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SRIMAAN COACHING CENTRE-TRB-COMPUTER INSTRUCTORS STUDY MATERIAL-8072230063
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TRICHY CONTACT:8072230063 TAMIL NADU
III
UNIT -1
COMPUTER SYSTEM AND OPERATING SYSTEM OVERVIEW
OVER VIEW OF OPERATING SYSTEM
What is an Operating System?
A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a computer and the computer hardware
Operating system goals:
Execute user programs and make solving user problems easier
Make the computer system convenient to use
Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner SRIMAAN COACHING CENTRE-
Computer System Structure TRB-COMPUTER INSTRUCTORS
Computer system can be divided into four components STUDY MATERIAL AVAILABLE
Hardware – provides basic computing resources -8072230063
CPU, memory, I/O devices
Operating system
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Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various applications and users
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Application programs – define the ways in which the system resources are used to solve the computing
problems of the users
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Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database systems, video games
Users
People, machines, other computers22
Four Components of a Computer System SRIMAAN8072230063
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Operating System Definition
OS is a resource allocator
Manages all resources
Decides between conflicting requests for efficient and fair resource use
OS is a control program SRIMAAN8072230063
Controls execution of programs to prevent errors and improper use of the computer
No universally accepted definition
Everything a vendor ships when you order an operating system” is good approximation
But varies wildly
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“The one program running at all times on the computer” is the kernel. Everything else is either a
system program (ships with the operating system) or an application program
Computer Startup
bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot
Typically stored in ROM or EPROM, generally known as firmware
Initializes all aspects of system
Loads operating system kernel and starts execution
Computer System Organization
Computer-system operation
One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through common bus providing access to shared memory
Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for memory cycles
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Computer-System Operation SRIMAAN8072230063

I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently
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Each device controller is in charge of a particular device type

Each device controller has a local buffer
CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local buffers
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I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller

Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its operation by causing An interrupt
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Common Functions of Interrupts

Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service routine generally, through the interrupt vector, which
contains the addresses of all the service routines
Interrupt architecture must save the address of the interrupted instruction
Incoming interrupts are disabled while another interrupt is being processed to prevent a lost interruptnA
trap is a software-generated interrupt caused either by an error or a user request
An operating system is interrupt driven
Interrupt Handling
The operating system preserves the state of the CPU by storing registers and the program counter
Determines which type of interrupt has occurred:
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vectored interrupt system

Separate segments of code determine what action should be taken for each type of interrupt
Interrupt Timeline SRIMAAN8072230063

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I/O Structure
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After I/O starts, control returns to user program only upon I/O completion
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Wait instruction idles the CPU until the next interrupt
Wait loop (contention for memory access)
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At most one I/O request is outstanding at a time, no simultaneous I/O processing
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After I/O starts, control returns to user program without waiting for I/O completion
System call – request to the operating system to allow user to wait for I/O completion
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Device-status table contains entry for each I/O device indicating its type, address, and state
Operating system indexes into I/O device table to determine device status and to modify table entry to
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include interrupt
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Direct Memory Access Structure
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Used for high-speed I/O devices able to transmit information at close to memory speeds
Device controller transfers blocks of data from buffer storage directly to main memory without CPU
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intervention
Only one interrupt is generated per block, rather than the one interrupt per byte
Storage Structure
Main memory – only large storage media that the CPU can access directly
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Secondary storage – extension of main memory that provides large nonvolatile storage capacity
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Magnetic disks – rigid metal or glass platters covered with magnetic recording material
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Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are subdivided into sectors
The disk controller determines the logical interaction between the device and the computer
Storage Hierarchy
Storage systems organized in hierarchy
Speed
Cost
Volatility
Caching – copying information into faster storage system; main memory can be viewed as a last cache for
secondary storage
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Caching
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Important principle, performed at many levels in a computer (in hardware, operating system, software)
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Information in use copied from slower to faster storage temporarily
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Faster storage (cache) checked first to determine if information is there
If it is, information used directly from the cache (fast)
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If not, data copied to cache and used there
Cache smaller than storage being cached
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Cache management important design problem
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Cache size and replacement policy
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Computer-System Architecture
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Most systems use a single general-purpose processor (PDAs through mainframes)
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Most systems have special-purpose processors as well
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Multiprocessors systems growing in use and importance
Also known as parallel systems, tightly-coupled systems
Advantages include
1.Increased throughput
2.Economy of scale
3.Increased reliability – graceful degradation or fault tolerance
Two types
1.Asymmetric Multiprocessing
2.Symmetric Multiprocessing
SRIMAAN8072230063
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How a Modern Computer Works
Symmetric Multiprocessing Architecture
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A Dual-Core Design
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Clustered Systems SRIMAAN8072230063

