6UIU[t

ELSEVIER Geomorphology22 (1998) 285-312

The evolution of the great river systems of southem Asia during

the Cenozoic India-Asia collision: rivers draining southwards
M.E. Brookfield *
Land Resource Science, Guelph University, Guelph, Ontario, Canada N1G 2WI
Received 24 June 1996;revised 4 December 1996; accepted 20 August 1997

Abstract

During uplift of the Tibetan plateau and surrounding ranges, tectonic processes have interacted with climatic change and
with local random effects (such as landslides) to determine the development of the major river systems of Asia. Rivers
draining southward have three distinctive patterns that are controlled by different tectonic and climatic regimes. In central
and southern Afghanistan, the rivers have moderate gradients and fan out from northeastern sources to disappear into arid
depressions. Anti-clockwise rotation of southern Afghanistan, caused by differential compression and right-lateral shear, cut
the rivers on the north, while increasingly arid conditions developed on the south as arc accretion in the Makran separated
sources from the coastal rains. In Tibet and southeast Asia, the rivers are widely separated and have low gradients on the
Tibetan plateau, higher gradients as they turn southwards into close and parallel gorges, before they fan out southeast to
enter different seas. Differential shear and clockwise rotation between the compressing Tibetan plateau and Southeast Asia
determined the great sigmoidal bends of this river system which was accompanied by increasing aridity, with truncation of
river systems in the north and river capture in the south. In the Himalaya and southern Tibet, the main rivers have steep
gradients where they cut across the Himalayan range and occasionally truncate former rivers with low gradients on the
Tibetan plateau to the north. Southward thrusting and massive frontal erosion of the Himalaya caused progressive tnmcation
of longitudinal rivers on the plateau, accompanied by river capture, and glacial and landslide diversions on the south. The
drainage history of southern Asia can be reconstructed by restoring the gross movements of the plates and the tectonic
displacement, uplift, and erosion of individual tectonic units. Most important changes in drainage took place in Pliocene to
Quaternary times. © 1998 Elsevier Science B.V.

Keywords: evolution; riw~rs; southern Asia; Cenozoic; collision

1. I n t r o d u c t i o n Molnar et al., 1993). The heights of these plateaux

and ranges are a balance between forces generated
During the Tertieay, India progressively collided
by plate convergence and forces caused by gravita-
with Asia, raising the Tibetan plateau and other
tional spreading (England and Houseman, 1988).
areas, which caused enormous changes in climate
The resulting lateral and vertical movements, modi-
and drainage (Fig. 1) (Burchfiel and Royden, 1991;
fied by erosion at thrust fronts, climatic change and
river capture (and occasionally important local ef-
* Fax: + 1 (519) 824 5730; E-mail: mbrookfi@lrs.uoguelph.ca fects such as blocking by landslides and glaciers),

0169-555X/98/$19.00 ~-3 1998 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

PII S0169-555X(97)00082-2
 286 M.E. Brookfield / Geomorphology 22 (1998) 285-312

~100 ° 110 ° .

Aral t
. °ll .

-... • ~ ....
":.,..
• . . . ~..:..~:
. . . ~ '~, . 7.
~ . ~',=.~
.~.

1 0 0 0 km
0
• . • .. . DRAINAGE
o
~(~ [] >3km ~J lakes

Z=lS] 0.3-3km ] inland seas

r,, ~._] ~ 0.3 km __ j ~ salt pans

h It S O ° IVY I 'U 180° t90° ~ ~ . ~ t 100~"..-~
~'~ I

Fig. 1. Asia: major drainage systems related to topography. General topography from Canadian Oxford Atlas, 1957; 1:16 million; zenithal
equidistant projection, origin 30°N and 75°E. In this projection elongation is greatest around the edges but tolerable (less than 10%) and
distortion is less than in equal-area projections.

have determined the development of the drainage large-scale plate movements, and most of these stud-
systems of these areas. ies were on the effects of rifting on stable supercon-
The drainage systems have also influenced the tinent drainages (e.g. Potter, 1978; Cox, 1989; Sum-
development of the plateaux and ranges by the ef- merfield, 1991; Oilier and Pain, 1997). Drainage
fects of differential erosion and deposition on iso- controlled topographic feedbacks that affected
static adjustment and stress distributions (e.g. Bishop large-scale tectonics were also ignored by structural
and Brown, 1992; Koons, 1995). These drainage geologists. As Koons (1995) noted, "In retrospect, it
systems may also, by sediment loading and choking is difficult to understand how models of collision
of subduction zones, have affected plate movements zones could be constructed without reference to the
(Brookfield, 1993a). Geomorphic processes interact resulting topography, but somehow we managed."
with tectonics and climate as an integrated system. The India-Asia collision belt is a good place to
Until recently, geomorphology and tectonics were study the interactions among tectonics, climate, and
studied separately and drainage systems were ana- drainage evolution. Mountain building is still form-
lyzed in a fixed framework, with explanations in- ing the highest ranges and plateaux on Earth, and is
volving only regional tectonics (e.g. Ahnert, 1970; clearly related in space and time to plate movements.
Oberlander, 1985). Very few geomorphic studies The architecture of the belt is relatively simple, at
related the evolution of large drainage systems to least on a large scale. Because the basic plate mo-
 M.E. Brookfield/ Geomorphology 22 (1998) 285-312 287

tions are available from the magnetic anomalies, great lateral movements of huge crustal blocks dur-
gross relationships are easy to determine (Mattauer, ing plate movements. Yet such large-scale move-
1986; Dewey et al., 1989). But, paleoclimates are ments (distributed movements on folds and localized
more difficult to determine and are based mostly on movements on faults) seem, even at a cursory glance,
plants. Recent and Tertiary floras have been studied to have determined the patterns of the great Asian
in most areas and allow the overall climatic history fiver systems (Fig. 2).
of each to be determined (Song et al., 1981; Wang, The evolution of the great fiver systems of south-
1988). ern Asia can best be explained by plate tectonics,
Most studies of Asian fiver systems have empha- modified by the influence of climate and local, mainly
sized control by vertical uplift and climatic change tectonic, effects. Because many people consider that
(e.g. Pilgrim, 1919; Barbour, 1936; Oberlander, lithology is an important control of drainage, slope,
1985) or have been focused on small areas (e.g. and fiver gradients, I must emphasize (at length) that
Gornitz and Seeber, 1981; Burbank, 1992; Burbank no evidence supports lithological control on the de-
et al., 1996). They have not included the effects of velopment of the drainage of southern Asian at the

[~ Turan-Tarim platform ~ Turkmen- Central Pamir ~ Halmend--SouthPamir- [] Kohistan-Ladakh

Qiangtangblock & Lhasablock ~ Jur-Cret.Oceanicarc
[] U. Carb.suture passive margin[Pal.) & cover (U,Tr.- L Cretl
Kandahar-SouthPamir Palaeogenefore-arc
LCret. arc
I'~)---"1R
Kunlun
u s h a[U'Tr'-L"
narc
/ p s hJur')
a r t - m~a g mBangong
Fahr-a t i c back-arcbasin & fore-arcmelange ~ Indianpassive margin
[ ~ Litiang-Jinsha &OphioUte[U.Tr.-U.Jur.) " slope & basin
suture[U.Tr.] (closedU. Jur.

