Classification of Computer

Computers are available in many sizes and types and also can fit in the palm in
our hand to those computers that occupied the entire room. Computer are used in
different sectors and may be differ according to speed, storage, capacity, size and
nature. It may be special purpose and general purpose.

Special Purpose computer can perform only one type of specific task like
Seismograph, Traffic Light Controlling Computer etc

General Purpose computer are versatile and diligent which performs in most of
the sectors.
1. On the basics of working principle
There are three types of computer on the basics of working principle.
➢ Analog Computer.
➢ Digital Computer
➢ Hybrid Computer
★ Analog Computer:
Analog computer is the special purpose computer. It represents the data as
physical quantities such as current , pressure, temperature, voltage etc. They were
especially useful in the simulation and evaluation of dynamic situations such as
flight of a space capsule or the changing weather patterns over a certain area. The
accuracy of analog computers are low.

Examples: Speedometer, Odometer, Seismograph etc.

★ Digital Computer:
Digital computer is the general purpose computer, it uses discrete data like
letters, numbers , symbols etc. and process data in binary digits i.e 0s and 1s. It can
be also powerful computers like super, mainframe, mini and micro computers. . It
performs task to control industrial process and regulate the operations of machines,
analyze and organize vast amount of business data and simulate the behaviour of
dynamic systems. They are faster and accurate as compared to analog computer.

★ Hybrid Computer:
The combination of computers which is capable of processing in both analog
and digital signals. It accepts input in the form of analog signals , process data
digitally and gives output either digitally or analog form. They are used in
industrial application, airplanes, ships hospital etc. The widest application of hybrid
computer take place in situation which require real time solutions. Example: ECG
(Electronic Cardio Graph).
Difference between Analog and Digital Computer:
Analog Computer Digital Computer
The computer which is based on continuous The computer which is based on discrete
data. data.

It measures only physical values like current, It measures digits i.e 0 and 1.
spped, voltage etc.

It is used for specific purpose. It is used for general purpose.

Its has no memory or less memory. It has high storage capacity.

They are slower than digital computer. They are faster than analog computer.

Eg:- Speedometer, Seismograph, Thermometer Eg:- Desktop, Palmtop, Laptop etc.

etc
2. On the basics of Size
● Super Computer
● Mainframe Computer
● Mini Computer
● Micro Computer
★ Super Computer:- (CDC 6600, 1964,
A Super Computer is the fastest, powerful,
expensive computer. It is specially used for
weather forecasting, biomedical research ,
remote sensing, aircraft design etc. The primary
use for supercomputers is in scientific
computing which requires high powered Muni Bahadur Shakya of Nepal had
computers to perform complex calculation. constructed a supercomputer in
Scientific organization, rendering complex 2063 BS by joining 16
formulas etc. microcomputers.
Use: Weather forecasting, Aircraft and Space
1st Super computer:- CDC 6600,
engineering, Scientific research etc.
Examples: CRAY 3, CYBER 205, NEC-205 1964, Seymour Cray
★ Mainframe Computer
Mainframes are large powerful and expensive
computers used mainly by large companies for bulk
data processing, commercial data processing and other
large scale operations such as bank transactions. It may
have hundred or even thousand of terminals. Its word
length is more than 64 bits. IBM built first mainframe
computer in 1964. The main difference between
supercomputer and mainframe computer is that super
computer channels all its power into executing a few
programs as fast as possible whereas as mainframe
uses its power to execute many program concurrently. 1st Mainframe computer:-
Use: Industries, Bank, Airplanes, Air Traffic Control, Harvard Mark-I, 1943
Census etc. (Not completed) ,
Example: IBM ES000, VAX 8000, IBM 370 etc Howard Aiken.
★ Mini Computer:-(1960)
Mini Computer are also multi user
computer like mainframe computer. They are
smaller than mainframe computer. A
minicomputer may have hundred or less
number of terminals. It is typically used for
middle sized business who needed more power
and memory that could not be obtained with
micro computer. They can process more data
and support more Input and Output devices. It
is also called Mid Ranged Computer. It was
developed by Benjamin Gurley in 1960.
Use: University, Scientific Research, Industries
etc.
Example: PDP 1, IBM 8000 series VAX 750
etc
★ Micro Computer
Micro Computer is a small sized
personal computer that designed for an
individual having a microprocessor inside it.
These computers are called micro because
of the use of microprocessor as processing
unit.
Use: Entertainment, Desktop Business etc.
Example: IBM PC, Apple, Dell etc.
There are different microcomputers :
○ Desktop Computer
○ Workstation
○ Laptop
○ Palmtop
○ Tablet PC Micral is first micro computer
○ Smart Phone released in 1973.
○ Ultrabook
On the basis of Brand
★ IBM PC:-
The computers that are manufactured by IBM
are IBM PC. The full form of IBM is International
Business Machine is one of the leading companies
of the world manufacturing computers. It was
established in 1924 and started manufacturing
mainframe, mini and micro computer in 1945 on
wards.

