GE 1 – Mathematics in the Modern World

Module 3
Authors: Christine V. Mollejon & Mary Jane Calpa Section 1: The Nature of Mathematics
1.2 The Language of Mathematics
(Four Basic Concepts: Sets, Relations, Functions, and Binary Operations)
Overview
We continue our discussion on mathematical language and symbols by
introducing the lessons on the four basic concepts of mathematics. The language of sets,
relations, and functions, and the properties of binary operations will allow us to
express mathematical ideas with clarity, precision, and unambiguity. Moreover, these
concepts, considered as one of the foundations of mathematical thought, will allow us
to have a better understanding of complex mathematical concepts and are used in
finding solutions to mathematical problems.
In this module, a skill in evaluating and graphing different functions is very
necessary. Some of the examples will allow students to review lessons in General
Mathematics.
Learning Outcomes
After working on this module, you will be able to:
1. describe sets using the roster method, set-builder notation, and real axis;
2. determine set relations;
3. determine Cartesian product;
4. determine a function as a special type of relation;
5. show that some functions are equal; and
6. show associative binary operations.

Activities To Do
Place the numbers in the correct set in these
concentric circles.
𝜋
sin 30°
𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 3, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = −1

∅
2 {(2 + 3) − |−5|}
𝑔(𝑥) = 12𝑥 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 0
𝐹𝑖𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑖 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠
𝜋
tan
3
Questions To Ponder
After doing the activity, let us think of the following questions:
 What does these concentric circles represent – the numbers belonging to the set or
the relations between these sets?
 Why is it necessary to know which of these sets the numbers belong to?
 How are these numbers, sets, and relations used in the study of the language of
mathematics?
Department of Mathematics, College of Science, University of Eastern Philippines 38
 GE 1 – Mathematics in the Modern World
Module 3
Authors: Christine V. Mollejon & Mary Jane Calpa Section 1: The Nature of Mathematics

The verb “is” in a mathematical sentence

Let us begin the discussion with the verb “is” which is frequently used in any language, even
in the study of the language of mathematics.

Consider the following mathematical sentences:

1. 4 is the square root of 16
2. 4 is less than 10
3. 4 is an even number

In the first sentence “is” could be replaced by “equals”. It says that two objects “4” and the
square
root of 16, are in fact one and the same object. Whereas, “is” in the second sentence is the same with
“is” in the English sentence. The phrase “less than 10” serves as an adjectival phrase. This gives us
a specific property that a number may or may not have. Lastly, “is” in the third sentence means “is
an example of” as it does in the English sentence.

The Language of Sets

Let us consider the question: What is a set? Apparently, the answer to this very simple
question grew out to be one of the most important fundamental tools in the study of almost all areas
of mathematics. In 19th century, mathematicians Georg Cantor and George Boole developed the
mathematical theory of sets that brought clarity and organization to complex mathematical
concepts and is being used for mathematical reasoning.
In our discussion, we will adopt an intuitive point of view and introduce set according to
Cantor’s definition. According to Cantor, a set is a well-defined collection of distinct objects. The term
“well-defined” means that we can tell whether a certain object is a member of the collection or not.
The objects are called elements or members of the set.
The following examples will be used to illustrate the idea of sets:
(a) the set of letters a, e, i, o, u
(b) the set of numbers 1, 2, 5, and 9
(c) the set of days of the week that begin with letter T
(d) the set of letters of the English alphabet
(e) the set of odd whole positive numbers
(f) the set of UEP students
(g) the set of negative integers

All of the examples can be written in a more precise form by using the following notations:
 Uppercase (capital) letters will be used to name sets and lowercase letters will be used to
represent the elements of the set.
 In representing sets that list the elements, we will separate the elements by commas (,)
and enclose them with braces { }.
 In representing sets that describe the properties of their elements, we will introduce an
arbitrary element 𝑥 and use the symbol “⃒ ” which is read as “such that”.
 We will use symbol of ellipsis or the three dots … (read as “so forth”) to indicate that the
elements continue indefinitely. If it is placed in the middle of a sequence of elements, it
means that the sequence continues up to and include the last element.

Department of Mathematics, College of Science, University of Eastern Philippines 39

 GE 1 – Mathematics in the Modern World
Module 3
Authors: Christine V. Mollejon & Mary Jane Calpa Section 1: The Nature of Mathematics
There are two ways of representing sets: (1) roster method and (2) set-builder notation. The
roster method, also called the list method, is being used when we list the elements that belong to
the set. However, there are sets that cannot be described using the roster method. In this case, it is
necessary to describe the property of the elements must possess in order to belong to the set. This
method is called the set-builder notation. For further understanding, we consider the following
examples:

1 Use the ROSTER METHOD to describe the following sets:

1. the set of letters a, e, i, o, u
Example

2. the set of numbers 1, 2, 5, and 9

3. the set of days of the week that begins with letter T
4. the set of letters of the English alphabet
5. the set of odd whole positive numbers
Solution
1. A = {a, e, i, o, u}
read as: “set A with elements (or members) a, e, i, o, u”
2. B = {1, 2, 5, 9}
3. C = {Tuesday, Thursday}
4. D = {a, b, c, …, z}
The three dots … means that the sequence of elements continues up to and
includes the last term, in this case, the letter z.
5. E = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, …}
The three dots … means that the sequence of elements continues indefinitely.

2 Answer the following questions:

1. Let S = {1, 2, 3}, T = {3, 1, 2}, and V = {2, 3, 3, 1, 1, 1}.
Example

a. What are the elements of sets S, T and V?

b. How are S, T, and V related?
2. How many elements are there in the set {1, {2}, {3, 4}}?
3. How many elements are there in the set { }?
4. Is this a true statement: 1 = {1}?
Solution
1. a. S, T, and V have exactly the same three elements, namely: 1, 2, and 3.
b. S, T, and V are different ways of representing the same set. Thus, we say that sets
S, T and V are equal.
Sets are said to be 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎l if they have exactly the same elements.
The axiom of extension says that a set is completely determined by its elements
and not by the order the elements are being written or the number of times the
elements are listed. It means that the order and the number of times in which the
elements are listed does not make any difference.
2. There are three elements in the set: 1 and the sets: {2} and {3, 4}.
3. There are no elements in the set. Thus, the number of elements in the set is zero (0).
The set { } is called an empty set or a null set. We also use the symbol 𝜙 to denote an
empty set.

The number of elements in a set is called the cardinality of the set.

Department of Mathematics, College of Science, University of Eastern Philippines 40

 GE 1 – Mathematics in the Modern World
Module 3
Authors: Christine V. Mollejon & Mary Jane Calpa Section 1: The Nature of Mathematics

A set and an element are related in one of the two ways: (1) the element belongs to the set,
or (2) the element does not belong to the set.
Let us consider S = {1, 2, 3}. We say that 1 belongs to S. In symbols, 1 ∈ S. This is also read
as “1 is an element of S”. We also say, “4 does not belong to S” or “4 is not an element of S”. In
symbols, 4 ∉ S. The symbol ∈ is used to indicate the “belongs to” relation, while ∉ is used for the
“does not belong to” relation.
The slash (/) is used to negate the action. Moreover, the verbs in the sentences “1 ∈ S” and
“4 ∉ S” are ∈ and ∉, respectively.