[] folds [~ faults I~ Ophiolites Herat shear(Neogene)

Fig 2. Asia: major drainage systems related to gross structure (base map from Brookfield, 1993c).
288 M.E. Brookfield/ Geomorphology 22 (1998) 285-312

large scale considered here. For example, the gradi- entirely graded because of fluctuations in discharge
ent changes of the rivers draining the Himalaya do and load, changes in rock type and climate, tectonic
not correspond with lithological changes but with effects on its course, and isostatic responses to ero-
structural changes. The gradients of the rivers of sion and deposition. Nevertheless, rates of response
Afghanistan are independent of lithology even where increase exponentially from equilibrium, and gross
they flow from crystalline to alluvial deposits. The deviations from grading must result from relatively
major gradient changes of the Yangtze, Mekong, and recent events (Bull, 1991).
Salween occur at cross-faults associated with river River gradients can be used to infer disequilib-
capture and not at lithological changes. Large rium in drainage systems which can then be related
drainage basins usually contain a variety of rocks to tectonic, climatic and other more local conditions
whose resistance balances out and the effect of litho- (e.g. Merritts et al., 1994). Quantitative descriptions
logical differences upon the total sediment load is of stream gradients allow precise comparisons among
neutralized (Ahnert, 1970). Although lithology is streams (Hack, 1982). These descriptions can then be
locally important (e.g. in the Appalachians - Hack, compared to idealized, quantitative models of stream
1973), lithological control is sometimes assumed responses to tectonics, climate, and other factors
where the data contradicts it. For example, Bishop et (e.g. Snow and Slingerland, 1990).
al. (1985) proposed lithological control on river gra- Most rivers increase in discharge downstream as
dients, whereas plotted profiles of gradients show no groundwater and tributaries join. If the stream profile
evidence for it (their figs. 5 and 7). is plotted on semi-logarithmic paper, the effect of
This paper describes the southward-draining sys- increasing discharge downstream is masked. An ideal
tems of Afghanistan, of Tibet and southeast Asia, graded river on uniform substrate plots as a straight
and of the Himalaya and southern Tibet, and concen- line on a semi-logarithmic graph (Fig. 3). The effect
trates on base levels of erosion, Recent river gradi- of resistance in rivers is shown by the slope of the
ents and the response to tectonic, climatic, and local
changes. 4OOO Arithmeti
METERS FEET
1200 _ profile
c 4000
i
upValtt4hd Eater Chllhowu
Gt ~ltlville
1

2. Base level of erosion and river gradients I0001

coo 3000
I R~]g. %,. 30oo

The base level of erosion is the line or surface ~600 2000

',\ ~o I II1
reached when water and sediment passes through the
system with no net deposition or erosion. Such an 200 I000

ideal longitudinal profile under static equilibrium

0 O:
shows no degradation or aggradation and is impossi- 50 I00 150 200 ?~0 300 3S0 MILES

ble to attain because all streams erode and deposit A

and none are, by definition, in static equilibrium.
Though no static equilibria profiles exist anywhere
on Earth at present, dynamic stream equilibria can FEET
400( L.O~Orlthmk: profile
occur where downcutting or aggradation keeps pace
300( . 280 1700
with uplift or subsidence; these do occur at various ~2000 - 620 840 ZOO0 5000
times and places (Bull, 1991).
A river is graded when the gradient, width, and
-~ ~
<
~ooo
I000 I000
depth of its channel are in dynamic equilibrium with
discharge and load (Mackin, 1948). But this rarely 5 I0 50 I00 200 MILES
happens. Observations and theoretical analysis show B
that time-scales for fiver networks to reach equilib-
Fig. 3. New River, southern Appalachian, longitudinal profiles.
rium are very long (on the order of 1000 to 1,000,000
(A) arithmetic; (B) logarithmic. Gradient indices for short lengths
years) even under relatively stable conditions (Knox, shown on profiles and for whole stream below (from Hack, 1973,
1976; Pizzuto, 1992). Thus, a river can never be Fig. 4).
 M.E. Brookfield/ Geomorphology 22 (1998)285-312 289

line, which is roughly proportional to the size of the with anomalously high gradient indices has high
bed material. This slope can indicate the competence stream energy and corresponds to; (a) a belt of
of the stream and channel slopes of streams of resistant rocks, (b) a zone of differential uplift, or (c)
different sizes can be easily compared (Hack, 1973). erosional disequilibrium between two drainage sys-
At equilibrium, rivers adjusting to increasing resis- tems. Conversely, a stretch of anomalously low gra-
tance and/or decreasing discharge downstream have dient indices has low stream energy and corresponds
convex upwards profiles, whereas rivers adjusting to to; (a) a belt of less resistant rocks, (b) a zone of
decreasing resistance and/or excessively increasing differential subsidence, or (c) depositional disequilib-
discharge downstream have concave upwards pro- rium between two drainage systems.
files. On the large scale studied here, relatively sudden
The quantitative deviation of river channels, or changes of gradient (at major knickpoints) are caused
segments of channe]Ls, from ideal equilibrium can be by tectonics or by river capture. None of the major
shown on such semi-logarithmic plots; the deviations knickpoints correspond to lithological changes. For
of several streams can be compared, and the reasons example, no major knickpoints occur where Hi-
for the variations evaluated (Hack, 1973, 1982). malayan rivers flow south from the resistant High
Straight-line segments fit the relationship: Himalaya crystalline rocks onto the less resistant
Lesser Himalaya sedimentary rocks. The sharpness
H = C - KX l n L (1) of knickpoints measures, in a relative way, how
recent the tectonic or river capture event was
where H = elevation, L = distance from source, and (Gardner, 1983). Fig. 4 shows asymptotic decay
C and K are constaxlts. curves for re-establishment of graded equilibrium
The stream gradient index (K) can characterize after fault displacement. Such curves need indepen-
any stretch of the river or the entire profile. A stretch dent time calibration.

