space by virtue of a
difference in temperature between the source and the space/air.
The input heat involved in a rise in the temperature of air is referred to as sensible
heat. Example 1 – Determine the rate at which
heat must be added to a 1 m3/s air stream to
𝑄𝑠ሶ = 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 𝑐𝑝𝑎 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 = 𝜌𝑄ሶ 𝑎 𝑐𝑝𝑎 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 increase its temperature from 13 oC to 24
where 𝑄𝑠ሶ is the rate of sensible heat transfer (W), oC?

• 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 mass flow rate of air (kg/s), Solution:

• 𝑐𝑝𝑎 constant pressure specific heat of air (J/kgK),
Using interpolation from Table 1, air density
• 𝑄ሶ 𝑎 the volume flow rate of air (m3/s), 𝜌 at the average temperature18.5oC is
1.247−1.205
• 𝜌 air density (kg/m3), 𝑡2 air temperature at exit, 1.205 + × 8.5 = 1.2407 ≈
10
• and 𝑡1 air temperature at inlet (oC), 𝜔 is the humidity ratio. 1.241kg/m ;
3

The specific heat capacity 𝑐𝑝𝑎 = 1006

Mass balance of dry air: 𝑚ሶ 𝑎1 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑎2 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 J/kg.K.
Mass balance of water: 𝑚ሶ 𝑎1 𝜔1 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑎2 𝜔2 , as no water vapor is added, hence
𝜔1 = 𝜔2 𝑄𝑠ሶ = 𝜌𝑄ሶ 𝑎 𝑐𝑝𝑎 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 = 1.241 × 1 ×
1006 × 24 − 13 = 13732.9 W=13.7 kW
Energy balance (ignoring the change in potential energy): 𝑚ሶ 𝑎1 ℎ1 + 𝑄𝑠ሶ = 𝑚ሶ 𝑎2 ℎ2
Hence 𝑄𝑠ሶ = 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 ℎ2 − ℎ1 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 𝑐𝑝𝑎 𝑡2 − 𝑡1
Humidification - Humidification refers to the addition of water
vapor to air.
𝑄ሶ𝑙 = ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝑚ሶ 𝑤
where 𝑄ሶ𝑙 is the rate of latent heat transfer (W), 𝑚ሶ 𝑤 rate of water
being vaporized (kg/s), and ℎ𝑓𝑔 enthalpy of vaporization (J/kg).

Example 2 – We like to add 1 kg water vapor per second to a

dry air stream. Assume that we use the saturated (liquid) water
in the humidifier. Calculate the required heat.

Solution: Other concepts

𝑄ሶ𝑙 = ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝑚ሶ𝑤 = 2454 × 1 = 2454 kW = 2.5 MW • Cooling is the transfer of energy from a space.
• Dehumidification refers to the removal of water vapor to
air.
• Ventilation refers to the supply of outdoor “fresh” air into a
space and distribute within it.
• Air cleaning refers to the removal of airborne pollutants from
air.
Basic refrigeration cycle https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gVLhrLTF878
Would opening
a refrigerator
door serve as a
good air
conditioner?
The idea of central air conditioning

Air loop

Chiller: Refrigeration produces cold medium – chilled water Secondary

components

Primary
components
The idea of central air conditioning

Air loop

Boiler: we need a hot medium for heating purposes. Not commonly used in HK buildings, but in
hospitals and hotels Secondary
components

Primary
components
The idea of central air conditioning

Air loop
AHU: air handling unit

Primary
components
The idea of central air conditioning

Air loop

Air distribution system

The idea of central air conditioning

Air loop

Secondary
components

Primary
components
 33 oC, 28 oC Control Loop

33 oC 27 oC

12 oC 10 oC
25 oC
12 oC 49 oC 35 oC
35 oC

7 oC 38 oC 29 oC
7 oC 3 oC 29 oC

13 oC 13 oC

Air distribution Chilled water Refrigeration Cooling tower

Introduction to heat transfer

with relatively hot body,

fluid going up, and in
opposite way

𝑇𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑇𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑

𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
Figure 5. Modes of heat transfer (conduction, convection and radiation) for a wall
 𝑘𝐴
1D heat conduction 𝑄 = 𝑇0 − 𝑇𝐿 , where k is the thermal conductivity of the wall material(s) [W/mK].
𝐿
𝜕𝑇
Fourier’s Law 𝑄 = 𝑘𝐴
𝜕𝑥
Materials such as fiberglass have very low thermal conductivity, and they are called thermal insulation materials.
𝑘𝐴 𝑇0 −𝑇𝐿 𝐿
We write 𝑄 = 𝑇0 − 𝑇𝐿 = , where 𝑅𝑡ℎ = 𝑘𝐴 is the equivalent thermal resistance,
𝐿 𝑅𝑡ℎ