3 Use the SET-BUILDER NOTATION to describe the following sets:

1. the set of letters a, e, i, o, u
Example

2. the set of letters of the English alphabet

3. the set of odd whole positive numbers
4. the set of UEP students
5. the set of negative integers
Solution
1. A = {𝑥|𝑥 is a vowel}
read as “A is the set of all elements such that 𝑥 is a vowel”
2. D = {𝑥|𝑥 is a letter of the English alphabet}
3. E = {𝑥|𝑥 is an odd whole positive number}
4. F = {𝑥|𝑥 is a UEP student}
5. G = {𝑥|𝑥 is a negative integer}

Observe that we introduced an arbitrary element 𝑥 that describes the property of

the elements of the set. Using the description, we can tell if an object is an element of
the set or not. Note that the description is written in its singular sense.

When the number of elements in a set is small, it is easy to represent the set using the roster
method. However, when the number of elements in the set is large, it is best to use the set-builder
notation.
A set is called a finite set if it has a fixed number of elements; otherwise, it is called infinite.
Consider the sets in Examples 1 and 3, sets A, B, C, D, and F are finite sets, while sets E and G are
infinite sets.
Here are other examples of infinite sets and their corresponding special symbolic names:
ℝ set of real numbers
ℚ set of rational numbers
ℤ set of integers
ℕ set of natural number
The symbols + and – are being used as superscripts to indicate positive and negative
elements of the sets, respectively. For example, ℝ+ denotes the set of positive real numbers and ℤ−
is used for the set of negative integers. The letters 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑔 is also used to indicate nonnegative
elements of the set such as ℤ𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑔 . In symbols, ℤ𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑔 = {0, 1, 2, 3, …}. For some authors the set
ℤ𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑔 is also considered as the set of natural numbers, denoted by ℕ. While other authors,
consider only the positive integers as natural numbers.

Department of Mathematics, College of Science, University of Eastern Philippines 41

 GE 1 – Mathematics in the Modern World
Module 3
Authors: Christine V. Mollejon & Mary Jane Calpa Section 1: The Nature of Mathematics
The set of real numbers is usually pictured as the set of points on a real number line called
the real axis. Each real number corresponds to only one point in the real axis. The number 0
corresponds to the middle point which is called the origin. The real number indicates a unit of
distance from the origin. That is, each point to the right of the origin corresponds to a positive real
number determined by computing its distance from the origin. The set of real numbers
corresponding to the set of points is the set of positive real numbers. While each point to the left of
the origin corresponds to a negative real number which has a distance from the origin and a minus
sign affixed in front of the number. Thus, the real axis has three parts: the origin (zero, which is
neither a positive nor a negative number), the set of positive real numbers, and the set of negative
real numbers.

4 Answer the following:

Given ℝ the set of real numbers, ℤ the set of integers, ℤ+ the set of positive integers, and ℤ−
Example

the set of negative integers. List the elements of the following sets:
a) {𝑥 ∈ ℤ|0 < 𝑥 < 5} d) {𝑥 ∈ ℤ|−5 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 5}
b) {𝑥 ∈ ℤ+ |−2 < 𝑥 ≤ 4} e) {𝑥 ∈ ℤ|1 < 𝑥 < 2}
c) {𝑥 ∈ ℤ− |−3 ≤ 𝑥 < 0}
Solution
a) {𝑥 ∈ ℤ|0 < 𝑥 < 5}
read as: 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 0 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 5
Using the roster method, the set is {1, 2, 3, 4}

𝑏) {𝑥 ∈ ℤ+ |−2 < 𝑥 ≤ 4}
read as:
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 − 2 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 4
Using the roster method, the set is {1, 2, 3, 4}

𝑐) {𝑥 ∈ ℤ− |−3 ≤ 𝑥 < 0}
read as:
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 − 3 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 0
Using the roster method, the set is {– 3, – 2, – 1}

𝑑) {𝑥 ∈ ℤ|−5 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 5}
read as:
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 − 5 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 5
Using the roster method, the set is {– 5, – 4, – 3, – 2, – 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

e) {𝑥 ∈ ℤ|1 < 𝑥 < 2}

read as: 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 1 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 2
The set is an empty set or null set (denoted by the symbol ∅).
That is, {𝑥 ∈ ℤ|1 < 𝑥 < 2} = ∅
There is no such integer that is greater than 1 but less than 2.

Department of Mathematics, College of Science, University of Eastern Philippines 42

 GE 1 – Mathematics in the Modern World
Module 3
Authors: Christine V. Mollejon & Mary Jane Calpa Section 1: The Nature of Mathematics

5 Answer the following:

Given ℝ the set of real numbers, ℤ the set of integers, ℤ+ the set of positive integers, and ℤ−
Example

the set of negative integers. Write the following sets using the set-builder notation:
a) {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} c) {– 3, – 2, – 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}
b) {…, – 3, – 2, – 1, 0, 1, 2, 3} d) {… ,– 3, – 2, – 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}
Solution
1. a) {𝑥 ∈ ℤ|1 < 𝑥 < 10}
read as: 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 1 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 10

Another answer: {𝑥 ∈ ℤ|2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 9}

read as: 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑥 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 2 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑎𝑢𝑙 𝑡𝑜 9

b) {𝑥 ∈ ℤ|𝑥 ≤ 3}
read as: 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 3

c) {𝑥 ∈ ℤ|−3 ≤ 𝑥}
read as: 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 − 3

d) The given set is the ℤ, the set of integers. That is, ℤ = {… ,– 3, – 2, – 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}.
The listing of elements shows that the set continues indefinitely to the left and right
sides from the origin 0.

Self-Assessment Activity 1
1. Use (i) roster method and (ii) set-builder notation to describe the following sets:
a) X1 is the set of integers greater than – 2 but less than 2
b) X2 is the set of positive integers greater than or equal to 4 but less than or equal to 9
c) X3 is the set of integers greater than – 1 but less than 1
2. Which of the following sets are equal?
A = {𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑤, 𝑥} C = {𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑤, 𝑦, 𝑥} E = {𝑤, 𝑥, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑦, 𝑥, 𝑤}
B = {𝑤, 𝑤, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑥} D = {𝑤, 𝑥, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑤} F = {𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑤, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 }
3. Given ℤ the set of integers, ℤ+ the set of positive integers, ℤ− the set of negative integers,
and S = {– 3, – 2, – 1, 0, 1, 2, 3}, determine whether each sentence is true or false.
a) −3 ∈ S e) −3 ∈ ℤ−
b) 0 ∈ S f) 0 ∈ ℤ+
c) 2 ∉ S g) S = {𝑥 ∈ ℤ|−3 < 𝑥 < 3}
−
d) 3 ∉ ℤ h) S = {𝑥 ∈ ℤ|−3 < 𝑥 ≤ 3}

Department of Mathematics, College of Science, University of Eastern Philippines 43

d.) true; e) true; f) false; g) false; h) false
c) (i) X3 = {0}; (ii) X3 = {𝑥 ∈ ℤ|−1 < 𝑥 < 1}; 2.) Sets A, C, D, and F are equal sets; 3.) a) true; b) true; c) false;
1.) a) (i) X1 = {– 1, 0, 1}; (ii) X1 = {𝑥 ∈ ℤ|−2 < 𝑥 < 2}, b) (i) X2 = {4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}; (ii) X2 = {𝑥 ∈ ℤ+ |4 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 9},
Answers to SAA 1:
 GE 1 – Mathematics in the Modern World
Module 3
Authors: Christine V. Mollejon & Mary Jane Calpa Section 1: The Nature of Mathematics

6 Given ℝ the set of real numbers, describe the sets using the real axis.
1. {𝑥 ∈ ℝ|0 < 𝑥 < 5}
Example

2. {𝑥 ∈ ℝ|−2 < 𝑥 ≤ 4}
3. {𝑥 ∈ ℝ|−3 ≤ 𝑥 < 0}
4. {𝑥 ∈ ℝ|−5 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 5}
5. {𝑥 ∈ ℝ|−3 ≤ 𝑥}
Solution
1. {𝑥 ∈ ℝ|0 < 𝑥 < 5} This set contains all real
numbers between 0 and 5.

