CHAPTER

INTRODUCTION
1

Lecturer: Dr. Tran Tan Viet

HEAT TRANSFER
• Lecturer: Dr. Trần Tấn Việt
• Email: trantanviet@hcmut.edu.vn
• Office room: 111B2
• Time meeting: Monday, 10 AM to 12 AM

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 Course objectives

• Identify the modes of heat transfer

• Explain heat transfer mechanisms and
principles.
• Solve simple 1D steady state heat transfer
problems.
• Analysis and design of heat transfer
equipment.

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 Learning Resources
Textbook
J. P. Holman; “Heat Transfer”, McGraw-Hill, Tenth
Edition, 2010.
References
[1] J. F. Richardson, j. H. Harker, j. R. Backhurst; “
Chemical Engineering - Vol 2: Particle technology and
Separation processes”, Elsevier Science, Fifth Edition, 2002.
[2] Eduardo Cao, “Heat transfer in process engineering
“ , McGraw-Hill, 2010.
[3] Frank Kreith, Raj M. Manglik, Mark S. Bohn,
“Principles of Heat transfer “ Seventh Edition, Cengage
Learning, 2011.
[4] PGS.TS Phạm Văn Bôn, TS. Nguyễn Đình Thọ, “Quá
trình & TB trong công nghệ hóa học- tập 5, quyển 1”, Nxb Đại
học QG TP.HCM.

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 Course Structure
Part A: Fundamental principles of heat transfer
Chapter 1: Introduction to heat transfer
Chapter 2: Steady-state and Unsteady state conduction heat
transfer
Chapter 3: Convection heat transfer
Chapter 4: Radiation heat transfer
Chapter 5: The overall heat-transfer coefficient
Part B: Fundamental and Design of heat transfer equipment
Chapter 6: Fundamentals of heat exchangers
Chapter 7: Shell tube heat exchanger
Chapter 8: Crystallization & Steam Condenser
Chapter 9: Evaporation
Chapter 10: Refrigeration system
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 Learning Objectives
• Understand the basic concepts and laws of the three modes
of heat transfer.
• Apply analytical techniques to the solution of simple
conduction heat-transfer problems.
• Understand and use empirical equations to solve forced
and natural convection heat-transfer problems.
• Solve simple radiation heat transfer problems.
• Analyse the heat transfer processes involved in boiling and
condensation.
• Understand the basic concepts of heat exchanger types
and flow patterns .
• Carry out a design calculation for an industrial heat
exchanger .
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THERMODYNAMICS AND HEAT TRANSFER
• Heat: The form of energy that can be transferred from one
system to another as a result of temperature difference.
• Thermodynamics is concerned with the amount of heat
transfer as a system undergoes a process from one
equilibrium state to another.
• Heat Transfer deals with the determination of the rates of
such energy transfers as well as variation of temperature.
• The transfer of energy as heat is always from the higher-
temperature medium to the lower-temperature one.
• Heat transfer stops when the two mediums reach the same
temperature.
• Heat can be transferred in three different modes:
conduction, convection, radiation
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2/2/2020 Introduction to heat transfer 8
 Application Areas of Heat Transfer

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9
Historical Background Kinetic theory: Treats molecules as tiny
balls that are in motion and thus possess
kinetic energy.
Heat: The energy associated with the
random motion of atoms and molecules.
Caloric theory: Heat is a fluidlike
substance called the caloric that is a
massless, colorless, odorless, and
tasteless substance that can be poured
from one body into another

It was only in the middle of the

nineteenth century that we had a true
physical understanding of the nature of
heat.
Careful experiments of the Englishman
James P. Joule published in 1843
convinced the skeptics that heat was not
a substance after all, and thus put the
caloric theory to rest.
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2/2/2020 Introduction to heat transfer 11
 To be specified by the
Initial System state variables, and to
obey the equation of
state (EOS)

That obeys the laws Final System

of thermodynamics
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 Systems

A system is a quantity of matter or a region in space

chosen for study, called thermodynamic system

Closed (control mass, nonflow)