★ IBM Compatible PC:-

The computers that are manufactured by
other computer manufacturing companies but
having the same technology and features are
known as IBM Compatibles. Examples are AST,
ALR, Sherry, etc.
★ Apple Macintosh:-
The computers that are manufactured by
Apple Company but having different architecture
and configuration than IBM Compatibles are
known as Apple Macintosh. Apple Company was
established in late 1970s and giving a good
competition to IBM company.

On the basis of Model

There are three types (model) of computer that are as follows:
1. XT Computers (Extended Technology)
2. AT Computers (Advanced Technology)
3. PS/2 Computers (Personal System 2)
★ XT Computers :
The computers having 8086 or 8088
microprocessor and processing speed of 4.77
Mhz are known as XT Computers. These
computers are outdated now because they cannot
run on latest software versions.
★ AT Computers:-
The computers having 80286 or later
versions of microprocessors are known as AT
Computers. Their storage capacity as well as
speed is much higher than XT computers.
Besides that they have math co-processor to
support main processors to perform complex
mathematical calculations.
★ PS/2 computers:-
IBM developed another model of computer in 1990 that have much advanced
architecture design that AT computers. They are known as PS/2 computers. They
are much faster than AT computers. Most of the laptop computers based on PS/2
model use OS/2 or UNIX operating system and 1.44 MB floppy diskette.
Concept of computer architecture and Organization:
Computer Architecture:
Computer Architecture is a blueprint for design and implementation of a computer system. It provides
the functional details and behaviour of a computer system and comes before computer organization.
Computer architecture deals with 'What to do?'
Computer Organization:
Computer Organization is how operational parts of a computer system are linked together. It implements
the provided computer architecture. Computer organization deals with 'How to do?'
Computer system:
➢ At its most fundamental level, a computer consists of a control unit, an arithmetic logic unit (ALU), a
memory unit, and input/output (I/O) controllers.
➢ The ALU performs simple addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and logic operations such as OR
and AND.
➢ The memory stores the program’s instructions and data.
➢ The control unit fetches data and instructions from memory and uses operations of the ALU to carry out
those instructions using that data. (The control unit and ALU together are referred to as the central
processing unit [CPU].)
➢ When an input or output instruction is encountered, the control unit transfers the data between the
memory and the designated I/O controller.
CPU
CPU is fabricated as a very large scale integrated circuit (VLSI) and has these parts
−
● Instruction register − It holds the instruction to be executed.
● Decoder − It decodes (converts to machine level language) the instruction and
sends to the ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit).
● ALU − It has necessary circuits to perform arithmetic, logical, memory, register
and program sequencing operations.
● Register − It holds intermediate results obtained during program processing.
Registers are used for holding such results rather than RAM because accessing
registers is almost 10 times faster than accessing RAM.
Bus
Connection lines used to connect the internal parts of the microprocessor chip is called bus. There are three types
of buses in a microprocessor −
● Data Bus − Lines that carry data to and from memory are called data bus. It is a bidirectional bus with
width equal to word length of the microprocessor.
● Address Bus − It is a unidirectional responsible for carrying address of a memory location or I/O port from
CPU to memory or I/O port.
● Control Bus − Lines that carry control signals like clock signals, interrupt signal or ready signal are called
control bus. They are bidirectional. Signal that denotes that a device is ready for processing is called ready
signal. Signal that indicates to a device to interrupt its process is called an interrupt signal.
Memory
Microprocessor has two types of memory
● RAM − Random Access Memory is volatile memory that gets erased when
power is switched off. All data and instructions are stored in RAM.
● ROM − Read Only Memory is non-volatile memory whose data remains intact
even after power is switched off. Microprocessor can read from it any time it
wants but cannot write to it. It is preprogrammed with most essential data like
booting sequence by the manufacturer.
Instruction Format, Instruction Set & Instruction Cycle:
➢ Instruction:
○ An instruction is an order given to computer processor by a computer program. At the lowest
level, each instruction is a sequence of 0s and 1s that describes a physical operation the
computer is to perform (such as "Add")
➢ Instruction Format:
○ An instruction format defines the different component of an instruction. The main components
of an instruction are opcode (which instruction to be executed) and operands (data on which
instruction to be executed).
■ Opcode: The operation code (opcode) represents action that the processor must execute. It
tells the processor what basic operations to perform.
■ Operands: The operand code defines the parameters of the action and depends on the
operation. It specifies the locations of the data or the operand on which the operation is to
be performed. It can be data or a memory address.
E.g. ADD B // Add the contents of register B to the content of the accumulator.
MOV C, A // Copy the content of accumulator in the register C.
➢ Instruction Set
○ An instruction set is the set of instructions. It is a part of computer architecture. It
specifies the operations, operands, and sequence for the processing of instructions. They
are the set of all basic operations for a processor to complete. All programs do
communicate with the processor using these instruction sets. These involve a series of
logical operations that perform a complete task. The processor understands the coded
instructions.
➢ Instruction Cycle:
○ The instruction cycle (also known as the Fetch–Decode–Execute cycle or the
fetch-execute cycle) is the basic operational process of a computer system.
○ The time taken for the execution of an instruction is known as Instruction Cycle.
○ It is the process by which a computer retrieves a program instruction from its memory,
determines what actions the instruction describes, and then carries out those actions.
○ This cycle is repeated continuously by a computer's central processing unit (CPU), from
boot-up until the computer has shut down
A instruction cycle involves four steps:
1. Fetching: The processor fetches the
instruction from the memory. The
fetched instruction is placed in the
Instruction Register. Program Counter
holds the address of next instruction to
be fetched and is incremented after each
fetch.