2. {𝑥 ∈ ℝ|−2 < 𝑥 ≤ 4} This set contains all real

numbers between – 2 and 4 and number 4.

3. {𝑥 ∈ ℝ|−3 ≤ 𝑥 < 0} The elements of this set are

the real numbers between – 3 and 0, and – 3.

4. {𝑥 ∈ ℝ|−5 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 5} The elements of this set

include all real numbers from – 5 to 5.

5. {𝑥 ∈ ℝ|−3 ≤ 𝑥} The elements of this set are all

real number greater than or equal to – 3

As mentioned earlier, not all sets can be listed. Sets in Example 6 are sets where it is
impossible to list all the elements. The sets are specified using the set-builder notation and were
illustrated using the real axis.

Observe that the real axis tells us the real numbers that belongs to or does not belong to a
set. This set can be presented using intervals.

Department of Mathematics, College of Science, University of Eastern Philippines 44

 GE 1 – Mathematics in the Modern World
Module 3
Authors: Christine V. Mollejon & Mary Jane Calpa Section 1: The Nature of Mathematics
1 Interval
An interval is a set of real numbers that has one of the following forms:
Definition

i. two endpoints, {𝒙 ∈ ℝ|𝒂 < 𝒙 < 𝒃}

endpoints are not included a b

ii. two endpoints, {𝒙 ∈ ℝ|𝒂 ≤ 𝒙 < 𝒃}

only left-hand endpoint is included a b

iii. two endpoints, {𝒙 ∈ ℝ|𝒂 < 𝒙 ≤ 𝒃}

only right-hand endpoint is included a b

iv. two endpoints, {𝒙 ∈ ℝ|𝒂 ≤ 𝒙 ≤ 𝒃}

both endpoints are included a b

v. one endpoint, {𝒙 ∈ ℝ|𝒂 ≤ 𝒙}

endpoint and every real number to its right a
are included
vi. one endpoint, {𝒙 ∈ ℝ|𝒂 < 𝒙}
endpoint is not included, a
every real number to its right is included
vii. one endpoint, {𝒙 ∈ ℝ|𝒙 ≤ 𝒂}
endpoint and every real number to its left a
are included
viii. one endpoint, {𝒙 ∈ ℝ|𝒙 < 𝒂}
endpoint is not included, a
every real number to its left is included
ℝ = (−∞, ∞)
ix. all real numbers are included

Note that if 𝑥 is equal to a real number then this real number is included in the set and the
circle in the real axis is shaded. Otherwise, it is not included and the circle is unshaded.

Self-Assessment Activity 2
Illustrate the sets using the real axis.
1. {𝑥 ∈ ℝ|−2 ≤ 𝑥 < 2}
2. {𝑥 ∈ ℝ|−2 < 𝑥}
3. {𝑥 ∈ ℝ|𝑥 ≤ 2}

A set can be a part of another set. This set relation is to be discussed using the following
definition:

2 Subset
Definition

Set A is a subset of B, written A ⊆ B if and only if each element of set A is an element of set
B. That is, if 𝑥 ∈ A, then 𝑥 ∈ B. Set A is contained in set B.

Department of Mathematics, College of Science, University of Eastern Philippines 45

3.) 2.) 1.)

Answers to SAA 2:
 GE 1 – Mathematics in the Modern World
Module 3
Authors: Christine V. Mollejon & Mary Jane Calpa Section 1: The Nature of Mathematics
It follows from Definition 2 that for set A not be a subset B means there is at least one element
of A that is not contained in B. Symbolically, if there is at least one element 𝑥 such that 𝑥 ∈ A and
𝑥 ∉ B, then A ⊈ B.

3 Proper Subset
Definition

Set A is a proper subset of B if and only if each element of set A is an element of set B but
there is at least one element in B that is not contained in A.

Definition 3 states that A is a proper subset of B if and only if every element of A is also an
element of B and sets A and B are not equal.

7 Answer the following:

Given X = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}; A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}; B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}; C = {3, 4, 6, 9}; and
Example

D = {1, 4, 6, 8}. Tell if each sentence is true or false.

1. A ⊆ X 6. {1, 6} ⊆ D
2. B ⊆ X 7. C is a proper subset of X
3. {3, 6} ⊆ C 8. C is contained in D
4. 7 ∉ A 9. A ⊆ A
5. {1, 3} ∈ A 10. B is a proper subset of B
Solution
1. A ⊆ X is a TRUE sentence. Each element of A is an element of X.
2. B ⊆ X is a TRUE sentence. Each element of B is contained in X.
3. {3, 6} ⊆ C is a TRUE sentence. 3 ∈ C and 6 ∈ C
4. 7 ∉ A is a FALSE sentence. 7 is contained in A
5. {1, 3} ∈ A is a FALSE sentence. The set {1, 3} is not an element of A.
The symbol used in the sentence makes it false. We may correct
this by using the symbols, {1, 3} ⊆ A.
6. {1, 2} ⊆ D is a FALSE sentence. 2 ∉ D
7. C is a proper subset of X is a TRUE sentence. Each element of C is an element
of X and there are elements of X that are not
contained in C. That is, C ≠ X.
8. C is contained in D is a FALSE sentence. 3 ∉ D and 9 ∉ D.
9. A ⊆ A is a TRUE sentence. From Definition 2, we see that
every set is a subset of itself.
10. B is a proper subset of B is a FALSE sentence since B = B.

Department of Mathematics, College of Science, University of Eastern Philippines 46

 GE 1 – Mathematics in the Modern World
Module 3
Authors: Christine V. Mollejon & Mary Jane Calpa Section 1: The Nature of Mathematics

Self-Assessment Activity 3
A. Given ℝ the set of real numbers, ℤ the set of integers, ℤ+ the set of positive integers, and ℤ−
the set of negative integers. Tell if each sentence is true or false.
1. ℤ ⊆ ℝ 4. ℤ− 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℤ
2. {−1, 0, 1} ⊆ ℤ 5. 0 ∈ ℤ+
+
3. ℤ ∈ ℝ
B. Given A = {a, b, c, d} and B = {b, c}. Which of the following is a true sentence?
a. B 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑡 of A d. A ⊆ B
b. {c} ⊆ A e. {c} 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑡 of B
c. 𝑎 ∈ B
The axiom of extension states that the order of the elements in a set makes no difference. In
this, we really cannot tell which of the elements comes first. However, in the study of some
mathematical concepts the order of the elements in a set should matter. Before this discussion, let
us first have the following definition:

4 Ordered Pair
Given the elements 𝑎 and 𝑏, the ordered pair consisting these elements has the
Definition

specification that 𝑎 is the first element and 𝑏 is the second element.

In symbols, (𝑎, 𝑏)

Two ordered pairs (𝑎, 𝑏) and (𝑐, 𝑑) are equal if 𝑎 = 𝑐 and 𝑏 = 𝑑.