Surroundings
Open (control volume)

System Isolated (nonflow, no energy transfer)

Adiabatic (nonflow, no heat transfer)

Boundary
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 Environment & Refrigerants

• Environment refers to the region beyond

the surroundings whose properties are not
effected by the process at any point

• Refrigerant is the working fluid used in

devices for energy conversion such as
gases, water, ammonia,
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)…
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ENGINEERING HEAT TRANSFER
Heat transfer equipment such as heat exchangers, boilers, condensers, radiators,
heaters, furnaces, refrigerators, and solar collectors are designed primarily on the
basis of heat transfer analysis.
The heat transfer problems encountered in practice can be considered in two
groups: (1) rating and (2) sizing problems.
The rating problems deal with the determination of the heat transfer rate for an
existing system at a specified temperature difference.
The sizing problems deal with the determination of the size of a system in order to
transfer heat at a specified rate for a specified temperature difference.
An engineering device or process can be studied either experimentally (testing and
taking measurements) or analytically (by analysis or calculations).
The experimental approach has the advantage that we deal with the actual physical
system, and the desired quantity is determined by measurement, within the limits of
experimental error. However, this approach is expensive, timeconsuming, and often
impractical.
The analytical approach (including the numerical approach) has the advantage that it
is fast and inexpensive, but the results obtained are subject to the accuracy of the
assumptions, approximations, and idealizations made in the analysis.
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Modeling in Engineering

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HEAT AND OTHER FORMS OF ENERGY
• Energy can exist in numerous forms such as:
– thermal,
– mechanical,
– kinetic,
– potential,
– electrical,
– magnetic,
– chemical,
– nuclear.
• Their sum constitutes the total energy E (or e on a unit
mass basis) of a system.
• The sum of all microscopic forms of energy is called the
internal energy of a system.

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• Internal energy: May be viewed as the sum of the kinetic and
potential energies of the molecules.
• Sensible heat: The kinetic energy of the molecules.
• Latent heat: The internal energy associated with the phase of a
system.
• Chemical (bond) energy: The internal energy associated with
the atomic bonds in a molecule.
• Nuclear energy: The internal energy associated with the bonds
within the nucleus of the atom itself.

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 Internal Energy and Enthalpy

• In the analysis of systems

that involve fluid flow, we
frequently encounter the
combination of properties u
and Pv.
• The combination is defined
as enthalpy (h = u + Pv).
• The term Pv represents the
flow energy of the fluid (also
called the flow work).

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 Specific Heats of Gases, Liquids, and Solids

• Specific heat: The energy required to

raise the temperature of a unit mass of a
substance by one degree.
• Two kinds of specific heats:
– specific heat at constant volume cv
– specific heat at constant pressure cp
• The specific heats of a substance, in
general, depend on two independent
properties such as temperature and
pressure.
• At low pressures all real gases approach
ideal gas behavior, and therefore their
specific heats depend on temperature
only.

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• Incompressible substance: A
substance whose specific volume (or
density) does not change with
temperature or pressure.
• The constant-volume and constant-
pressure specific heats are identical
for incompressible substances.
• The specific heats of incompressible
substances depend on temperature
only.

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 Energy Transfer
Energy can be transferred to or from a given
mass by two mechanisms: when is constant:
heat transfer and work.
Heat transfer rate: The amount of heat
transferred per unit time.
Heat flux: The rate of heat transfer per unit
area normal to the direction of heat transfer.
Power: The work
done per unit time.

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 THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
The first law of thermodynamics (conservation of energy
principle) states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed
during a process; it can only change forms.
The net change (increase or
decrease) in the total energy of
the system during a process is
equal to the difference between
the total energy entering and the
total energy leaving the system
during that process.

The energy balance for any

system undergoing any process
in the rate form

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 In heat transfer problems it is convenient to
write a heat balance and to treat the
conversion of nuclear, chemical,
mechanical, and electrical energies into
thermal energy as heat generation.