ALTITUDE[km]

fault

4- ~~__~~RO SION I DEPOSITION

2- ~ [A]-----L
1- ~ c l a y

gravel
10 100 1000
Distancefromsource(km)
Fig. 4. Change in graded river profile by fault movement and the resulting adjustments. Graded river profile (A) is displaced to profile (B)
by a sudden fault displacement (here 3 km analogous to Neogene uplift of Tibetan plateau) Erosion/deposition point is kept constant: in
reality, it would migrate downwards and upstream, eroding earlier deposited sediment near the fault. Successive profiles 1 to 5 show a trend
toward eventual new equilibrium profile ((2). Reaction time is assumed to be instantaneous. Relaxation time to new dynamic equilibrium is
unknown, but is exponential, with a half-life of probably millions of years for this size of river.
290 M.E. Brookfield/ Geomorphology 22 (1998) 285-312

Small rivers in arid climates take a long time to which are available for the whole of Asia. Tactical
adjust to disturbances, of the order of 10,000 to Pilotage Charts were also used to measure river
1,000,000 years (Bull, 1991). The response times for gradients. On these maps the basic contour interval is
the large Asian rivers should intuitively, be shorter. usually 76.2 m, but can be 152.4 m in some poorly
However, the large rivers that drain the steep south- known areas like eastern Tibet. Surprisingly, I found
ern slopes of the High Himalaya have still not no incompatible features, such as a river crossing the
attained dynamic equilibrium since the Main Central same contour twice, on these maps. When checked
Thrust stopped moving during the Pliocene, about 5 against satellite images, the maps seem to be very
million years ago (Macfarlane et al., 1992). Over a accurate.
shorter time, the Pum-Arun knickpoint is still Measurements of river profiles were made using
knife-sharp after 10,000 years since its late Quater- Hack (1973) method. Heights were plotted on semi-
nary formation (Wager, 1937). logarithmic paper against distances from sources.
Headward erosion of knickpoints from the margin The highest contour that was crossed by the stream
of the Tibetan plateau has also been relatively small below its source was taken as the highest i point on
since the Miocene start of marginal thrusting and the profile. The source was estimated from satellite
uplift of the entire system about 10 million years ago photos and taken at the snout of any source glacier
(Molnar et al., 1993). For example, the huge rivers where present. Overall gradient indices of a river
of eastern Tibet, the Yangtze, Mekong, Salween, and were computed from mouth to source, following the
Irrawaddy, are only at stage 3 - 4 (see Section 3.2). longest path. Tributaries were calculated separately,
from the source to the confluence with the main
river. Various gradients were calculated for different
3. Asian rivers
straight line segments of the streams and also for the
The study of river gradients is an old tradition in entire profile.
Asia as elsewhere (Burrard and Hayden, 1907). The Two main errors occurred in the profiles:
existing great river systems of Asia transport vast (a) Foreshortening of the length of the streams,
amounts of solid and dissolved material to the ocean, especially in downstream areas, occurred because the
where the sediments accumulate to form some of the maps used do not show the small sinuosities in the
largest submarine fans on Earth (Curray et al., 1982; channels. The profiles were thus slightly steeper and
Wang et al., 1986; Kolla and Coumes, 1987). River more convex than they should have been, but plot-
courses have also changed greatly and rapidly. In the ting the Yangtze river profile in great detail showed
last 4000 years the great Huangho (Yellow) river has that the effect was very small.
switched its course eight times, sometimes by over (b) Uncertainties in the actual heights and posi-
300 km, to opposite sides of the Shandong Peninsula tions of the contours also affected the accuracy of
(Wang, 1983). Such course changes greatly effect the profiles in the first 100 km where the points plot
sedimentation and subsidence in the basins. And in far apart. These uncertainties had little effect because
turn, changing patterns of erosion in mountains and the first 100 km stretch is small compared to the
sedimentation in basins modify tectonic development scale of the entire river system.
(Beaumont et al., 1992). Each of the generally southward-flowing systems,
In this paper, the drainage patterns and longitudi- central and southern Afghanistan, Tibet and south-
nal profiles in three areas; (1) central and southern east Asia, and the Himalaya and southern Tibet, have
Afghanistan, (2) Tibet and southeast Asia, and (3) different properties related to different tectonic situa-
the Himalaya and southern Tibet, are described and tion, development, and climate. A discussion of each
related to the different large-scale deformations of of these systems follows.
the India-Asia collision.
Topography and drainage patterns are from the 3.1. Central and southern Afghanistan
Times Atlas of the World, were checked with Land-
sat satellite images and the 1:500,000 Tactical Pi- The main rivers of central and southern
lotage Charts of the U.S. Defense Mapping Agency, Afghanistan form the Helmand-Farah system (Fig.
 M.E. Brookfield/ Geomorphology22 (1998) 285-312 291

38 °

• , . , -

~2u'° • •

• . =a.,r~tOr a

t~ ,;~. .-L~.-.

• ...1'
".f,

8;"
200 km 28 °
I ,"1 --

> 3km

ioa

l-3km
._~
@
0:2 - 1 k m

DRAINAGE. ~ ~ I I < 0.2 km '

47 1620 164° ,,I e6° II ~ 68° t 70`' 1720
Fig. 5. Afghanistan and adjacent areas: drainage patterns in relation to topography. Names of major towns are in boxes; saline lakes are in
black, and completely ca-ied out lakes are horizontally ruled.
292 M.E. Brookfield/ Geomorphology 22 (1998) 285-312

5). They fan out southwest from the high ground Paleozoic-Mesozoic Helmand nlicrocontinent, the
west of Kabul, following the structural grain of the mostly small and irregular ephemeral streams run
land to meet and disappear in the salt flats along the parallel to and across the complex folds and faults in
Harirud fault zone separating Afghanistan from Iran the Cenozoic sedimentary rocks.
(Fig. 6). To the north of the Herat shear, northward These rivers all have similar and relatively low,
flowing ephemeral streams, like the Murgab and for Asia, overall indices of gradient between 350 and
Hari, similarly disappear in the Karakum desert basin. 400. The profiles are only slightly convex; they are
To the south of the Helmand river system, and the close to graded (Fig. 7). The Haft is an exception; its

Fig. 6. Afghanistan: major rivers (heavy black lines) in relation to structure. Paleozoic Helmand microcontinent (H) with its extension into
Nuristan (N) is flanked on the southeast by the Kandahar-Karakorum Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous Andean magmatic arc, just north
of ophiolite belt, and Farah back-arc basin on the northeast (F: obliterated along the Herat Shear).
 M.E. Brookfield/ Geomorphology 22 (1998) 285-312 293