5 Cartesian Product
Given sets A and B, the Cartesian product of A and B, is the set of all ordered pairs (𝑎, 𝑏),
Definition

where 𝑎 ∈ A and 𝑏 ∈ B.
In symbols, A × B = {(𝑎, 𝑏)|𝑎 ∈ A and 𝑏 ∈ B}.

A × B is read as “A cross B”.

8 Answer the following:

Let A = {𝑎, 𝑏} and B = {1, 2, 3}. Find:
Example

1. A × B
2. B × A
3. A × A
4. B × B
Solution
1. A × B = {(𝑎, 1), (𝑎, 2), (𝑎, 3), (𝑏, 1), (𝑏, 2), (𝑏, 3)}
2. B × A = {(1, 𝑎), (1, 𝑏), (2, 𝑎), (2, 𝑏), (3, 𝑎), (3, 𝑏)}
3. A × A = {(𝑎, 𝑎), (𝑎, 𝑏), (𝑏, 𝑎), (𝑏, 𝑏)}
4. B × B = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3)}

Department of Mathematics, College of Science, University of Eastern Philippines 47

B. a, b, e
A. 1.) true; 2) true; 3) false; 4) true; 5) false
Answers to SAA 3:
 GE 1 – Mathematics in the Modern World
Module 3
Authors: Christine V. Mollejon & Mary Jane Calpa Section 1: The Nature of Mathematics

Self-Assessment Activity 4
Using Example 8, how many elements are there in A × B? B × A? A × A? B × B?
What can you say about the number of elements or the cardinality of a Cartesian product?

 STOP 
Break Time (10 – 15 minutes)

Do you have a collection of objects? Let us say, a collection of books, a collection of K-Pop merchandise,
or a collection of stuffed toys.
If yes, what made you decide to have this collection?
If no, what would you like to collect in the future?

The Language of Relations and Functions

Every day we come across with circumstances on how certain people, objects, or events are
related. In this time of pandemic, our relation with people is being determined when it comes to
contact tracing. Relations such as being a family member or a coworker is considered when a person
is a close contact of a suspected or confirmed COVID-19 patient. Other examples also include the
relation between a parent and a child, between a teacher and a student, and between an employer
and an employee.
In mathematics, we also come across expressions describing how objects or elements are
related. Let us consider the following examples:

(a) {a, b, c, d} is a subset of the set of letters in the English alphabet

(b) 5 less than 10
(c) Line L1 is perpendicular to line L2.

Objects can be related to one another in a number of ways. Using the examples above:
(a) set {a, b, c, d} is a part of the set of letters in the English alphabet.
The relation “is a subset” expresses an association of the two sets

(b) number 5 is said to be related to 10

Let us focus on the relation “less than”. This phrase behaves like a property. A property
that number 5 possess which is being used to compare it to number 10.
Note that there is no symbol for “less than”.
However, there is a symbol for “is less than”. That is, <. (See how important the verb “is”)
To use < in a sentence, it should be preceded by an expression and followed by another
expression. For example: 5 < 10.
expression expression

(c) Line L1 is related to line L2

Department of Mathematics, College of Science, University of Eastern Philippines

sets. 48
Observe that sets A X B and B X A have the same number of elements or the same cardinality. These sets are called equivalent
B has 6 elements. That is, 2 ⋅ 3 = 6.
product is determined by the product of the number of elements of the sets. Example, A has 2 elements, B has 3 elements, A X
Both A X B and B X A has 6 elements. A X A has 4 elements, and B X B has 9 elements. The number of elements in the Cartesian
Answers to SAA 4:
 GE 1 – Mathematics in the Modern World
Module 3
Authors: Christine V. Mollejon & Mary Jane Calpa Section 1: The Nature of Mathematics
The relation “is perpendicular” is an association of two lines L1 and L2 that intersect at
most one point and forms a 90° angle.
Let us consider another example.

Let A = {1, 2} and B = {2, 3, 4} and consider the relation “𝑥 is less than 𝑦” where 𝑥 is an
element of set A and 𝑦 is an element of set B. The notation 𝑥 ℛ 𝑦 is read as “𝑥 is related to 𝑦”.
1ℛ2 since 1 < 2,
1ℛ3 since 1 < 3,
1ℛ4 since 1 < 4,
2ℛ3 since 2 < 3, and
2ℛ4 since 2 4.
While the notation 𝑥 ℛ 𝑦 is used to represent the sentence “𝑥 is not related to 𝑦”. Thus, we
have
1ℛ1 since 1 ≮ 1, and
2ℛ2 since 2 ≮ 2.

The given examples above express a relationship between two people, sets, numbers, or
geometric objects. Intuitively, a relation expresses an association between two objects. In our
discussion, we will associate this concept to our previous discussion on sets and use the following
formal definition:

6 Relation
Definition

Let A and B be sets. A relation ℛ from A to B is a subset of A × B . Given an ordered pair

(𝑥, 𝑦) in A × B, 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑦 𝑏𝑦 ℛ, written 𝑥 ℛ 𝑦 if and only (𝑥, 𝑦) is in ℛ.

The following notations will be used:

 when 𝑥 is related to 𝑦 by ℛ:
𝑥 ℛ 𝑦 means that (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ ℛ

 when 𝑥 is not related to 𝑦 by ℛ:

𝑥 ℛ 𝑦 means that (𝑥, 𝑦) ∉ ℛ

7 The Domain and the Range of the Relation

Definition

Let ℛ be a relation from set A into set B. Then the domain of ℛ denoted by D(ℛ) is the set
D(ℛ) = {𝑎|𝑎 ∈ A and there exist 𝑏 ∈ B such that (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ ℛ}.
The range, or image of ℛ, denoted by Im(ℛ), is the set
Im(ℛ) = {𝑏|𝑏 ∈ B and there exist 𝑎 ∈ A such that (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ ℛ}

Let ℛ be a relation from set A into set B. From Definition 7, it follows that:

(i) D(ℛ) is the set of all elements of A that are related to some elements of B.
(ii) Im(ℛ) is the set of all those elements of B that have some elements of A related to them.

Department of Mathematics, College of Science, University of Eastern Philippines 49

 GE 1 – Mathematics in the Modern World
Module 3
Authors: Christine V. Mollejon & Mary Jane Calpa Section 1: The Nature of Mathematics

9 Answer the following:

1. Let A = {2, 5, 7, 18} and B = {2, 3, 4, 5, 10} and define a relation ℛ from A to B as follows:
Example

For all (𝑥, 𝑦) in A × B,

𝑥 ℛ 𝑦 means that 𝑥 ≤ 𝑦
a) What is A × B?
b) Write ℛ as a set of ordered pairs.
c) What is the domain of ℛ?
d) What is the range of ℛ?