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Energy Balance for Closed Systems (Fixed Mass)
A closed system consists of a fixed mass.
The total energy E for most systems
encountered in practice consists of the
internal energy U.
This is especially the case for stationary
systems since they don’t involve any
changes in their velocity or elevation during
a process.

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Energy Balance for
Steady-Flow Systems
A large number of engineering devices such as
water heaters and car radiators involve mass flow
in and out of a system, and are modeled as
control volumes.
Most control volumes are analyzed under steady
operating conditions.
The term steady means no change with time at a
specified location.
Mass flow rate: The amount of mass flowing
through a cross section of a flow device per unit
time.
Volume flow rate: The volume of a fluid flowing
through a pipe or duct per unit time.

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Surface Energy Balance
A surface contains no volume or mass,
and thus no energy. Thereore, a surface
can be viewed as a fictitious system
whose energy content remains constant
during a process.

This relation is valid for both steady and

transient conditions, and the surface
energy balance does not involve heat
generation since a surface does not
have a volume.

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• What is thermal energy?
• What is the difference between
thermal energy and heat?

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 What is Energy?
Energy (E): The product of a force over
the distance (d) which it is applied.

E  F d or E   Fdx
JP Joule

SI Units of energy = Joule = kg m2 s-2

1 Joule = 0.24 Calories

1 2
E   Fdx   (ma)dx  mv
Kinetic
Energy
2
v = Velocity (m s -1)
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 What is Power?
Power (P): The rate of change energy
per unit time, or time rate of doing work.

James Watt
E dE
P or P 
t dt

SI Units of power = Watt = kg m2 s-3

What we’ll use to describe Earth’s energy budget…

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 Kinetic Energy

Kinetic Energy: Energy due to the movement of an

object with mass (m). Proportional to the square of the
of the speed.

1
E  mv 2

2
v = Velocity or speed (m s-1)
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 A doubling of the wind speed would increase
the energy of the wind by a factor of 4!
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• We use this idea to define temperature…

The SAME principle of

kinetic energy exists
on the molecular level!

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 What is Temperature?

Temperature: A measure of
the average kinetic energy of
atoms and molecules for the
given substance, or internal
energy.

“Hotter” temperature: Atoms

and molecules move faster
 more internal energy

“Colder” temperature: Atoms

1
and molecules move slower
 less internal energy E  mv 2

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2 34
 Absolute Zero: Temperature at which all
molecular motion stops

Absolute zero: Temperature

at which there is no internal
energy.

Defined as 0 Kelvin (0 K)

1
E  mv 2

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2 35
 The Celsius scale (°C) is based on
Temperature the reference points of the freezing
Scales and boiling points of water.
Freezing = 0°C
Boiling = 100 °C

The Kelvin scale (K) is referenced

to absolute zero:
0 K = Absolute zero

The Fahrenheit scale: Referenced

to the lowest temperature obtained
with a ice, water, and salt mixture.
Only commonly used now in the
U.S.

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 Temperature Conversions

°C = 5/9(°F - 32)

K = °C – 273

Using these equations, for example:

Freezing point of water = 0° C = 273 K = 32° F

Boiling point of water = 100° C = 373 K = 212° F

You should familiarize yourself with these equations

and know how to convert from the three scales.

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 Now that we understand the concept of
temperature, we’re ready to see how it relates to
the volume of a gas…

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 (Ahrens p. 29)

Assuming pressure remains constant, an increase in air

temperature means the volume of air expands and its
density decreases.
We’ll come up with a mathematical way to express later…
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 What is Heat?

Heat: Energy in the

process of being of being
transferred from one
object to another due to a
difference in temperature.

Consider a boiling pot of

water:

There are several

different types of energy
transfer processes going
on here. What are they?
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• What are these modes of heat transfer and
how do they work in the boiling pot
example?

Answer:
Conduction, Convection, and Radiation

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 HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISMS
• Heat as the form of energy that can be transferred from one
system to another as a result of temperature difference.
• A thermodynamic analysis is concerned with the amount of heat
transfer as a system undergoes a process from one equilibrium
state to another.
• The science that deals with the determination of the rates of such
energy transfers is the heat transfer.
• The transfer of energy as heat is always from the higher-
temperature medium to the lower-temperature one, and heat
transfer stops when the two mediums reach the same temperature.
• Heat can be transferred in three basic modes:
– conduction
– convection
– radiation
• All modes of heat transfer require the existence of a temperature
difference.