Distance from source (km} control (or have controlled) gradients within about
0 10 100 1000 100 km of the headwaters of the rivers. The gentler
upper reaches of the rivers were probably once filled
3 ~
by Quaternary glaciers and the rivers have not yet
2 ~ adjusted the profiles (Shroder, 1998).
3-[ ~1 Differential uplift has occurred. The Helmand
microcontinent and Farah back-arc basin were pro-
gressively more compressed and uplifted from south-
2 ~cos west to northeast during the Neogene to form the
western end of the Hindu Kush (Boulin, 1981). This
2 ~0
differential compression can explain the southwest-
ward fanning of the major rivers, modified by river
capture in the Kandahar and Kabul areas, (Fig. 5).
2 ~0
The short and jumbled drainages of southern
Afghanistan and western Pakistan are a result of the
dry climate and the rapid and active fore-arc folding
2 --0
and faulting that affects the soft Neogene clastic
~. 1 ] TARNAK RUD rocks. The belt of harder Mesozoic shelf deposits
mostly controls the divide between streams that drain
0 ~ I I
internally and directly into the Indian Ocean, and
AFGHANISTAN (rivers flowing west & southwestJ
streams that drain eastward into the Indus. River
Fig. 7. Afghanistan: main westward and southwestward-flowing capture into the Indus system increases northwards
rivers, semi-logarithmicprofilesand gradientindices. with progressive destruction of the Pishin Flysch belt
(Fig. 6). Headward erosion of the Kabul, Kurram,
and Tochi rivers has segmented a once continuous,
relatively steep downstream stretch northwest of southwestward-flowing river that probably formed
Herat is caused by river capture across the Herat part of the Helmand system (Fig. 5). Along the now
Shear into the Karakama basin to the north (Fig. 5). narrow Cretaceous-Paleogene flysch belt, shearing,
In the other rivers, convexity increases progressively differential movement and uplift has caused drainage
downstream from southeast to northwest, from the reversal and river capture west of the Mesozoic shelf
Tarnak to the Farah (Fig. 7). Increasing convexity (Fig. 6). A single river draining into the Indian
indicates gradually increasing rock resistance down- Ocean probably once flowed southwest along the
stream, or decreasing discharge, or differential uplift. Pishin flysch belt, but is now broken into the Hingol,
Increasing rock resistance is not a factor. The Pishin Lore and Zhob river systems draining, respec-
profiles are independent of the lithologies over which tively, into the Indian Ocean, internally, and the
the rivers flow and iin the most convex downstream Indus system (Fig. 5).
sections the rivers flow over soft alluvium. The main
breaks in slope take place at varying distances and
heights from the sources but in the upper reaches. 3.2. Tibet and southeast Asia
Below about 2 km in height all rivers, except the
Had, show straight graded profiles. Three great rivers of southeast Asia, the Yangtze,
Decreasing discharge does occur. All streams flow Mekong and Salween rise on the Tibetan plateau,
into progressively drier regions, become smaller, and bend around the northeastern syntaxis of the Hi-
then die out in the salt flats of the Sistan desert. The malaya, run parallel in deeply incised gorges and
most add downstreaan reaches, however, do not show then diverge into different seas (Figs. 1 and 8).
any marked convexity of profile. For this reason, Apparently a fourth, the ancestral Tsangpo-
tectonics is probably more important than climate in Irrawaddy, also once followed such a course, but it is
determining the gradients of the rivers. Climate may now truncated by the Brahmaputra system. The great
294 M.E. Brookfield / Geomorphology 22 (1998) 285-312

Fig. 8. Eastern Tibetanplateau and adjacent areas: drainagepatterns in relation to topography.Major rivers are named, heavy lines.

sigmoidal curves of these four rivers, and tributaries, tal blocks (Fig. 9). Thus, the Yangtze runs behind a
precisely outline the enormous right lateral shear and Triassic magmatic arc on the distorted marginal basin
compression during the collision of northward mov- sediments of the Triassic Songpan-Garze area. The
ing India with Asia and the clockwise rotation of Mekong runs along the late Triassic Litian-Jinsha
southern Asia behind the Indian indenter (Fig. 1) suture (though now diverted to the east in northern
(Wang and Chu, 1988). Each river was, until re- Thailand from its original southward course into the
cently, confined to a specific suture, marking the Yom). The Salween runs along the Bangong-Nujiang
destruction of oceanic lithosphere between continen- suture for most of its length before being diverted
 M.E. Brookfield / Geomorphology 22 (1998) 285-312 295

Fig. 9. Eastern Tibetan plateau and adjacent areas: major rivers (heavy black lines) related to structure. Major tectonic boundaries are: 1,
South Kunlun fault; 2, Litian-Jinsha suture; 3, Bangong-Nujiang suture; 4, Indus suture; 5, Uttradit-Nan suture; 6, Burma suture (data
and terminology after Braokfield, 1995; Chang et al., 1989; Metcalfe, 1990; Mitchell, 1993; Sengor et al., 1988; Chen et al., 1994).

across strike faults in Burma. And the Irrawaddy, triple junction between the Indian, South China, and
and its original Tsmlgpo continuation, runs along the Indochina blocks centred on Shiku (Fig. 8). The
Cretaceous-Eocene Indus suture zone, marking the close approach of the Yangtze, Mekong and Salween
final destruction of the Tethyan ocean between India in the three rivers area results from the almost
and Asia. All these rivers run parallel until the edge complete sheafing out of the microcontinent, which
of the plateau at about 3 kin. They then diverge was once continuous between the Qangtang block of
along very complicated courses that are controlled Tibet and the Shan block of Burma (Fig. 9). The
by cross-faulting mad river capture at the unstable minimum left-lateral displacement on the Red River
296 M.E. Brookfield/ Geomorphology 22 (1998) 285-312

fault zone in this area since the Eocene is 330 ___60 rivers which have much lower average values (Fig.
km (Lacassin et al., 1993). 10). The upper reaches, above 4 km, have indices of
Profiles of the rivers draining the eastern part of gradient of less than 350, which may, as in
the Tibetan plateau, with the exception of the now Afghanistan, be related to Quaternary glaciation or
truncated Irrawaddy, show extremely marked convex permafrost formation. Alternately, these gentler up-
profiles with average indices of gradient between per reaches may be tectonically related to extension
620 and 660 - much steeper than the Afghanistan and gravitational collapse. In the first case, either

Distance from source Ckm]

1 10 100 1,000 10,000
I I I I I

'Tn

-0

~ ross-fault -3

~ ] ^._
5 -L . SALWF_.EN ~ - 1

~. 4 ns SE

--3

~ -o
"~
-1- ops off cirqu

eea~ -2
--3

--1

--0
Fig. 10. Eastern Tibet, draining rivers: semi-logarithmicprofiles and gradients.
 M.E. Brookfield/ Geomorphology 22 (1998) 285-312 297

Tibet had an ice cap in Quaternary times (Kuhle, and shear of the Tibetan plateau relative to areas to
1986) or glaciers exUmding from the marginal moun- the southeast. Indices of gradient rise to 1700 and
tains blocked outward flow and large lakes and more, across the Neogene Longmen Shan fault sys-
permafrost occupied the plateau (Wang et al., 1981). tem where the Tibetan plateau obliquely overthrusts
In the second case.,, gravitational spreading with the Chengdu basin (Chen et al., 1994) (Fig. 8). In the
graben formation combined with increasing aridity is Yangtze and the Mekong major cross-faults caused
equally capable of dJLsrupting the drainage (Burchflel large dislocations and abrupt changes in the river
and Royden, 1985). gradients, with headward capture by southeasterly
The asymptotically increasing gradients of the and southwesterly flowing streams, respectively.
intermediate reaches, where indices of gradient in- Changes are less abrupt in intermediate stretches of
crease to over 1000, mark the reaction to major uplift the Salween and Irrawaddy systems, which are now

Distance from source [km)

1 10 100 1,000 10,000
I I I I I

E
~- - " ~ ~ cou~/seto SE
~ 330~'~ cr°ss-fault
'~ ~ <-~'~,I. Big bend
"TO0"'~ I gorge -3