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Like multiprocessor systems, but multiple systems working together

Usually sharing storage via a storage-area network (SAN)
Provides a high-availability service which survives failures
Asymmetric clustering has one machine in hot-standby mode
Symmetric clustering has multiple nodes running applications, monitoring each other
Some clusters are for high-performance computing (HPC)
Applications must be written to use parallelization
Operating System Structure
Multiprogramming needed for efficiency
Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times
Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has one to Execute
A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory

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One job selected and run via job scheduling

When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another job
Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU switches jobs so frequently that users
can interact with each job while it is running, creating interactive computing
Response time should be < 1 second
Each user has at least one program executing in memory [process
If several jobs ready to run at the same time [ CPU scheduling
If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out to run
Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in memory
Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System
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Operating-System Operations SRIMAAN8072230063
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Interrupt driven by hardware
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Software error or request creates exception or trap

Division by zero, request for operating system service
Other process problems include infinite loop, processes modifying each Other or the operating system
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Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other system components

User mode and kernel mode
Mode bit provided by hardware
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Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user code or kernel code
Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable in kernel mode
System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets it to user
Transition from User to Kernel Mode
Timer to prevent infinite loop / process hogging resources SRIMAAN COACHING CENTRE-TRB-
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MATERIAL-8072230063
Operating system decrements counter
When counter zero generate an interrupt
Set up before scheduling process to regain control or terminate program that exceeds allotted time
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Dept. of Computer ScienceZ00LOGY

HISTORY/ECONOMICS/ and Engineering
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UNIT - 1
OPERATING SYSTEM FUNCTIONS
Process Management
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A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work within the system. Program is a passive entity,
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process is an active entity.
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Process needs resources to accomplish its task
2
CPU, memory, I/O, files
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Initialization data
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Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable resources
0
Single-threaded process has one program counter specifying location of next instruction to execute
8
Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a time, until completion
N
Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread
Typically system has many processes, some user, some operating system running concurrently on one or
A
more CPUs
A
Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the processes / threads
Process Management Activities SRIMAAN8072230063
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The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with process
R
management:
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Creating and deleting both user and system processes
Suspending and resuming processes
Providing mechanisms for process synchronization
Providing mechanisms for process communication
Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling
Memory Management
All data in memory before and after processing
All instructions in memory in order to execute
Memory management determines what is in memory when
Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response to users
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Memory management activities

Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being used and by whom
Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data to move into and out of memory
Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed
Storage Management
OS provides uniform, logical view of information storage
Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit - file
Each medium is controlled by device (i.e., disk drive, tape drive)
Varying properties include access speed, capacity, data-transfer rate, access method (sequential or
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random)
File-System management
Files usually organized into directories
0
Access control on most systems to determine who can access what
30
OS activities include
Creating and deleting files and directories
Primitives to manipulate files and dirs
22
Mapping files onto secondary storage
Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media
Mass-Storage Management 07
Usually disks used to store data that does not fit in main memory or data that must be kept for a “long”
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period of time
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Proper management is of central importance
Entire speed of computer operation hinges on disk subsystem and its algorithms
MASS STORAGE activities
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Free-space management
Storage allocation
Disk scheduling
Some storage need not be fast
IM
Tertiary storage includes optical storage, magnetic tape

Still must be managed
Varies between WORM (write-once, read-many-times) and RW (read-write)
SR
Performance of Various Levels of Storage

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Migration of Integer A from Disk to Register

Multitasking environments must be careful to use most recent value, no matter where it is stored in the
storage hierarchy
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Multiprocessor environment must provide cache coherency in hardware such that all CPUs have the
most recent value in their cache
Distributed environment situation even more complex
Several copies of a datum can exist
6 3
I/O Subsystem
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3
One purpose of OS is to hide peculiarities of hardware devices from the user
2
I/O subsystem responsible for
2
Memory management of I/O including buffering (storing data temporarily while it is being transferred),
7
caching (storing parts of data in faster storage for performance), spooling (the overlapping of output of
0
one job with input of other jobs)
8
General device-driver interface
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Drivers for specific hardware devices
N
Protection and Security
A
Protection – any mechanism for controlling access of processes or users to resources defined by the OS
Security – defense of the system against internal and external attacks
A
Huge range, including denial-of-service, worms, viruses, identity theft, theft of service
Systems generally first distinguish among users, to determine who can do what
I M
User identities (user IDs, security IDs) include name and associated number, one per user
User ID then associated with all files, processes of that user to determine access control
SR
Group identifier (group ID) allows set of users to be defined and controls managed, then also associated
with each process, file SRIMAAN8072230063
Privilege escalation allows user to change to effective ID with more rights
DISTRIBUTED SYSTEMS
Computing Environments
Traditional computer
Blurring over time
Office environment
PCs connected to a network, terminals attached to mainframe or minicomputers providing batch
and timesharing
Now portals allowing networked and remote systems access to same resources
Home networks
Used to be single system, then modems
Now firewalled, networked
Client-Server Computing
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Dumb terminals supplanted by smart PCs