2. Decoding: The instruction that is fetched is broken down into parts or decoded. The instruction
is translated into commands so that they correspond to those in the CPU’s instruction set. The
instruction set architecture of the CPU defines the way in which an instruction is decoded.
3. Executing: The decoded instruction or the command is executed. CPU performs the operation
implied by the program instruction. For example, if it is an ADD instruction, addition is
performed.
4. Storing: CPU writes back the results of execution, to the computer’s memory.
Microprocessor :
➢ A microprocessor is the controlling unit of a computer made up of a small chip capable of
operations and communication purposes. This small chip is known as the CPU which is
microprocessors.
➢ It consists of ALU, Control Unit, and registers. This works on the instruction set and the cycle
of processing.
➢ They are classified as:
○ Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC)
■ CISC chips have a larger set of complex instructions.
■ This needs multiple numbers of instruction cycles for execution.
■ It works on the fetch and execution cycle which is a combination of a register to
register transfer functions.
■ Because of frequent memory references, there is a reduction in the speed of the CISC
machine.
■ For general purpose, where the speed of the processors is not the primary importance,
there is the use of CISC machines because of their low cost and affordability.
■ CISC architecture is used in low-end applications such as security systems, home
automation, etc.
○ Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC):
■ They are also the microprocessors designed to perform instructions at a higher speed.
■ The CISC used complex assembly language instructions, which slowed down the compiler so
RISC was evolved.
■ This contains simper instructions due to which RISC requires less no. of transistors. These are
short and simple so it can be executed in a single instruction cycle.
■ There is no micro-program in RISC for interpreting the instructions.
■ It has an efficient instruction pipeline. As soon as it completes one stage of the cycle, it proceeds
with the second stage.
■ RISC architecture is used in high-end applications such as video processing, telecommunications,
and image processing.
➢ Pipelining
Pipelining improves instruction execution speed by putting the execution steps into parallel. A CPU can
receive a single instruction, begin executing it, and receive another instruction before it has completed the
first. This allows for more instructions to be performed, about, one instruction per clock cycle.

➢ Parallel Processing
Parallel processing is the simultaneous execution of instructions from the same program on different
processors. A program is divided into multiple processes that are handled in parallel in order to reduce
execution time.
Interconnecting the Units of Computers :
➢ Inside computers, there are many internal components. In order for these components to
communicate with each other, they make use of wires that are known as a ‘bus’.

➢ A bus is a common pathway through which information flows from one computer
component to another. This pathway is used for communication purpose and it is
established between two or more computer components.