-0
i . YALllm,-, courseS.
.~ 4 ~ ~ _ " ~-~,.~,into gorge
"1" I ~ ~ cross-fault

-2
confluence - 1
with Yangtze

--3

~ "~ cross-fault -- 2
~= turnsE across range1
~"~. confluence
Yangtze
--0
Fig. 11. Yangtze river and eastern tributaries: semi-logarithmic profiles and gradients, showing a general decrease in convexity but a
consistencyof average.gradient.
298 M.E. Brookfield/ Geomorphology 22 (1998) 285-312

removed from the actively compressing collision zone puzzling, is unrelated to height or river length, and
(Fig. 9). may be caused by regional rates of compression and
The decreasing rate and effect of active compres- uplift.
sion to the northeast is shown by the decreasing The southern end of the three rivers area is an
convexity of the Yangtze and its two major parallel exceptionally unstable area of jostling horsts and
tributaries towards the north (Fig. 11). The similarity grabens between the rigid Yangtze, Indian and In-
in average gradients of the Yalung and Tam is dochina blocks (Figs. 2 and 9). Complicated and

Distance from source (km)

10 100 1,000 10,000
i I I I

1-t RED

mouth

~~ 61L- coupe,o SE
-1-
4-] 330 cross-fault
/
d
-3

-2

-1
BLACK
_o

Confluence
-r- RED --(3

-r"

- "4.
• gap - 1
~~.~BLACK -- 0

Fig. 12. Red and Black rivers of Vietnam and the Mekong and Yangtze (upper and intermediate stretches): semi-logarithmicprofiles and
gradients juxtaposed with their possible original lower courses in the Black and Red rivers of Vietnam, assuming original continuity before
late Tertiary deformation.
 M.E. Brookfield/ Geomorphology 22 (1998) 285-312 299

changing strike-slip and oblique movements through- practically graded and of unbelievably low slope for
out the Neogene between these blocks occurred at this tectonically active area. But they fit very well as
the junction of northwesterly trending faults that are the original lower courses of the Yangtze and Mekong
associated with the Red River fault zone and the (Fig. 12). The lower Mekong river has also been
northeasterly trending,, faults of the Longmen Shan diverted from its original course, by headward ero-
zone (Scharer et al., 1994; Chen et al., 1994). These sion and river capture from the Khorat plateau, into
mixed vertical and lateral movements have con- the Yom river of Thailand (Figs. 1 and 9). An even
trolled complex river-capture patterns to the south, more outstanding example of river capture is the
and to a lesser extent in the mountains to the north truncation by the Brahmaputra of the original
(Lee, 1933). Tsangpo-Parlung-Sang-Irrawaddy river. This trun-
The dramatic river captures in the intermediate cation involves a further factor that is absent in
stretches of the Yangtze and Mekong can be illus- southeast Asia, extensive lateral erosion at the front
trated by comparing present upper and intermediate of thrusts during collision, and so is discussed in the
river profiles with possible original, but now trun- Himalaya section.
cated, lower river profiles in the Red and Black The Tibetan plateau is a high (average 5 km) and
rivers of Vietnam. The Red and Black rivers are flat (average slopes of less than 5°) area with up-

Fig. 13. Himalaya and Tibet: major rivers related to topography.

300 M.E. Brookfield/ Geomorphology 22 (1998) 285-312

turned edges that are cut by roughly radially draining the Yangtze and other southeast Asian rivers (Fig.
streams (Fig. 1). The tectonic compression, uplift, 13). These courses are emphasized by the trends and
and northward displacement of the Tibetan plateau, locations of Quaternary sediments (Fig. 14). I at-
together with related climatic changes, seem the tribute the drying up and destruction of these rivers
main control on the rivers of Asia, as noted in the to uplift, increasing aridity, and permafrost forma-
last section. The central and northern parts of the tion. The age of most of the northern lakes and
plateau, however, have low relief and are scarcely Tertiary sediments are poorly known, and the time
dissected at all (Fielding et al., 1994), implying that when the main changes occurred are uncertain. The
little crustal deformation or river erosion has oc- main changes probably took place in Quaternary
curred during the Neogene uplift, which is consistent times, with the formation of year-round frozen ground
with tectonic studies (Chang et al., 1989). Therefore, (Wang and French, 1995) or even an ice cap (Kuhle,
the landscape preserves earlier Neogene or even 1986).
Paleogene features, including the earlier courses of
the Yellow, Yangtze, Salween and Mekong rivers. 3.3. Himalaya and southern Tibet
In the central and northern plateau, lines of lakes
and dry valleys outline the west-east dry courses of The southem part of the Tibetan plateau has
streams, which once flowed into the headwaters of significant relief and is partially dissected by rivers

Fig. 14. Himalaya and Tibet: major rivers related to Quaternarybasins and structural units (data from Brookfield, 1993c; Institute of
Geological SciencesXizang, 1984). Structural units as for Fig. 9. Open circles are inferred formerextensions of the Yellow, Yangtze,
Salween, and Mekongrivers and tributaries. Mediumstipple marks, Neogeneclasfic sediments.
 M.E. Brookfield/ Geomorphology 22 (1998) 285-312 301

that flow behind and across the Himalaya (Ober- now been truncated by headward erosion from rivers
lander, 1985). The Tsangpo, Indus, and Sutlej rise draining and eroding the front of the High Himalaya
near each other and then diverge (Fig. 13). The (Burrard and Hayden, 1907; Seeber and Gornitz,
Tsangpo and Indus flow east and west, respectively, 1983; Oberlander, 1985). Because of tilting of the
for hundreds of kilolnetres, then turn abruptly south southern edge of the plateau as a result of isostatic
to cut right across the main Himalaya and its struc- uplift of the dissected Himalayan edge, these rivers
tural grain (Fig. 14). The Sutlej cuts obliquely across have, in places, also been diverted northward (for
the range. These riw~rs all have impressive gorges example, the western end of the Tsangpo in Fig. 13).
where they cut the High Himalaya and may have Many transverse southward-draining Himalayan
once flowed latitudinally behind the Himalaya (the rivers rise north of the high peaks and cut deep
Sutlej along the present Spiti and Chenab gorges through them. Yet these transverse rivers do
rivers)(Brookfield, 1993b). But all these rivers have not deflect the linear watershed boundary along the

Distance from source (km)

1 10 100 1,000 10,000
L 1 I I I

6 ~ --2

'~ ' t I ~ ~==cu s across

acro -0
" ~ ~ rahge --3

6] "2~~ . . . . ~ ~ibi reVersefault -2

~ "t~_.~ confluence
'1 ~ ~ " Brahmapdtra --0
~ ' , , nodata --3
-2

~confluence ,~

--2

/~aves mountains --1

~ confluence n
Brahmaputra -- ~'
Fig. 15. Tsangpo-Brahmaputraand its Himalayantributaries: semi-logarithmicprof'des and gradients showingincreasing gradientsfrom
flank to centreof the I-Iinaalayanarc.
302 M.E. Brookfield/ Geomorphology 22 (1998) 285-312