2. Let C = {2, 3, 4} and D = {6, 8, 10} and define a relation ℛ from C to D as follows:
For all (𝑥, 𝑦) in C × D,
𝑦
𝑥 ℛ 𝑦 means that 𝑥 is an integer
a) Write ℛ as a set of ordered pairs.
b) Is 3 ℛ 6? Is Is 4 ℛ 6? Is (2, 8) ∈ ℛ? Is (4, 10) ∈ ℛ?
Solution
1. a) A × B = {(2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 10), (5, 2), (5, 3), (5, 4), (5, 5), (5, 10), (7, 2),
(7, 3), (7, 4), (7, 5), (7, 10), (18, 2), (18, 3), (18, 4), (18, 5), (18, 10)}
𝑏) ℛ = {(2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 10), (5, 5), (5, 10), (7, 10)}
(2, 2) ∈ ℛ since 2 = 2 (5, 5) ∈ ℛ since 5 = 5
(2, 3) ∈ ℛ since 2 < 3 (5, 10) ∈ ℛ since 5 < 10
(2, 4) ∈ ℛ since 2 < 4 (7, 10) ∈ ℛ since 7 < 10
(2, 5) ∈ ℛ since 2 < 5
(2, 10) ∈ ℛ since 2 < 10
c) D(ℛ) = {2, 5, 7}
d) Im(ℛ) = {2, 3, 4, 5, 10} = B
2. a) ℛ = {(2, 6), (2, 8), (2, 10), (3, 6), (4, 8)}
6
(2, 6) ∈ ℛ since 2 = 3, which is an integer
8
(2, 8) ∈ ℛ since 2 = 4, which is an integer
10
(2, 10) ∈ ℛ since = 5, which is an integer
2
6
(3, 6) ∈ ℛ since 3 = 2, which is an integer
8
(4, 8) ∈ ℛ since 4 = 2, which is an integer
b) Yes, 3 ℛ 6 since (3, 6) ∈ ℛ
No, 4 ℛ 6 since (4, 6) ∉ ℛ
Yes, 2 ℛ 8 since (2, 8) ∈ ℛ
No, 4 ℛ 10 since (4, 10) ∉ ℛ

Self-Assessment Activity 5
Let A {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12} and B = {1, 9, 11} and define a relation ℛ from A to B as follows:
For all (𝑥, 𝑦) in A × B,
𝑥 ℛ 𝑦 means that 𝑥 = 𝑦 + 1
Write ℛ as a set of ordered pairs. Determine D(ℛ) and Im(ℛ).
Department of Mathematics, College of Science, University of Eastern Philippines 50
 GE 1 – Mathematics in the Modern World
Module 3
Authors: Christine V. Mollejon & Mary Jane Calpa Section 1: The Nature of Mathematics

We can draw a diagram describing the relation ℛ from A into B. This diagram is called an
arrow diagram. Let us use item 1 in Example 9 to explain on how to draw an arrow diagram.

Let A = {2, 5, 7, 18} and B = {2, 3, 4, 5, 10} define a relation ℛ from A to B as follows:
ℛ = {(2, 1), (10, 9), (12, 11); D(ℛ ) = {2, 10, 12); Im (ℛ ) = B
For all (𝑥, 𝑦) in A × B, 𝑥 ℛ 𝑦 means that 𝑥 ≤ 𝑦.
Answers to SAA 5:

ℛ = {(2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 10), (5, 5), (5, 10), (7, 10)}.

To draw the arrow diagram, we write the elements of A A B

in one column and the elements of B in another column. Next,
2
we draw an arrow from an element, say 2, of A to an element of 2
B, say 10, since (2,10) ∈ ℛ. 3
5
4
The arrow diagram of ℛ is shown on the right (Figure 1) 7
5
18
10
Figure 1

Now, let us consider a special type of a relation. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑} defined
on a relation ℛ = {(1, 𝑎), (2, 𝑎), (3, 𝑐), (4, 𝑑)}. The arrow diagram below represents relation ℛ from
A to B.
A B

1 𝒂
2 𝒃
3 𝒄
4 𝒅

Figure 2

The arrow diagram (Figure 2) shows that:

i. There is an arrow originating from each element of A to an element of B. This shows that
the domain of ℛ is equal to set A.
ii. An element of set A is related to one and only one element of set B. This shows that no
two distinct ordered pairs in ℛ have the same first element and different second
element.

This special type of relation satisfying the above properties (i) and (ii) is called a function.

8 Function
Let A and B be non-empty sets and 𝑓 be relation from A into B. Then 𝑓 is called a function
Definition

from A into B if
i. the domain of 𝑓 is A, that is, D(𝑓) = A, and
ii. for all 𝑎 ∈ A, 𝑏 ∈ B, and 𝑐 ∈ B
if (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑓 and (𝑎, 𝑐) ∈ 𝑓, then 𝑏 = 𝑐.

Department of Mathematics, College of Science, University of Eastern Philippines 51

 GE 1 – Mathematics in the Modern World
Module 3
Authors: Christine V. Mollejon & Mary Jane Calpa Section 1: The Nature of Mathematics

10 Determine whether each the relation is a function or not. Justify your answer.
1. Let A = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐), and B = {1, 2, 3}.
Example

A B
a. ℛ = {(𝑎, 3), (𝑏, 1), (𝑏, 2), (𝑐, 3)} ℬ
b. ℱ = {(𝑎, 1), (𝑐, 3)}
c. ℬ is defined by the arrow diagram shown on the right. 𝒂 𝟏
𝒃 2
2. Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {10, 15, 17, 20, 24}.
𝒄 3
For all (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ A × B, (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ ℱ means that 𝑦 = 7𝑥 + 3

Solution
1. a. ℛ is NOT a function. It does not satisfy property (ii) of Definition 8. The ordered pairs
(𝑏, 1) and (𝑏, 2) have the same first element but different second element. If we
illustrate the relation using an arrow diagram for ℛ. There will be two arrows coming
from b.
b. ℱ is NOT a function. It does not satisfy property (i) of Definition 8. The domain D(ℱ)
≠ A. That is, it is not true that every element of A is the first element of an ordered pair
in ℱ.
c. ℬ is a function. Each element in A is related to some element in B and no element in A
is related to more than one element in B. The arrow diagram shows that there is an
arrow coming out of each element of A and no element of A has more than one arrow
coming out of it. We can write, ℬ(𝑎) = 3, ℬ(𝑏) = 1, and ℬ(𝑐) = 1
2. ℱ = {(1, 10), (2, 17), (3, 24)} is a function. Properties (i) and (ii) of Definition 8 were
both satisfied. We write, ℱ(1) = 10, ℱ(2) = 17, and ℱ(3) = 24.

Self-Assessment Activity 6
Determine which of the relation 𝑓 are function from set A to the set B.
1. A = {– 2, – 1, 0, 1, 2}, B = {– 3, 4, 5}, and 𝑓 = {(– 2, – 3), (– 1, – 3), (0, 4), (1, 5), (2, – 3)}
2. A = {– 2, – 1, 0, 1, 2}, B = {– 3, 4, 5}, and 𝑓 = {(– 2, – 3), (1, 4), (2, 5)}
3. A = B = {– 3, – 1, 0, 2}, and 𝑓 = {(–3, –1), (–3, 0), (–1, 2), (0, 2), (2, –1)}

Department of Mathematics, College of Science, University of Eastern Philippines 52

1.function; 2. not a function; 3. not a function
Answers to SAA 6:
 GE 1 – Mathematics in the Modern World
Module 3
Authors: Christine V. Mollejon & Mary Jane Calpa Section 1: The Nature of Mathematics

11 Functions and Relations on Sets of Real Numbers

Determine which of the relations 𝑓 are functions from set A to the set B.
Example

1. A = B = the set of all integers, and 𝑓 = {(𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ ℤ × ℤ|𝑏 = 𝑎 + 1}

2. A = B = the set of all integers, and 𝑓 = {(𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ ℤ × ℤ|𝑏 = √𝑎}
3. A = B = the set of all real numbers, and 𝑓 = {(𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ ℝ × ℝ|𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 1}
Solution
1. The domain of 𝑓, D(𝑓) = ℤ. Let 𝑎, 𝑏, and 𝑐 ∈ ℤ such that (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑓 and (𝑎, 𝑐) ∈ 𝑓.
Then 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 1 and 𝑐 = 𝑎 + 1. Thus, 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 1 = 𝑐. Hence, 𝑓 is a function.