➢ A computer bus can be divided into two types: Internal Bus and External Bus.
○ Internal Bus: Internal bus is used to connect the internal components of computer
system such as processor, RAM, chipset, hard disk. It is also called the System Bus.
○ External Bus: External bus is used to connect the external components of computer
system such as monitor, keyword, printer. The external bus allows various devices to
be attached to the computer. It allows for the expansion of computer’s capabilities. It
is generally slower than the system bus. It is also referred to as the Expansion Bus.
➢ A system bus or expansion bus comprise of three kinds of buses: data bus, address bus
and control bus:
➢ Data Bus:
It transfers data between the CPU and
memory. The bus width of a data bus
affects the speed of computer. The size of
data bus defines the size of the processor.
A processor can be 8, 16, 32 or 64-bit
processor. An 8–bit processor has 8 wire
data bus to carry 1 byte of data. In a 16–bit
processor, 16–wire bus can carry 16 bits of
data, i.e., transfer 2 bytes, etc.
➢ Address Bus:
It connects CPU and RAM with set of wires similar to data bus. Address bus carries memory
addresses for read and write operations. The width of address bus determines the maximum number of
memory locations the computer can address. Currently, Pentium Pro, II, III, IV have 36–bit address bus
that can address 236 bytes or 64 GB of memory.
➢ Control Bus:
It specifies whether data is to be read or written to the memory, etc.
➢ Expansion Bus
The functions of data bus, address bus and control bus, in the expansion bus, are as follows:
○ Data Bus:
It is used to transfer data between I/O devices and CPU. The exchange of data between CPU and I/O
devices is according to the industry standard data buses. The most commonly used standard is Extended
Industry Standard Architecture (EISA) which is a 32-bit bus architecture. Some of the common bus
technologies are:
■ Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) bus for hard disks, sound cards, network cards and
graphics cards,
■ Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) bus for 3–D and full motion video,
■ Universal Serial Bus (USB) to connect and disconnect different devices.
○ Address Bus:
It carries the addresses of different I/O devices to be accessed like the hard disk, CD ROM, etc .
○ Control Bus:
It is used to carry read/write commands, status of I/O devices, etc.
➢ External Ports
○ The peripheral devices interact with the CPU of the computer via the bus. The connections to the bus
from the peripheral devices are made via the ports and sockets provided at the sides of the computer .
○ Some of the standard port connections available on the outer sides of the computer are— port for mouse,
keyboard, monitor, network, modem, and, audio port, serial port, parallel port and USB port.
○ The different ports are physically identifiable by their different shapes, size of contact pins and number
of pins.
Computer Cabinet
The computer cabinet consists of the components that are required for running the computer system
effectively with fewer errors. There are various elements in the cabinet to which some of them are Motherboard,
memory chips, cables, processors, ports, etc.

➢ Motherboard
○ The motherboard is the computer's main circuit board.
○ It's a thin plate that holds the CPU, memory, connectors for the hard drive and optical drives, expansion
cards to control the video and audio, and connections to your computer's ports (such as USB ports).
○ The motherboard connects directly or indirectly to every part of the computer.
➢ Ports and Interfaces:
○ Motherboard has a certain number of I/O sockets that are connected to the ports and interfaces found on
the rear side of a computer. We can connect external devices to the ports and interfaces, which get
connected to the computer’s motherboard.
■ Serial Port— to connect old peripherals.
■ Parallel Port— to connect old printers.
■ USB Ports—to connect newer peripherals like cameras, scanners and printers to the computer. It
uses a thin wire to connect to the devices, and many devices can share that wire simultaneously.
■ Fire wire is another bus, used today mostly for video cameras and external hard drives.
 ■ J45 connector (called LAN or Ethernet port) is used to connect the computer to a network. It corresponds to
a network card integrated into the motherboard.
■ VGA connector for connecting a monitor. This connector interfaces with the built-in graphics card.
■ Audio plugs (line-in, line-out and microphone), for connecting sound speakers and the microphone. This
connector interfaces with the built-in sound card.
■ PS/2 port to connect mouse and keyboard into PC.
■ SCSI port for connecting the hard disk drives and network connectors.
➢ Expansion Slots:
○ The expansion slots are located on the motherboard. The expansion cards are inserted in the expansion
slots. These cards give the computer new features or increased performance. There are several types of
slots:
■ ISA (Industry Standard Architecture) slot—To connect modem and input devices.
■ PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) slot—To connect audio, video and graphics. They are
much faster than ISA cards.
■ AGP (Accelerated Graphic Port) slot—A fast port for a graphics card.
■ (Peripheral Component Interconnect) Express slot—Faster bus architecture than AGP and PCI
buses.
■ PC Card—It is used in laptop computers. It includes Wi-Fi card, network card and external
modem.
➢ Memory Chips
The RAM consists of chips on a small circuit board. Two types of memory chips— Single In-line
Memory Module (SIMM) and Dual In-line Memory Module (DIMM) are used in desktop computers.
The CPU can retrieve information from DIMM chip at 64 bits compared to 32 bits or 16 bits transfer
with SIMM chips. DIMM chips are used in Pentium 4 onwards to increase the access speed.
➢ Processor
The processor or the CPU is the main component of the computer. Select a processor based on factors
like its speed, performance, reliability and motherboard support. Pentium Pro, Pentium 2 and Pentium
4 are some of the processors.
➢ Storage Devices
The disk drives are present inside the machine. The common disk drives in a machine are hard disk
drive, floppy drive and CD drive or DVD drive. High-storage devices like hard disk, floppy disk and
CDs are inserted into the hard disk drive, floppy drive and CD drive, respectively. These storage
devices can store large amounts of data, permanently.