High Himalaya, which they should do if they had If frontal thrusting and isostatic uplift are faster
simply captured other rivers from across the range than headward erosion, then drainage divides rise
by headward erosion (Shroder, 1993). Simple verti- faster than they can be cut back by headward ero-
cal uplift can not explain this striking peculiarity and sion, and Himalayan rivers have relatively short
it remained unexplained until the idea of massive courses that end within the mountains. Thus, rivers
frontal as well as vertical erosion of southward-mov- at the center of the Himalayan arc, from the Manas
ing thrust sheets was developed (Brookfield, 1989). to the Kali Gandak, have steep gradients (Figs. 15
The southwardly thrusting Himalaya are being con- and 16). Latitudinal rivers behind the range tend to
tinually eroded by rapidly incising and back-cutting get uplifted on the south, and the drainages become
streams. The consequent isostatic uplift, with the tilted to the north. Therefore, they tend to become
development of glaciers on the interfluves, is form- dissected into northerly flowing tributaries of the
ing the highest mountain range and the steepest river Tsangpo (Figs. 13 and 14).
gradients on Earth (Figs. 15-17). A dynamic balance If, however, frontal thrusting and isostatic uplift
exists between the headward erosion of rivers and are slower than headward erosion, headward erosion
the northward diversion of originally longitudinal overtakes rising divides, and the Himalayan rivers
rivers behind the rising Himalaya. extend behind the range to capture originally latitudi-

Distance from source (km)

1 10 100 1,000 10,000
I 1 ] I I

~ 61~.__ turns sharply E. (river capture)

.E s S. into Arun Criver capture )
]
' ~ " ~,,,~ , ' ~ cuts E. of Everest

~"~ tleaves mountains -- 1

% ~ . confluence --0
CHILUNG n e uanges
~o~ 5 ~ t u r n s S. across re. g
ers gorge

--3
~o~--~. ~ BHO'i'A KOSI -2

--1
confluence
Kali Gandaki -o
5

confluence
Ganges --0
Fig. 16. Himalayanrivers of Nepal thatdrain intothe Ganges:semi-logarithmicprofilesand gradients.
 M.E. Brookfield/ Geomorphology 22 (1998) 285-312 303

Distance from source (km]

1 10 100 1,000 10,000
I I L I I

bl SARDA -'~ c~flUgeensCe

--0
~3

"-' 5 - I ' ~ " ~ "~F-,,~ confluence

~4 t ~ ~ -~"~'~ Ghaghara --0

6- ~ ~ enters plains --2

E [ ~ ~ confluence _ t

Dehra dun (plains~

1
~ confluence
Ganges -0

Fig. 17. Himalayanrivers in India: semi-logarithmicprofiles and gradients of the Gangesdrainage.

nal rivers, and northward flowing tributaries, on the latitudinal valley that is filled with Neogene sedi-
plateau behind. Thi,; occurs mostly towards the flanks ments (Fig. 14).
of the Himalayan arc, where frontal thrusting and The Karnali-Ghaghara river marks the transition
uplift declines with progressively more motion trans- from the southwardly moving frontal Himalayan arc
lated into strike-slip components. Thus, rivers like system of India and Nepal into the clockwise rotat-
the Subansiri and Karnali-Ghaghara extend back ing system of the Kashmir Himalaya. This transition
onto the plateau with gentler overall gradients (Figs. reflects the change from the Himalayan to the Pamir
15 and 17). Further east and west, headward erosion system along the transpressional Karakorum fault
extends even further back onto the plateau to capture zone (Fig. 14). Thus, west of the Karnali-Ghaghara,
major originally latitudinal drainages, as in the case the rivers have generally similar gradients (Fig. 17).
of the Tsangpo-Brahrnaputra on the east and the Recent fault movements are locally important. The
Sutlej and Indus on the west (Fig. 13). The Pum- kink in the profile of the Subansiri river as it crosses
Arun is an exception, but this drains an old, deep the Himalaya (Fig. 15) is directly related to the
304 M.E. Brookfield / Geomorphology 22 (1998) 285-312

active Sibi fault, which has an almost vertical reverse Indus tributaries also traverse similar geological units
fault focal mechanism (Holt et al., 1991). (Fig. 19). The Indus and its Himalayan tributaries
The drainage into the Ganges system shows aver- have, with the exception of the Jhelum, slightly
age indices of gradient of around 600-700. Those higher average indices of gradient than those of the
rivers that extend back onto the Tibetan plateau, with Ganges system, over 700 (Figs. 20 and 21). The
the exception of the Pum-Arun, show mostly main Indus and those of its tributaries that cut the
rounded profiles and knickpoints indicative of fairly High Himalaya have more kinked profiles indicative
old river capture (Figs. 16 and 17). The Yamuna is of more recent river capture of headwaters than the
the only tributary to show a completely concave Ganges system (Fig. 20). By contrast, the major
low-gradient profile and has probably been beheaded tributaries of the Indus that rise within the High
by the Sutlej (Fig. 17). Himalaya have almost graded profiles (Fig. 21).
The Himalayan rivers of the Indus system, the Deviations are of interest. For example, the short
Indus, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej, re- gentle stretch of the Jhelum within the Kashmir
semble those of the Ganges system in that they vary valley (Fig. 21) can be related to the rapid uplift of
from rivers rising within the High Himalaya to rivers this valley and the formation of the Pir Panjal to the
cutting across the High Himalaya (Fig. 18). The south within the last 1.7 million years (Burbank and

Fig. 18. Northwesternsyntaxis:majorriversrelatedto topography.

 M.E. Brookfield/ Geomorphology22 (1998)285-312 305

Fig. 19. Northwesternsyntaxis:majorriversrelatedto structure(data base fromBrookfield,1993a).

Johnson, 1983). The strong deviations of the Indus in ern Himalaya, where frontal thrusting and erosion is
its steepest graded stretch, from gentle above Skardu less and almost the entire width of the Tethyan
to very steep from Skardu around Nanga Parbat, is sedimentary rocks are preserved. Here, the alignment
related to extremely rapid uplift, and the conse- of the upper reaches of the Chenab and Sutlej rivers,
quently extreme rate of erosion of 5 mm/year, of and possibly the present Kashmir valley, with their
that massif and areas to the northeast (Zeitler et al., Neogene sedimentary fills is suggestive of an ances-
1993). tral latitudinal river course (Fig. 19) (Brookfield,
The amount eroded from the front of the High 1993b). The Neogene basins along the Pum may also
Himalaya nappes can be roughly calculated from have once been part of this system (Fig. 14).
sediment budgets (Brookfield, 1989). An average
width of at least 150 km has been eroded from the 3.4. River capture in the syntaxes
nappe fronts since the start of thrusting and rapid
uplift in the late lVliocene. The width removed is In the northeastern and northwestern syntaxes, the
compatible with the absence of Mesozoic inner shelf enormous bending of structural units and originally
facies between the Lesser and High Himalaya latitudinal river systems have interacted with ex-
(Brookfield, 1993c). Massive horizontal erosion may treme uplift and erosion along transverse anticlinal
have removed one latitudinal drainage system that axes to completely change drainage patterns.
once flowed within the High Himalaya. Vestiges of In the northeastern syntaxis, a river that once
this system can be recognized only in the northwest- flowed eastward and was bent around the developing
306 M.E. BrookfieM/ Geomorphology 22 (1998) 285-312

Distance from source [km}

1 10 100 1,000 10,000
I I 1 I I
6-L.__ . SUTLEJ

~ 8 "lllt3j,~_cuts crystalline axis- 3

6"l CHENAB --0

54~ confluence

--3
--2
~ f b turns S.S.W.
~ L ~ enters plains -- t
Indus --0
6 " L ~ Karakorum' confluence
zone I
I ~ ~v, ~ I~turnsW.