Many systems now servers, responding to requests generated by clients
Compute-server provides an interface to client to request services (i.e. database)
File-server provides interface for clients to store and retrieve files
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Peer-to-Peer Computing
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Another model of distributed system
P2P does not distinguish clients and servers
Instead all nodes are considered peers
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May each act as client, server or both
Node must join P2P network
3
Registers its service with central lookup service on network, or
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Broadcast request for service and respond to requests for service via discovery protocol
Examples include Napster and Gnutella
Web-Based Computing SRIMAAN8072230063
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Web has become ubiquitous
PCs most prevalent devices
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More devices becoming networked to allow web access

New category of devices to manage web traffic among similar servers: load balancers
Use of operating systems like Windows 95, client-side, have evolved into Linux and Windows XP,
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which can be clients and servers
Open-Source Operating Systems

Operating systems made available in source-code format rather than just binary closed-source
IM
Counter to the copy protection and Digital Rights Management (DRM) movement
Started by Free Software Foundation (FSF), which has “copyleft” GNU Public License (GPL)
Examples include GNU/Linux, BSD UNIX (including core of Mac OS X), and Sun Solaris
SR
Operating System Services

One set of operating-system services provides functions that are helpful to the user:
User interface - Almost all operating systems have a user interface (UI)
Varies between Command-Line (CLI), Graphics User Interface (GUI), Batch
Program execution - The system must be able to load a program into memory and to run that program,
end execution, either normally or abnormally (indicating error)
I/O operations - A running program may require I/O, which may involve a file or an I/O device


File-system manipulation - The file system is of particular interest. Obviously, programs need to read
and write files and directories, create and delete them, search them, list file Information, permission
management.
A View of Operating System Services SRIMAAN8072230063
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Operating System Services
3
One set of operating-system services provides functions that are helpful to the user
22
Communications – Processes may exchange information, on the same computer or between computers
over a network Communications may be via shared memory or through message passing (packets
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moved by the OS)
07
Error detection – OS needs to be constantly aware of possible errors May occur in the CPU and memory
hardware, in I/O devices, in user program For each type of error, OS should take the appropriate action
to ensure correct and consistent computing Debugging facilities can greatly enhance the user’s and
N8
programmer’s abilities to efficiently use the system
Another set of OS functions exists for ensuring the efficient operation of the system itself via resource
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sharing
Resource allocation - When multiple users or multiple jobs running concurrently, resources must be
allocated to each of them SRIMAAN8072230063
Many types of resources - Some (such as CPU cycles, main memory, and file storage) may have special
IM
allocation code, others (such as I/O devices) may have general request and release code
Accounting - To keep track of which users use how much and what kinds of computer resources
Protection and security - The owners of information stored in a multiuser or networked computer
SR
system may want to control use of that information, concurrent processes should not interfere with each
other
Protection involves ensuring that all access to system resources is controlled
Security of the system from outsiders requires user authentication, extends to defending external I/O
devices from invalid access attempts
If a system is to be protected and secure, precautions must be instituted throughout it. A chain is only as
strong as its weakest link.
User Operating System Interface - CLI
Command Line Interface (CLI) or command interpreter allows direct command entry
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Sometimes implemented in kernel, sometimes by systems program
Sometimes multiple flavors implemented – shells
Primarily fetches a command from user and executes it
Sometimes commands built-in, sometimes just names of programs
If the latter, adding new features doesn’t require shell modification
User Operating System Interface - GUI
User-friendly desktop metaphor interface

Usually mouse, keyboard, and monitor
Icons represent files, programs, actions, etc
Various mouse buttons over objects in the interface cause various actions (provide information, options,
execute function, open directory (known as a folder)
Invented at Xerox PARC
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Many systems now include both CLI and GUI interfaces
Microsoft Windows is GUI with CLI “command” shell
0
Apple Mac OS X as “Aqua” GUI interface with UNIX kernel underneath and shells available
30
Solaris is CLI with optional GUI interfaces (Java Desktop, KDE)
Bourne Shell Command Interpreter
22
07
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SRIMAAN8072230063