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 Heat Transfer Type 1: Conduction

Conduction: Transfer of heat from molecule to molecule

within a substance

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CONDUCTION
Conduction: The transfer of energy from the more
energetic particles of a substance to the adjacent less
energetic ones as a result of interactions between the
particles.
In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the
collisions and diffusion of the molecules during their
random motion.
In solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations of
the molecules in a lattice and the energy transport by
free electrons.
The rate of heat conduction through a plane layer is
proportional to the temperature difference across the
layer and the heat transfer area, but is inversely
proportional to the thickness of the layer.
Heat conduction
through a large plane
wall of thickness x
and area A.

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When x → 0 Fourier’s law of heat
conduction
Thermal conductivity, k: A measure of the ability of a
material to conduct heat.
Temperature gradient dT/dx: The slope of the
temperature curve on a T-x diagram.
Heat is conducted in the direction of decreasing
temperature, and the temperature gradient becomes
negative when temperature decreases with
increasing x. The negative sign in the equation
ensures that heat transfer in the positive x direction
is a positive quantity.

In heat conduction
analysis, A represents
the area normal to the
direction of heat The rate of heat conduction
transfer. through a solid is directly
proportional to its thermal
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Thermal
Conductivity
Thermal conductivity:
The rate of heat transfer
through a unit thickness
of the material per unit
area per unit
temperature difference.
The thermal conductivity
of a material is a
measure of the ability of
the material to conduct
heat.
A high value for thermal
conductivity indicates A simple experimental setup
that the material is a to determine the thermal
good heat conductor, conductivity of a material.
and a low value indicates
that the material is a
poor heat conductor or
insulator.
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 POOR
CONDUCTORS

GOOD
CONDUCTORS

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 The range of
thermal
conductivity of
various materials
at room
temperature.

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 The thermal conductivities of gases such
as air vary by a factor of 104 from those
of pure metals such as copper.
Pure crystals and metals have the
highest thermal conductivities, and gases
and insulating materials the lowest.

The mechanisms of heat

conduction in different
phases of a substance.
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 The variation of the
thermal
conductivity of
various solids,
liquids, and gases
with temperature.
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Thermal Diffusivity
cp Specific heat, J/kg · °C: Heat capacity per
unit mass
cp Heat capacity, J/m3·°C: Heat capacity
per unit volume
 Thermal diffusivity, m2/s: Represents how
fast heat diffuses through a material

A material that has a high thermal

conductivity or a low heat capacity will
obviously have a large thermal diffusivity.
The larger the thermal diffusivity, the faster
the propagation of heat into the medium.
A small value of thermal diffusivity means
that heat is mostly absorbed by the
material and a small amount of heat is
conducted further.
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 Heat Capacity
(different from conductivity)

Heat capacity: ratio of the amount of heat energy of

absorbed by that substance to its temperature rise.

Specific heat capacity: Amount of heat needed to

raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by
1 °C.

Low specific heat  Heat or cool quickly

High specific heat  Heat or cool slowly

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Water has a relatively high specific heat, so:

1. It heats and cools much more slowly than air

2. Can store lots of energy.
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 CONDUCTION

Conduction
accounts for
transfer of heat
from stove to
glass of the
post

Within the
liquid,
something else
is going on,
though…
HEAT TRANSPORT BY MOLECULE TO MOLECULE
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 Heat Transfer Type 2: Convection

Convection: Transfer of heat by the mass movement

of a fluid or gas, like water and air. Warm part of the
fluid rises, cold part sinks.

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CONVECTION
Convection: The mode of
energy transfer between a
solid surface and the
adjacent liquid or gas that is
in motion, and it involves
the combined effects of
conduction and fluid motion.
The faster the fluid motion,
the greater the convection
heat transfer.
In the absence of any bulk
fluid motion, heat transfer
between a solid surface and
Heat transfer from a hot surface to air by
the adjacent fluid is by pure
convection.
conduction.