~" ~ ~a~l~ Skardu "2

INDUS ~ ~ ~ Nanga Parbat
.. ' ~ Chilas -- t
enters plains---~'~ mouth--0
Fig. 20. Indus drainage, the main trunk rivers, the Sutlej, Chenab, and Indus: semi-logarithmic profiles and gradients.

syntaxis has been truncated by headward erosion metres above the capture point (Fig. 15). Further-
from the Brahmaputra and Lohit rivers. All of the more, the area between the present Tsangpo and
Indus-Tsangpo suture and most of the Himalaya Irrawaddy has only high passes with no obvious
structural units have been removed in this area (No. wind gaps. The capture by the Subansiri, on the
4 on Fig. 9). In particular, the Mesozoic flysch of the other hand, took place very recently, as shown by the
North Himalayan unit disappears. The river patterns sharp angular join in gradients (Fig. 15).
show that an earlier distinct river, which is separate In the northwestern syntaxis, because of more
from the Tsangpo, possibly flowed along the present complicated tectonics, river patterns are much more
Parlung, Sang and Tamai courses into the upper complex than in the eastern syntaxis (Figs. 18 and
Irrawaddy (Fig. 8). In any case, the ancestral 19). Southern Afghanistan was rotated and displaced
Tsangpo, which once flowed through the Sang, to the west, which meant that vertical uplift was not
Tamai, and eventually into the Irrawaddy, is com- as great there as in the eastern syntaxis, and complex
pletely gone (Fig. 13). The capture possibly took thrust sheets and blocks are bounded by strike-slip
place possibly several million years ago, as incision faults with large displacements (Tapponnier et al.,
has now increased the gradient several hundred kilo- 1981). These faults cut across the syntaxis and rivers
 M.E. BrookfieM/ Geomorphology 22 (1998) 285-312 307

Distancefrom sourceCkm)
1 10 100 1,000 10,000
I I I I I

--3
I Kashmir(
"o'3 ~ ~ . cuts P!r Panjal range - 2
turns S• -- 1
enters plains-7"~l~,~ Chenab
~ 6 ~ confluenoe --0

--a

--1
enters plains- - ~ ' ~ - - ~ Chenab
confluence --0

-3
7,, Kulu -2
-1
Sutlej confluence - 0
Fig. 21. Indus drainage,the majoreasterntributaries,the Beas, Ravi, and Jhelum: semi-logarithmicprofilesand gradients.

like the Indus and Kabul rapidly cut far back to Compressional and extensional stresses generated
truncate the original west to southwesterly drainage by the India-Asia collision have also affected the
(Figs. 18 and 19)• The incision of the Kabul river has drainage systems of the Indian Shield. Since the
taken place gradual]Ly over a long time. Its course is Miocene, the southward-moving Himalaya forced the
essentially graded despite the contrast between alter- Ganges system to progressively move south. Before
nating stretches of metamorphic, igneous and sedi- then, the tributaries of the Narmada and other west-
mentary rocks, and sediments (Fig. 22). The devel- ward-flowing shield rivers had much larger catch-
opment of the Indus river system is related to the ment areas, which extended further northwards (Sant
river capture of deformed, originally latitudinal, and Karanth, 1993) (Fig. 1).
westward-flowing streams, whose truncated remains
now lie in Afghanistan (Fig. 5). This obvious idea,
proposed in the earliest days of pilgrimage and ex- 4. Relation of river patterns to plate movements
ploration, can now be developed more coherently
with better maps; satellite images; and modem con- Four main stages in the collision of India with
cepts of isostasy, plate tectonics, and climatic change Asia can be recognized (Burchfiel and Royden, 1991;
(Shroder, 1993). Dewey et al., 1989). The first stage, from about 80 to
308 M.E. Brookfield / Geomorphology 22 (1998) 285-312

Distancefromsource(km]
1 10 100 1,000 10,000
~" I I I I

--3
^ 6'¢/-"~....~~ confluenceGhorband --2
~.~ 5 4 ~ G ~ K iybe:cPoa:f:
uence _10

-2

Kabulconfluence --0

5 SWAT Kabulconfluence 0
4~-- n.o~ata

~%=,"X~ SaiduSharif
~,~=~.-K:; tu;rcSP ;l:hacWar basi;
Fig. 22. Indus drainage, the majorwesterntributaries:semi-logarithmicprofilesand gradients.

50 Ma, involves the accretion of oceanic arcs onto betan plateau and transfer of the main shortening to
the northern Indian margin, and ended with the final areas south (Himalaya) and north (Tien Shan) of the
closure of the main Tethys ocean as India collided plateau, with deformation of older Asian and Indian
with a marginal Asian-Andean arc. The second stage, continental lithosphere. This phase was accompanied
from about 50 to 25 Ma, involves lithospheric short- by northeastward motion of the entire collision zone
ening, by up to 1000 km, of the future Tibetan between the left lateral Altyn Tag fault on the north
plateau, as convergent deformation progressed from and the Sagaing and related faults on the east. It
the initial southern collision site to the northern edge probably also involved the lateral extrusion of the
of the Tibetan plateau against the rigid Tarim block. whole of eastern Asia. This stage is characterized by
This phase was probably accompanied by eastward rapid uplift with some extension of the Tibetan
lateral extrusion of southeastern Asia (Tapponnier et plateau, the exact mechanisms and timing of which
al., 1986). The third stage, from about 25 to 5 Ma, are controversial (Molnar et al., 1993). The fourth
involves conjugate strike-slip faulting within the Ti- stage, from about 5 Ma to the present, involves the
 M.E. Brookfield / Geomorphology 22 (1998) 285-312 309

gravitational spreading of the uplifted mass, conse- raphy and sedimentology of the various Neogene
quent on changing plate motions in the Indian Ocean basins of southern Asia (a project yet be done), to
(Royer and Sandwell, 1989). the cartoons do show the importance of drainage
Reversing the lr.totion of India with respect to studies to understanding the sedimentary history of
Asia and restoring the probable distortions and ero- the collision zone and have some interesting implica-
sional and subducticm losses of the areas in between tions.
gives the cartoons shown in Fig. 22 (Brookfield, For example, the late Miocene (Tortonian) recon-
1995). If the major rivers are plotted on these car- struction shows three important changes from the
toons, then the evo'.[ution of the main drainage sys- present (Fig. 23):
tems during the collision of India with Asia can be (a) In the northwestern syntaxis, the absence of
inferred. Though the cartoons should not be taken the Pamir indent, Karakorum fault and Nanga Parbat
too seriously until they are tested against the stratig- uplift, all of which control headward erosion of the