The Mac OS X GUI SRIMAAN8072230063
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System Calls
Programming interface to the services provided by the OS
30
Typically written in a high-level language (C or C++)
Mostly accessed by programs via a high-level Application Program Interface (API) rather than direct
22
system call usenThree most common APIs are Win32 API for Windows, POSIX API for POSIX-based
systems (including virtually all versions of UNIX, Linux, and Mac OS X), and Java API for the Java
virtual machine (JVM)
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Why use APIs rather than system calls?(Note that the system-call names used throughout this text are
generic)
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Example of System Calls

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Example of Standard API

Consider the ReadFile() function in the
Win32 API—a function for reading from a file
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A description of the parameters passed to ReadFile()
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HANDLE file—the file to be read
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LPVOID buffer—a buffer where the data will be read into and written from
N
DWORD bytesToRead—the number of bytes to be read into the buffer
LPDWORD bytesRead—the number of bytes read during the last read
AA
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LPOVERLAPPED ovl—indicates if overlapped I/O is being used
System Call Implementation

IM
Typically, a number associated with each system call

System-call interface maintains a table indexed according to these
Numbers
SR
The system call interface invokes intended system call in OS kernel and returns status of the system call
and any return values
The caller need know nothing about how the system call is implemented
Just needs to obey API and understand what OS will do as a result call
Most details of OS interface hidden from programmer by API
Managed by run-time support library (set of functions built into libraries included with compiler)
API – System Call – OS Relationship
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Standard C Library Example
SRIMAAN8072230063
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Operating System Definition

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Computer-System Operation SRIMAAN8072230063

Each device controller is in charge of a particular device type

I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller

Common Functions of Interrupts

SRIMAAN COACHING CENTRE-TRB-COMPUTER INSTRUCTORS STUDY MATERIAL-8072230063

vectored interrupt system

Interrupt Timeline SRIMAAN8072230063

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Clustered Systems SRIMAAN8072230063

Like multiprocessor systems, but multiple systems working together

HISTORY/ECONOMICS/ Z00LOGY AVAILABLE----CONTACT: 8072230063

One job selected and run via job scheduling

Software error or request creates exception or trap

Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other system components

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Dept. of Computer ScienceZ00LOGY

OPERATING SYSTEM FUNCTIONS

Process Management Activities SRIMAAN8072230063

HISTORY/ECONOMICS/ Z00LOGY AVAILABLE----CONTACT: 8072230063

Memory management activities

Tertiary storage includes optical storage, magnetic tape

Performance of Various Levels of Storage

Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering Page 10

HISTORY/ECONOMICS/ Z00LOGY AVAILABLE----CONTACT: 8072230063

Migration of Integer A from Disk to Register

Dumb terminals supplanted by smart PCs

More devices becoming networked to allow web access

which can be clients and servers

Open-Source Operating Systems

Operating System Services

SRIMAAN PGTRB-MATERIALS: MATHS/TAMIL/ENGLISH/CHEMISTRY/PHYSICS/COMMERCE/BOTANY/

SRIMAAN COACHING CENTRE-TRB-COMPUTER INSTRUCTORS STUDY MATERIAL-8072230063

A View of Operating System Services SRIMAAN8072230063

programmer’s abilities to efficiently use the system

User-friendly desktop metaphor interface

SRIMAAN COACHING CENTRE-TRB-COMPUTER INSTRUCTORS STUDY MATERIAL-8072230063

The Mac OS X GUI SRIMAAN8072230063

Programming interface to the services provided by the OS

Example of System Calls

Example of Standard API

System Call Implementation

Typically, a number associated with each system call

SRIMAAN COACHING CENTRE-PG-TRB-CHEMISTRY

 PG TRB: ENGLISH MATERIAL (QUESTION BANK)

 PG TRB: MATHEMATICS MATERIAL (QUESTION

 PG TRB: CHEMISTRY MATEIAL(QUESTION BANK)

 PG TRB: COMMERCE (QUESTION BANK)

 PG TRB: HISTORY (QUESTION BANK) (T/M)

 PG TRB: ZOOLOGY (QUESTION BANK) (E/M)

 PG TRB: BOTANY (QUESTION BANK) (T/M)

SRIMAAN COACHING CENTRE-

SRIMAAN COACHING CENTRE-PG-TRB-CHEMISTRY

 ENGLISH with Question Bank

 COMPUTER SCIENCE/IT with Question Bank