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Forced convection: If the
fluid is forced to flow over
the surface by external
means such as a fan,
pump, or the wind.
Natural (or free)
convection: If the fluid
motion is caused by
buoyancy forces that are
induced by density
differences due to the The cooling of a boiled egg by
variation of temperature forced and natural convection.
in the fluid.

Heat transfer processes that involve change of phase of a fluid are also
considered to be convection because of the fluid motion induced during
the process, such as the rise of the vapor bubbles during boiling or the
fall of the liquid droplets during condensation.
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 Newton’s law of cooling

h convection heat transfer coefficient, W/m2 · °C

As the surface area through which convection heat transfer takes place
Ts the surface temperature
T the temperature of the fluid sufficiently far from the surface.

The convection heat transfer

coefficient h is not a property
of the fluid.
It is an experimentally
determined parameter
whose value depends on all
the variables influencing
convection such as
- the surface geometry
- the nature of fluid motion
- the properties of the fluid
- the bulk fluid velocity
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 Convection in the atmosphere

The SAME process

happens in the
atmosphere, except
air is the medium
instead of liquid
water.

As the course
proceeds, we’ll see
numerous
examples on a wide
range of scales…
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 CONVECTION
So far, we’ve established that:

Conduction is the mode of heat

transfer within the walls of the pot.

Convection is the mode of heat

transfer within the water

The rate at which the temperature

of the water and the walls of the
pot change is determined by the
heat capacity of water and glass,
respectively.

MASS MOVEMENT OF FLUID OR GAS

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 Phases of substance

Solid Liquid Gas

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 Phases of substance

Superheated
vapor
Saturated
vapor
Saturated liquid–
vapor mixture
Saturated
liquid
Subcooled liquid
Compressed liquid

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 Phases of substance

𝑭
𝟓

𝟐 𝟑 𝟒
P = constant 𝑫 𝑬
Temperature

vaporization
melting evaporating
𝟏
warming

𝑩 𝑪
melting Solid Liquid Gas

𝑨 cooling
freezing condensing

Energy input
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 Latent Heat: Energy of Phase Change
Latent heat: Energy required to change matter from one state to
other.

Our main concern in this course is water, since the range of terrestrial
temperature permits it to exists in all three matter states on Earth.

Ice (Below 0 °C) Liquid water (0 – 100 °C) Water vapor: (Above 100 °C)

SOLID: molecules LIQUID: Molecules more GAS: Molecules move

tightly bound in a loosely bound by rapidly and are not
lattice structure. attractive forces and no bound together
organized structure
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 COOLING PROCESS

WARMING PROCESS

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 COOLING PROCESS

Lf

WARMING PROCESS

Latent heat of fusion (Lf) = 335 J g-1  solid-liquid transition

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 COOLING PROCESS

Lv

WARMING PROCESS

Latent heat of fusion (Lf) = 335 J g-1  solid-liquid transition

Latent heat of vaporization (Lv) = 2500 J g-1  liquid-gas transition

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 COOLING PROCESS

Ls

WARMING PROCESS

Latent heat of fusion (Lf) = 335 J g-1  solid-liquid transition

Latent heat of vaporization (Lv) = 2500 J g-1  liquid-gas transition

Latent heat of sublimation (Ls) = 2850 J g-1  solid-gas transition

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 LESS ENERGY
WITH PHASE
TRANSITION
Latent heat of fusion (Lf) = 335 J g-1
solid-liquid transition

Latent heat of vaporization (Lv) = 2500 J g-1

liquid-gas transition

Latent heat of sublimation (Ls) = 2850 J g-1

solid-gas transition

MORE ENERGY
WITH PHASE
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TRANSITION71
 Water reaches its
LATENT HEAT
vaporization, or boiling,
point and escapes into
the air surrounding the
pot as a vapor.

This process takes away

heat energy from the
environment.