'=7~0~.._..----=80
- ''~90 ",,,,= ==,..~-_ "•.
I ,...ecenti4_,
./ I
JS
""~:'~.:'.'..
,.~.z
'
80 ' '--.tgo

•
1 " "
TortonianJ
4

alia
I I i (I I LI I~)lL'~'lvJl~"A[~ ~ /~ "/ ~

' 1000krrlt"t81. ~ ' ~ 0 ~ ' ~ ,~,,~1ool1~1/11o,~10"I

~ ~ - " -~,/,70_\ . . ~ 8 0 - - ' - . 3 9 ( ,.= ~ .;. " I
":.':.:;"., -"~'U Ma Aquitanian4nJ 3 Ua Ruoelian 1_ '

Fig. 23. Evolution of Asian river systems: position of structural units and main rivers (see Fig. 2). /n, Indus; Su, Sudej; G, Ganges; B,
Brahmaputra; I, Irrawaddy; S, Salween; Y, Yore; M, Mekong; R, Red; Ya, Yangtze; Ye, Yellow. Late Miocene (Tortonian, 10 Ma), based
on removing 530 km northward motion at northwestern syntaxis (shown by heavy black arrow) and 5° anticlockwise rotation of India
between 10 and 0 Ma (Dewey et al., 1989). Note restoration of eroded parts of Lesser and High Himalaya (MCT), North Pamir (NP), and
Indus Suture Zone. Possible river courses are shown with dotted lines. Early Miocene (Aquitanian, 20 Ma), based on removing 350 km
northward motion (black arrow) and 5° anticlockwise rotation of India between 20 and 10 Ma (Dewey et al., 1989). Early Oligocene
(Rupelian, 35 Ma), based on removing 700 km northward motion (black arrow) and 8° anticlockwise rotation of India between 35 and 20
Ma (Dewey et al., 1989'). IN is restored crust that was lost by erosion and shortening along tile Indus Suture Zone. The large double arrow
is possible extrusion and rotation of southeast Asia (not restored).
310 M.E. Brookfield / Geomorphology 22 (1998) 285-312

present plains Indus, means that the mountain Indus Barbour, G.B., 1936. Physiographic history of the Yangtze. Ge-
probably then flowed into the Makran via the Kunar ogr. J. 87, 17-34.
Beaumont, C., Fullsack, P., Hamilton, J., 1992. Erosional control
and Lora rivers (Fig. 6).
of active compressional orogens. In: McClay, K.R. (Ed.),
(b) In the northeastern syntaxis, the presence of Thrust Tectonics. Chapman and Hall, London, pp. 1-18.
an easily eroded flysch belt (cf. Oberlander, 1985) Bishop, P., Young, R.W., McDougall, I., 1985. Stream profile
and the wide extent of the High Himalaya probably change and longterm landscape evolution: early Miocene and
means that fiver capture had not yet truncated the modem rivers of the east Australian highland crest, central
New South Wales, Australia. J. Geol. 93, 455-474.
Tsangpo-Irrawaddy river. Before truncation, this Bishop, P., Brown, R., 1992. Denudational isostatic rebound of
river would have been rapidly building out a delta intraplate highlands: the Lachlan river valley, Australia. Earth
through Myanmar into the developing Andaman Surf. Process. Landf. 17, 345-360.
back-arc basin. Boulin, J., 1981. Afghanistan structure, Greater India concept and
(c) In southeast Asia, the mountain Mekong prob- Eastern Tethys evolution. Tectonophysics 72, 261-287.
Brookfield, M.E., 1989. Miocene to Recent uplifts of the north-
ably flowed into the Yom river, and the mountain western Himalaya and adjacent areas. In: Thanasuthipitak, T.,
Yangtze probably flowed into the Red river. The Ounchanum, P. (Eds.), Intermontane Basins: Geology and
captures that diverted the Mekong into Cambodia Resources. University of Chiang Mai, Thailand, pp. 452-467.
and the Yangtze into China are almost certainly late Brookfield, M.E., 1993a. The interrelations of post-collision tec-
Quaternary or younger, since geomorphic features tonism and sedimentation in Central Asia. Spec. Publ. Int.
Assoc. Sedimentol. 20, 13-35.
like wind gaps are still preserved in these upland Brookfield, M.E., 1993b. Quaternary deposits along the Indus
areas. But, only the Mekong is shown in its pre-di- Suture Zone and evolution of Himalayan rivers. Current Sci.
version course into the Yom in Fig. 23. 64, 903-907.
Only 10 million years ago drainages were com- Brookfield, M.E., 1993c. The Himalayan passive margin from
pletely unlike those of today. In southern Asia, most Precambrian to Cretaceous times. Sediment. Geol. 84, 1-35.
Brookfield, M.E., 1995. Reconstruction of western Sibumasu:
of the important river changes have taken place since geomorphological, geological and tectonic evidence. J. Geol.
the late Miocene. Geol. Surv. Vietnam, Series B 5-6, 303-304.
The early Miocene (Aquitanian) and early Brookfield, M.E., Andrews-Speed, C.P., 1984. Sedimentology,
Oligocene (Rupelian) reconstructions have few ma- petrography and tectonic significance of the shelf, flysch and
jor differences in river patterns compared with the molasse clastic deposits across the Indus Suture Zone, Ladakh,
NW India. Sediment. Geol. 40, 249-286.
late Miocene, except that the rivers flow in straighter Bull, W.B., 1991. Geomorphic Response to Climatic Change.
structural belts (Fig. 23). Until the late Miocene, all Oxford University Press, Oxford, 326 pp.
the major rivers flowed in parallel structural belts Burbank, D.W., 1992. Causes of recent Himalayan uplift deduced
that were inherited from the initial collision and from depositional patterns in the Ganges basin. Nature 357,
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Burbank, D.W., Johnson, D.W., 1983. The late Cenozoic chronol-
ancestral rivers are now only preserved locally be- ogy and stratigraphic development of the Kashmir intermon-
neath backthrusts along the Indus Suture Zone tane basin, northwestern India. Palaeogeogr., Palaeoclimatol.,
(Brookfield and Andrews-Speed, 1984). Palaeoecol. 43, 205-235.
Burbank, D.W., Leland, J., Fielding, E., Anderson, R.S., Bro-
zovic, N., Reid, M.R., Duncan, C., 1996. Bedrock incision,
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by N.S.E.R.C. (Canada) and by the National Geo- the convergent Himalayan region. Geology 13, 679-682.
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