The graph of the function defined by the

line with intercepts (0, 1) and (–1, 0) is
shown on the right. The vertical line test
point of intersection of
supports our claim that 𝑓 is a function. the graph of f & the
By drawing a vertical line in any part of vertical line

the graph of 𝑓, the line intersects the

graph at exactly one point.

2. To determine if 𝑓 is a function or not, we use a counterexample.

If 𝑎 = 2, then b = √2. The ordered pair (2, √2) ∉ 𝑓 since √2 ∉ ℤ (√2 is not an integer).
Thus, 𝑓 is not a function.

3. The graph of 𝑓 which is a

circle is shown on the
right. Using the vertical
line test, the line intersects
the graph of 𝑓, in at most
There are two points
two points. Therefore, 𝑓 is of intersection in the
graph of f & the
not a function. vertical line

Note: A vertical line

Observe that there are two intersects the graph of
a function in exactly
ordered pairs (0, 1) and one point.

(0, – 1) with the same first

element and different
second element.

Self-Assessment Activity 7
Determine which of the relation 𝑓 are function from set A to the set B.
1. A = B = the set of all integers, and 𝑓 = {(𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ ℤ × ℤ|𝑏 = 2𝑎 − 1}
2. A = B = the set of all integers, and 𝑓 = {(𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ ℤ × ℤ|𝑎4 = 𝑏}

Department of Mathematics, College of Science, University of Eastern Philippines 53

1. function; 2. function
Answers to SAA 7:
 GE 1 – Mathematics in the Modern World
Module 3
Authors: Christine V. Mollejon & Mary Jane Calpa Section 1: The Nature of Mathematics
Another way to think of a function 𝑓 is as a machine with input and output that processes
elements of set A to produce elements of set B.
In the function machine below, if an element 𝑥 ∈ A is place in the input, the element 𝑓(𝑥) ∈
B appears to be in the output.
input
x

function f

output
f(x)

For example, consider the function 𝑓 from ℝ into ℝ, written in symbols as 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ, defined
by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 for all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ. Let us describe this as a function machine.
input
x

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2

output
f(x)

Now, let us have some inputs and outputs of the function machine.

2 3 –2

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2

4 9 4

The function machine gives us the following:

𝑓(2) = 4; 𝑓(3) = 9; 𝑓(−2) = 4
Observe that the output 𝑓(𝑥) is obtained when we process the input 𝑥 using the rule –
squaring the element 𝑥. That is,
𝑓(2) = 22 = 4
𝑓(3) = 32 = 9
𝑓(−2) = (−2)2 = 4

Department of Mathematics, College of Science, University of Eastern Philippines 54

 GE 1 – Mathematics in the Modern World
Module 3
Authors: Christine V. Mollejon & Mary Jane Calpa Section 1: The Nature of Mathematics

12 Answer the following:

1. Define 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ, and 𝑔: ℝ → ℝ by the following formulas:
Example

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 for all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ and

𝑔(𝑥) = (−𝑥)2 for all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ
Does 𝑓 = 𝑔? Explain.
2. Define ℎ: ℝ → ℝ, and 𝑚: ℝ → ℝ by the following formulas:
ℎ(𝑥) = 2𝑥 for all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ
2𝑥 3 +2𝑥
𝑚(𝑥) = for all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ
𝑥 2 +1
Does ℎ = 𝑚? Explain.
Solution
1. The two functions are equal since the square of −𝑥 is 𝑥 2 . Let us use counterexamples,
If 𝑥 = 2, then 𝑓 (2) = 22 = 4.
If 𝑥 = 2, then 𝑔(2) = (−2)2 = 4.
Now, let us use negative real number.
If 𝑥 = –3, then 𝑓(– 3) = (– 3)2 = 9.
If 𝑥 = –3, then 𝑔(– 3) = (−(– 3))2 = 32 = 9.
Thus, 𝑓 = 𝑔
2𝑥 3 +2𝑥 2𝑥(𝑥 2 +1)
2. The two functions are equal since = = 2𝑥.
𝑥 2 +1 𝑥 2 +1
Thus, ℎ = 𝑚

Self-Assessment Activity 8
Define 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ, and 𝑔: ℝ → ℝ by the following formulas:
𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 + 3)2 for all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ and
𝑔(𝑥) = (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 5) + 4 for all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ
Does 𝑓 = 𝑔? Justify your answer.

 STOP 
Break Time (10 – 15 minutes)

Think of a skill or attitude you want to develop, or a goal you want to achieve. Using a function machine,
what would be your input/s and the processes you would undertake so that the output will be the skill,
attitude, or goal you aim?

Department of Mathematics, College of Science, University of Eastern Philippines 55

Yes, 𝑓 = 𝑔
Answers to SAA 8:
 GE 1 – Mathematics in the Modern World
Module 3
Authors: Christine V. Mollejon & Mary Jane Calpa Section 1: The Nature of Mathematics

Binary Operations

We are accustomed with the basic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division. When performing these operations, a pair of numbers is associate with a unique number.
Let us consider the following examples:

20 + 15 = 35 The operation + associates a unique integer 35 by adding the

integers 20 and 15.
4 ∙ (– 13) = – 52 The operation ∙ associates a unique integer – 52 by multiplying the
integers 4 and – 13.

Let 𝑎 and 𝑏 be integers, the operation + between 𝑎 and 𝑏 gives a unique number 𝑎 + 𝑏.
Similarly, the operation ∙ gives a unique number 𝑎𝑏. With this, we can regard + and ∙ as functions
from ℤ × ℤ into ℤ. More formally, we have the following definition:

8 Binary Function
Definition

Let S be a non-empty set. A binary operation on S is a function from S × 𝑆 into S.

For any ordered pair (𝑎, 𝑏) of elements 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ S, a binary operation on S assigns a unique
element of S. Consider the examples:
+ is a binary operation on ℤ which assigns 35 to the pair (20, 15); and
∙ is a binary operation on ℤ which assigns – 52 to the pair (4, – 13).

Observe that a binary operation on set S is a function that takes pairs of elements on S and
produces elements of S. In the examples, we added (multiplied) two integers, then the sum
(product) is also an integer. We say, ℤ is closed under addition (multiplication).
Consider the operation – (subtraction) from ℤ+ × ℤ+ into ℤ+ . The operation 10 – 15 = – 5
states that the operation subtraction, –, associates the unique integer – 5 with the pair of integers
10 and 15. However, – 5 ∉ ℤ+ . Thus, – is not a binary operation on ℤ+ and is not closed under
subtraction.

9 Some Properties of Binary Operations

Let S be a non-empty set and * a binary operation on S. Then
Definition

(i) * is called associative if for all 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑆,

𝑥 ∗ (𝑦 ∗ 𝑧) = (𝑥 ∗ 𝑦) ∗ 𝑧
(ii) * is called commutative if for all 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑆,
𝑥∗𝑦 =𝑦∗𝑥

Addition and multiplication of integers are both associative and commutative.