or 𝑇0 − 𝑇𝐿 = 𝑄𝑅𝑡ℎ
For thermal resistance in series,
𝑇1 − 𝑇2 = 𝑄𝑅𝑡ℎ1 ; 𝑇2 − 𝑇3 = 𝑄𝑅𝑡ℎ2 ; 𝑇3 − 𝑇4 = 𝑄𝑅𝑡ℎ3 ;
hence 𝑇1 − 𝑇4 = 𝑄 𝑅𝑡ℎ1 + 𝑅𝑡ℎ2 + 𝑅𝑡ℎ3 = 𝑄𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 like series
We define overall heat transfer coefficient resistance
1
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑈 𝑇1 − 𝑇4 , where 𝐴𝑈 = 𝑅
𝑡𝑜𝑡

1 1 1 1 𝑇1 −𝑇2
For thermal resistance in parallel 𝑅 = +𝑅 +𝑅 , and 𝑄 =
𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝑅𝑡ℎ1 𝑡ℎ2 𝑡ℎ3 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡

When there is a convective heat transfer, we need to use the Newton’s law of convection, which states
1
𝑄 = 𝐴ℎ 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 − 𝑇𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 or 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 − 𝑇𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝐴ℎ 𝑄 = 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 𝑄
1
where ℎ is the convective heat transfer coefficient. Thus, the thermal resistance for a convective boundary is 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = 𝐴ℎ
Thermal radiation a result of the propagation of electromagnetic waves.
The total emission power of a surface is defined as the total rate of radiant energy emission
in all directions over all the wavelengths per unit area of the surface.
• For a blackbody, the Stefan-Boltzman law 𝐸𝑏 = 𝜎𝑇 4 , where 𝜎 = 5.67 × 10−8 W/Km2 is
the Stefan-Boltzman constant.
• For a grey surface 𝐸𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑦 = 𝜀𝜎𝑇 4 .
• Consider a beam of radiation that is incident on a thin flat body, we define the reflectivity
𝜌, the absorptivity 𝛼 and the transmissivity 𝜏, we have 𝜌 + 𝛼 + 𝜏 = 1.
Radiation exchange between
e= emission two gray surfaces.
Kirchhoff’s law states that for a surface, 𝜀 = 𝛼.

𝑄1
We can derive that the energy exchange rate between two very large surfaces due to radiation
is
1 1 1
𝑄1 = 𝑄2 = 𝜀𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝜎 𝑇14 − 𝑇24 , where = + − 1.
𝜀𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝜀1 𝜀2

If one of the surface is black, e.g. surface 1, then 𝑄1 = 𝑄2 = 𝜀2 𝜎 𝑇14 − 𝑇24 , and for two
black surfaces 𝑄1 = 𝑄2 = 𝜎 𝑇14 − 𝑇24 . 𝑄2
Example 3. The exterior wall of a large industrial building has a layer of fiberglass
insulation of thermal conductivity 0.035 W/mK, and thickness 8 cm, sandwiched between
two plywood sheets of thermal conductivity 0.11 W/mK and thickness 1 cm. The inner and
outer surfaces of the wall are at 15oC and 32oC respectively. Calculate the overall heat
transfer coefficient, and the steady heat flow rate through the wall per unit wall area.
Example 3. The exterior wall of a large industrial building has a layer of fiberglass
insulation of thermal conductivity 0.035 W/mK, and thickness 8 cm, sandwiched between
two plywood sheets of thermal conductivity 0.11 W/mK and thickness 1 cm. The inner and
outer surfaces of the wall are at 15oC and 32oC respectively. Calculate the overall heat
transfer coefficient, and the steady heat flow rate through the wall per unit wall area.

Solution:
𝐿 0.01
𝑅𝑝𝑙𝑦𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑑 = 𝐴𝑘 = 1×0.11 = 0.0909 K/W
𝐿 0.08
𝑅𝑓𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝐴𝑘 = 1×0.035 = 2.286 K/W
Hence 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑅𝑝𝑙𝑦𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑑 + 𝑅𝑓𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 + 𝑅𝑝𝑙𝑦𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑑 = 0.0909 × 2 + 2.286 = 2.4678 K/W
1 1
𝑈 = 𝐴𝑅 = 1×2.4678 = 0.405 W/Km2
𝑡𝑜𝑡

𝑇𝑜 −𝑇𝑖 32−15
𝑄= = 2.4678 = 6.89 W
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡
Example 4. The inner section of a wall is made by placing slabs of fiberglass of thermal conductivity 0.038 W/mK in the
vertical spaces formed in a wooden frame of thickness 150 mm. The thermal conductivity of the framing material is 0.15
W/mK. The temperatures of the inner and outer surfaces of the wall section are 18oC and 6 oC respectively. The area of the
insulation is 75% of the total area of the wall.
Calculate the total heat flow rate through the wall per unit area, and the heat flow rate through the insulation.
Example 4. The inner section of a wall is made by placing slabs of fiberglass of thermal conductivity 0.038 W/mK in the
vertical spaces formed in a wooden frame of thickness 150 mm. The thermal conductivity of the framing material is 0.15
W/mK. The temperatures of the inner and outer surfaces of the wall section are 18oC and 6 oC respectively. The area of the
insulation is 75% of the total area of the wall.
Calculate the total heat flow rate through the wall per unit area, and the heat flow rate through the insulation.