The latent energy stored

within the water vapor
can be realized if the
water vapor condenses,
and then heat is released.
ENERGY OF PHASE CHANGE
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 Remaining questions
in the boiling pot
example:

What causes the

bubbles to form in
the water?

Why does it feel hot

when your hand is
near the pot, but not
touching it?

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 Latent heating in the atmosphere
Latent heating takes
place within the cloud
as water vapor
condenses (drops) or
deposits (ice).
Latent heating by
condensation This process releases
ENERGY energy to the
RELEASED environment.

Provides the “fuel”

for weather
phenomena like
thunderstorms and
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hurricanes. 74
 We still haven’t
answered why it feels
hot when your hand
gets near the pot.

This is due to radiation,

the third mode of
energy transfer.

We’ll discuss that next

time…

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RADIATION
• Radiation: The energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic
waves (or photons) as a result of the changes in the electronic
configurations of the atoms or molecules.
• Unlike conduction and convection, the transfer of heat by radiation does
not require the presence of an intervening medium.
• In fact, heat transfer by radiation is fastest (at the speed of light) and it
suffers no attenuation in a vacuum. This is how the energy of the sun
reaches the earth.
• In heat transfer studies we are interested in thermal radiation, which is
the form of radiation emitted by bodies because of their temperature.
• All bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation.
• Radiation is a volumetric phenomenon, and all solids, liquids, and
gases emit, absorb, or transmit radiation to varying degrees.
• However, radiation is usually considered to be a surface phenomenon
for solids.
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 Stefan–Boltzmann law
 = 5.670  108 W/m2 · K4 Stefan–Boltzmann constant
Blackbody: The idealized surface that emits radiation at the maximum rate.

Radiation emitted
by real surfaces
Emissivity  : A measure of how closely a
surface approximates a blackbody for
which  = 1 of the surface. 0   1.

Blackbody radiation represents the maximum

amount of radiation that can be emitted from
a surface at a specified temperature.
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 Absorptivity : The fraction of the radiation energy incident on a
surface that is absorbed by the surface. 0   1
A blackbody absorbs the entire radiation incident on it ( = 1).
Kirchhoff’s law: The emissivity and the absorptivity of a surface at a
given temperature and wavelength are equal.

The absorption of radiation incident on

an opaque surface of absorptivity .
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Net radiation heat transfer: The When a surface is completely enclosed by a
difference between the rates of much larger (or black) surface at temperature
radiation emitted by the surface Tsurr separated by a gas (such as air) that
and the radiation absorbed. does not intervene with radiation, the net rate
of radiation heat transfer between these
The determination of the net two surfaces is given by
rate of heat transfer by radiation
between two surfaces is a
complicated matter since it
depends on
• the properties of the surfaces
• their orientation relative to
each other
• the interaction of the medium
between the surfaces with
radiation
Radiation is usually significant
relative to conduction or
natural convection, but Radiation heat transfer between a
negligible relative to forced surface and the surfaces
convection. surrounding it.

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 When radiation and convection occur
simultaneously between a surface and a gas:

Combined heat transfer coefficient hcombined

Includes the effects of both convection and radiation

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SIMULTANEOUS HEAT
TRANSFER MECHANISMS
Heat transfer is only by conduction in opaque solids, but by
conduction and radiation in semitransparent solids.
A solid may involve conduction and radiation but not
convection. A solid may involve convection and/or radiation
on its surfaces exposed to a fluid or other surfaces.
Heat transfer is by conduction and possibly by radiation in
a still fluid (no bulk fluid motion) and by convection and
radiation in a flowing fluid.
In the absence of radiation, heat transfer through a fluid is
either by conduction or convection, depending on the
presence of any bulk fluid motion.
Convection = Conduction + Fluid motion
Heat transfer through a vacuum is by radiation.
Most gases between two solid surfaces do not interfere Although there are three
with radiation. mechanisms of heat
transfer, a medium may
Liquids are usually strong absorbers of radiation. involve only two of them
simultaneously.

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 CHAPTER
INTRODUCTION
1