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 GE 1 – Mathematics in the Modern World
Module 3
Authors: Christine V. Mollejon & Mary Jane Calpa Section 1: The Nature of Mathematics
13 Which of the following are associative binary operations?
1. (ℤ+ ,∗), where 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑦 for all 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℤ+
Example

2. (ℤ,∗), where 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 = (𝑥 + 𝑦) – (𝑥 ∙ 𝑦) for all 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℤ.

Solution
1. Let 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ ℤ+ . We will show that
𝑥 ∗ (𝑦 ∗ 𝑧) = (𝑥 ∗ 𝑦) ∗ 𝑧
First, we will determine (𝑥 ∗ 𝑦) ∗ 𝑧 using the binary operation 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑦
2 𝑥 𝑦
(𝑥 ∗ 𝑦) ∗ 𝑧 = 2𝑥𝑦 ∗ 𝑧
= 2(2𝑥𝑦)𝑧 2 2𝑥𝑦 𝑧
= 4𝑥𝑦𝑧
Then, we now determine 𝑥 ∗ (𝑦 ∗ 𝑧) using the binary operation 𝑦 ∗ 𝑧 = 2𝑦𝑧
2 𝑥 𝑦
𝑥 ∗ (𝑦 ∗ 𝑧) = 𝑥 ∗ 2𝑦𝑧
= 2𝑥(2𝑦𝑧) 2 𝑥 2𝑦𝑧
= 4𝑥𝑦𝑧
Thus, (𝑥 ∗ 𝑦) ∗ 𝑧 = 𝑥 ∗ (𝑦 ∗ 𝑧) for all 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ ℤ+ . Hence, * is associative.

2. Let 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ ℤ. 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 = (𝑥 + 𝑦) – (𝑥 ∙ 𝑦)
( 𝑥 + 𝑦) – ( 𝑥 ∙ 𝑦)
(𝑥 ∗ 𝑦) ∗ 𝑧 = ((𝑥 + 𝑦) − (𝑥 ∙ 𝑦)) ∗ 𝑧
= (𝑥 + 𝑦) − (𝑥 ∙ 𝑦) + 𝑧 − ((𝑥 + 𝑦) − (𝑥 ∙ 𝑦)) ∙ 𝑧 (𝑥 + 𝑦) − (𝑥 ∙ 𝑦) + 𝑧 − ((𝑥 + 𝑦) − (𝑥 ∙ 𝑦)) ∙ 𝑧

= 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 −𝑥 ∙ 𝑦 − 𝑥 ∙ 𝑧 − 𝑦 ∙ 𝑧 + 𝑥 ∙ 𝑦 ∙ 𝑧

𝑦 ∗ 𝑧 = (𝑦 + 𝑧) – (𝑦 ∙ 𝑧)
(𝑥 + 𝑦) – (𝑥 ∙ 𝑦)
𝑥 ∗ (𝑦 ∗ 𝑧) = 𝑥 ∗ ((𝑦 + 𝑧) − (𝑦 ∙ 𝑧))
𝑥 + (𝑦 + 𝑧) − (𝑦 ∙ 𝑧) − (𝑥 ∙ (𝑦 + 𝑧) − (𝑦 ∙ 𝑧))
= 𝑥 + (𝑦 + 𝑧) − (𝑦 ∙ 𝑧) − (𝑥 ∙ (𝑦 + 𝑧) − (𝑦 ∙ 𝑧))
= 𝑥+ 𝑦+𝑧−𝑦∙𝑧−𝑥∙𝑦−𝑥∙𝑧+𝑥∙𝑦∙𝑧

Thus, (𝑥 ∗ 𝑦) ∗ 𝑧 = 𝑥 ∗ (𝑦 ∗ 𝑧) for all 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ ℤ. Hence, * is associative.

Self-Assessment Activity 9
Is * an associative binary operation given that (ℤ+ ,∗), where 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 1 for all 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℤ?

Department of Mathematics, College of Science, University of Eastern Philippines 57

𝑥 ∗ (𝑦 ∗ 𝑧) = (𝑥 ∗ 𝑦) ∗ 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 + 2
Yes, * is an associative binary operation.
Answers to SAA 9:
 GE 1 – Mathematics in the Modern World
Module 3
Authors: Christine V. Mollejon & Mary Jane Calpa Section 1: The Nature of Mathematics

Summary
The lessons started with a discussion of the use of the verb “is”. In the study of
mathematical language and symbols, the verb “is” plays a very important role in any
mathematical sentence. It could be used to replace “equals”; it is used just like in the English
sentence and is followed by an adjectival phrase; and it means “is an example of”. Moreover, the
proper use of the verb “is” and the study of the language of sets, relations, functions, and binary
operation is very important in understanding mathematical concepts and solving problems.
Intuitively, a set is a collection of well-defined distinct objects. Sets can be described by
roster method and the set-builder notation. Sets can be presented by the real axis and the
intervals. A set and an element 𝑥 are related in one of the two ways: (1) 𝑥 belongs to a set (symbol:
∈); or (2) 𝑥 does not belong to the set (symbol: ∉). Another set relation discussed is the subset
(symbol: ⊆). A set is a subset of another set if all its elements belong to the other set, and if this
subset is not equal to the other set, then it is called a proper subset. The lessons on ordered pairs
and the Cartesian product introduced us to the idea that the order of the elements should also be
considered. Using the ordered pair (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ A × B, we say that 𝑎 is the first element, while 𝑏 is the
second element, where 𝑎 ∈ A and 𝑏 ∈ B
An association of two objects is called a relation. In mathematics, a relation is a subset of
the Cartesian product A × B and we say that 𝑎 is related to 𝑏 if and only if (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ A × B. The
domain of the relation is the set of the first elements of the relation and the range is the set of the
second elements. Aside from the rules or equations, relations can be described using the arrow
diagram. If an arrow diagram of a relation shows that there is an arrow originating from each
element of set A to an element of set B and each element of set A is related to one and only one
element of B, then the relation is called a function. Thus, a function 𝑓 is a special type of relation
from set A into set B if and only if (1) the domain of 𝑓 is equal to set A, and (2) no two distinct
ordered pairs have the same first element and different second element. The vertical line test is
one way of determining whether a relation is a function or not. If a vertical line intersects the
graph of 𝑓 at most one point, then 𝑓 is a function. Functions are thought of as machines where
inputs underdone processes and result to outputs. This concept of functions is one of the
mathematical ideas that is used in the study of relationships between algebraic structure.
One most important concept in algebra is the concept of binary operation. A binary
operation on set A is a function from A × A into A. This function takes pairs of elements on A and
produces elements of A. A binary operation ∗ is commutative if 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎,and ∗ is associative
if 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐) = (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐, for all 𝑎, 𝑏, and 𝑐 in set A.

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 GE 1 – Mathematics in the Modern World
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Authors: Christine V. Mollejon & Mary Jane Calpa Section 1: The Nature of Mathematics

Responses To Consider

This module allowed us to have a better grasp of the four basic concepts in the study of
mathematical language and symbols. In your responses to the SAAs, it is very important to
denote sets, relations, functions, and binary operations using correct symbols. We should
treat each symbol as a mathematical idea that demonstrates these concepts. Also, observe the
different ways of describing functions, we present functions using arrow diagram, graph, set
(list of ordered pairs and by set-builder notation), rule or equation with a mapping of one set
to another set, and function machine.