Solution: This is a resistance in parallel problem. Consider the wall has an area of A m2.
𝐿𝑖 150×10−3 5.26
𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑠 = = = K/W
𝐴𝑖 𝑘 𝑖 0.75𝐴×0.038 𝐴
𝐿𝑓 150×10−3 4
𝑅𝑓𝑟 = 𝐴 = = 𝐴 K/W
𝑓 𝑘𝑓 0.25𝐴×0.15

1 1 1 1 1
= +𝑅 =𝐴 + = 0.44𝐴;
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑓𝑟 5.26 4

𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑜 18−6
Hence 𝑄 = 𝐴𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡
= 2.27
= 5.29 W/m2

Consider the heat flow path through the insulation area

𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑜 18−6
𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑠 = = = 2.28 W/m2
𝐴𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑠 5.26
Example 5. A cold room maintained at -10 oC has a wall made of two layers of different materials. The inner layer is 2 cm
thick, and has a thermal conductivity of 0.1 W/mK. The outer layer is 4 cm thick and has a thermal conductivity of 0.04
W/mK. The outside ambient air temperature is 30 oC. The convective heat transfer coefficients on the outside and inside of
the wall are 40 W/m2K and 20 W/m2K respectively.
Calculate the rate of heat flow through the wall, and the temperature of the interface between the two layers making the
wall.
Example 5. A cold room maintained at -10 oC has a wall made of two layers of different materials. The inner layer is 2 cm
thick, and has a thermal conductivity of 0.1 W/mK. The outer layer is 4 cm thick and has a thermal conductivity of 0.04
W/mK. The outside ambient air temperature is 30 oC. The convective heat transfer coefficients on the outside and inside of
the wall are 40 W/m2K and 20 W/m2K respectively.
Calculate the rate of heat flow through the wall, and the temperature of the interface between the two layers making the
wall.

Solution: Consider unit area A = 1m2 of the wall.

1 1 1 1
𝑅𝑐𝑖 = 𝐴ℎ = 1×20 = 0.05 K/W; 𝑅𝑐𝑜 = 𝐴ℎ = 1×40 = 0.025 K/W
𝐿 0.02 𝐿 0.04
𝑅𝑤𝑖 = 𝐴𝑘 = 1×0.1 = 0.2 K/W; 𝑅𝑤𝑜 = 𝐴𝑘 = 1×0.04 = 1.0 K/W
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑅𝑐𝑖 + 𝑅𝑤𝑖 + 𝑅𝑤𝑜 + 𝑅𝑐𝑜 = 1.275 K/W; aircraft situation: high
convection
𝑇𝑜 −𝑇𝑖 30+10 pressure and high temp
𝑄= = = 31.37 W inside, low pressure and
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 1.275
temp outside, and Twif is
negative, condensation
Between the interface and the outside ambient, we have occur which is problem
𝑇𝑜 −𝑇𝑤𝑖𝑓 30−𝑇𝑤𝑖𝑓
𝑄=𝑅 = = 31.37 W, hence 𝑇𝑤𝑖𝑓 = −2.15 oC.
𝑤𝑜 +𝑅𝑐𝑜 1.025
Example 6. A concrete wall of thickness 8 cm and thermal conductivity 1.6 W/mK, absorbs solar radiation at a steady rate of
300 W/m2. The heat transfer coefficient between the outer surface of the wall and the ambient at 30 oC is 25 W/m2K. The heat
transfer coefficient between the room air at 20 oC and the inner surface of the wall is 10 W/m2K.
Calculate the rate of heat flow into the room, and the temperature of the outer surface of the wall.
Example 6. A concrete wall of thickness 8 cm and thermal conductivity 1.6 W/mK, absorbs solar radiation at a steady rate of
300 W/m2. The heat transfer coefficient between the outer surface of the wall and the ambient at 30 oC is 25 W/m2K. The heat
transfer coefficient between the room air at 20 oC and the inner surface of the wall is 10 W/m2K.
Calculate the rate of heat flow into the room, and the temperature of the outer surface of the wall.

Solution:
Consider a unit area of the wall.
1 1 1 1 𝐿 0.08
𝑅𝑐𝑖 = 𝐴ℎ = 1×10 = 0.1 K/W; 𝑅𝑐𝑜 = 𝐴ℎ = 1×25 = 0.04 K/W; 𝑅𝑤 = 𝐴𝑘 = 1×1.6 = 0.05 K/W
Energy balance at the outer surface node
𝑄𝑜 + 300 = 𝑄𝑖 ;
30−𝑇𝑠𝑜 30−𝑇𝑠𝑜
𝑄𝑜 = = ; Rw= conduction
𝑅𝑐𝑜 0.04
𝑇 −20 𝑇𝑠𝑜 −20
𝑄𝑖 = 𝑅𝑠𝑜+𝑅 = .
𝑤 𝑐𝑖 0.15

Rco, Rci = convection

Substitute 𝑄𝑜 and 𝑄𝑖 into the energy balance equation, gives 𝑇𝑠𝑜 = 37.37 oC.
Then we can find that 𝑄𝑜 = −184.2 W/m2, suggesting that some of radiation absorbed by the wall is lost to the ambient air by
convection.
Example 7. The external vertical wall of a room, made of thin metal, absorbs solar radiation at the rate of 480 W/m2.
The wall loses heat to the air on the outside due to wind, and to the air on the inside due to natural convection. The
wind speed is 8 m/s. The outside and inside air temperatures are 31oC and 29oC respectively. Assuming steady-state
heat transfer, calculate the temperature of the wall.

1/4
Given: Forced convection ℎ𝑤 = 2.8 + 3𝑉; and the natural convection ℎ𝑐 = 4.2 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎
Example 7. The external vertical wall of a room, made of thin metal, absorbs solar radiation at the rate of 480 W/m2.
The wall loses heat to the air on the outside due to wind, and to the air on the inside due to natural convection. The
wind speed is 8 m/s. The outside and inside air temperatures are 31oC and 29oC respectively. Assuming steady-state
heat transfer, calculate the temperature of the wall.

1/4
Given: Forced convection ℎ𝑤 = 2.8 + 3𝑉; and the natural convection ℎ𝑐 = 4.2 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎

Solution Assume that the metal wall is a good conductor of heat so that the temperature variation across its thickness is
negligible. The wall temperature is 𝑇𝑤 . The radiation transfer is also negligible.

The energy balance equation for the wall is

𝑄𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 = 𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 + 𝑄𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 or 480 = ℎ𝑤 𝑇𝑤 − 31 + ℎ𝑐 𝑇𝑤 − 29
That is 480 = 2.8 + 3𝑉 𝑇𝑤 − 31 + 4.2 𝑇𝑤 − 29 1/4 𝑇𝑤 − 29

We let 𝑇𝑤 − 29 = 𝜃, then 480 = 2.8 + 24 𝜃 − 2 + 4.2𝜃1.25 , by trial and error, 𝜃 = 15.2 oC, so that 𝑇𝑤 = 29 +
15.2 = 44.2 oC.
Review
On air conditioning
Air conditioning, ventilation, HVAC, air handling unit, humidification of air,

On heat transfer
Heat conduction, convection heat transfer, radiation heat transfer, thermal insulation materials, equivalent thermal
resistance, overall heat transfer coefficient.
Formulas:

▪ Sensible heat 𝑄𝑠ሶ = 𝑚ሶ 𝑎 𝑐𝑝𝑎 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 = 𝜌𝑄ሶ 𝑎 𝑐𝑝𝑎 𝑡2 − 𝑡1

▪ Latent heat 𝑄ሶ𝑙 = ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝑚ሶ 𝑤

𝑘𝐴 𝑇0 −𝑇𝐿
▪ Conduction 𝑄 = 𝑇0 − 𝑇𝐿 = , or 𝑇0 − 𝑇𝐿 = 𝑄𝑅𝑡ℎ
𝐿 𝑅𝑡ℎ

1
▪ For thermal resistance in series, 𝑇1 − 𝑇4 = 𝑄 𝑅𝑡ℎ1 + 𝑅𝑡ℎ2 + 𝑅𝑡ℎ3 = 𝑄𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 ; 𝑄 = 𝐴𝑈 𝑇1 − 𝑇4 , where 𝐴𝑈 = 𝑅
𝑡𝑜𝑡

1 1 1 1 𝑇1 −𝑇2
▪ For thermal resistance in parallel 𝑅 = +𝑅 +𝑅 , and 𝑄 =
𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝑅𝑡ℎ1 𝑡ℎ2 𝑡ℎ3 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡

1
▪ Convection 𝑄 = 𝐴ℎ 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 − 𝑇𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 or 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 − 𝑇𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝐴ℎ 𝑄 = 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 𝑄 35 `