Go over again with the examples, SAAs and Answers to SAAs if you find a problem
understanding the lessons. Moreover, you are encouraged to have a consultation with your
professor/instructor.

References
Aufmann, R., Lockwood, J., et.al, Mathematics in the Modern World, Rex Bookstore, Inc., 2018.
Malik, D.S. & Sen, M. K., Discrete Mathematics: Theory and Applications, Cengage Learning,
2010.
Nocon, R., Nocon, E., Essential Mathematics for the Modern World, C & E Publishing, Inc. 2018.

Other Materials
https://youtu.be/DVj39F1P9D8
https://youtu.be/ArgFkblovLw
https://youtu.be/iBJLWVMRgSA
https://www.onemathematicalcat.org/

Suggested Readings
The Language of Mathematics (form One Mathematical Cat, Please by Carol Burns Fisher)

Note To Students
Deadline of submission of Worksheet and Reflection Paper to the Municipal Link:
_______________December 18, 2020_______________________________________

Department of Mathematics, College of Science, University of Eastern Philippines 59

 GE 1 – Mathematics in the Modern World
Module 3
Authors: Christine V. Mollejon & Mary Jane Calpa Section 1: The Nature of Mathematics

Note to the Municipal Link: WORKSHEET 3

1. The worksheet and reflection should
be forwarded to: 1.2 Four Basic Concepts
MARY JANE B. CALPA
Chair, Department of Mathematics To the Students:
College of Science, 1. Fill out the “Student’s Information” completely.
University of Eastern Philippines 2. Write all your solutions/answers on the space
Catarman, Northern Samar provided for each item.
3. Write legibly. Use blue- or black-ink ball pen only.
2. Please check the date of submission 4. Submit on or before the indicated deadline.
indicated on the student’s information
below. 5. For queries, please contact your respective GE 1
Thank you. instructor/professor.

Student’s Information:
Student Number: Last Name, First Name M.I.: Course – Year:

Class ID Number: Professor/Instructor’s Name: Date of Submission:

A. Answer completely.
1. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}; B = {𝑥 ∈ ℤ|𝑥 is divisible by 2}; C = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ|𝑥 3 = 1}; and
D = {𝑥 ∈ ℤ|5 divides x}. Mark the following true or false.

a. 10 ∈ D f. {2} ⊆ B
3
b. { √1, 1} ⊆ C g. −1 ∉ C
c. C⊆A h. 5∉D
d. {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} ∈ B i. B⊆A
e. {3, 6, 9} ⊆ A j. D⊆ A

2. Describe the following sets:

a. using list method
a.1) A = {𝑥 ∈ ℤ|−4 ≤ 𝑥 < 4}
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
a.2) set B contains all non-negative integers greater than – 1 but less than or equal to
2.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

b. using set-builder notation

b.1) C = {…, −3, −2, −1, 0}
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
b.2) D = {0, 1, 2, …, 10}
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
b.3) E is the set whose elements are real number greater than 3 but less than or equal
to 4.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
b.4) F is the set of positive integers greater than or equal to 20 but less than or equal
to 10
____________________________________________________________________________________________

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 GE 1 – Mathematics in the Modern World
Module 3
Authors: Christine V. Mollejon & Mary Jane Calpa Section 1: The Nature of Mathematics
c. using real axis
c.1) G = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ|0 < 𝑥 ≤ 10}

c.2) H = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ|𝑥 ≤ −1}

d. Write in words. (do not list down the elements)

d.1) I = {𝑥 ∈ ℤ+ |0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 10}
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
d.2) J = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ|4 < 𝑥}
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {1, 2, 3, 10}, and define a relation ℛ from A to B as follows:
For all (𝑎, 𝑏) in A × B, 𝑎 ℛ 𝑏 means that 2𝑎 = 𝑏. Find the following:
a. A × B ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
b. B × A ________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
c. ℛ ________________________________________________________________________
d. 𝐷(ℛ) ________________________________________________________________________
e. Im(ℛ) ________________________________________________________________________
f. Is ℛ a function? Justify your answer.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

4. Determine which of the relations ℛ are functions from set A to the set B.
a. A = {– 3, – 2, – 1, 0, 1, 2}; B = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7}; and _______________________________________
ℛ = {(−2, 3), (−1,6), (0, 4), (1, 5), (2, 7)}
b. A = {– 3, – 2, – 1, 0, 1, 2}; B = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7}; and _______________________________________
ℛ = {(−3, 3), (−2,3), (0, 4), (−2, 6), (1, 5), (2, 7)}
c. A = {– 3, – 2, – 1, 0, 1, 2}; B = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7}; and _______________________________________
ℛ = {(−2, 3), (0, 4), (−3, 6), (−1, 7), (1, 5), (2, 7)}
d. A = B = {– 3,– 1, 0, 2}; and _______________________________________
ℛ = {(−3, −1), (−1, 2), (0, 2), (2, −1)}
e. A = B = ℤ; and ℛ = {(𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ ℤ × ℤ|𝑏 = 4𝑎 − 3} _______________________________________
f. A = B = ℝ; and ℛ = {(𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ ℝ × ℝ|𝑏 = 𝑎2 − 6𝑎} _______________________________________

5. Draw the arrow diagrams of the functions 𝑓: S → T and 𝑔: T → V.

S = {𝑥 ∈ ℤ|−3 < 𝑥 ≤ 5}, T = {𝑥 ∈ ℤ|0 < 𝑥 ≤ 8}; and V = {𝑥 ∈ ℤ|−8 < 𝑥 ≤ 2}. Consider
the functions 𝑓: S → T defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 3 for all 𝑥 ∈ S and 𝑔: T → V defined by
𝑔(𝑥) = −𝑥 + 1 for all 𝑥 ∈ T.

Department of Mathematics, College of Science, University of Eastern Philippines 61

 GE 1 – Mathematics in the Modern World
Module 3
Authors: Christine V. Mollejon & Mary Jane Calpa Section 1: The Nature of Mathematics

6. Define 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ, and 𝑔: ℝ → ℝ by the following formulas:

𝑓(𝑥) = 8𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 5 for all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ and
𝑔(𝑥) =((4𝑥 + 3)(2𝑥 − 1)) − 2 for all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ
Does 𝑓 = 𝑔? Justify your answer.

7. Determine whether * is commutative and associative.

a. (ℤ+ ,∗), where 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 𝑦 for all 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℤ+ .

𝑥𝑦
b. (ℚ,∗), where 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 = 2 for all 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℚ.
ℚ = set of rational numbers

B. Choose only one (1) activity.

(You may provide separate A4 -size bond paper/s or you may also use the back of this page.)
 Research about Venn Diagrams and answer the following:
In a certain school, there are 60 students in the senior class: 24 are studying mathematics,
25 are studying English, 25 are studying history, 10 are studying both mathematics and
English, 11are studying both mathematics and history, 10 are studying both English and
history, and 6 are studying all three subjects.
a. How many are taking only mathematics?
b. How many are not taking any of these subjects?
 Research about directed graphs or digraphs and answer the following:
Draw a digraph of the following relations on the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
a. ℛ = {(2, 2), (3, 3), (5, 5), (1, 3), (1, 4), (4, 1), (1, 5), (4, 5), (5, 2)}
b. ℛ = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5)}
c. ℛ = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5), (1, 5), (2, 3), (5, 1), (3, 2)}
 Determine whether ∗ is an associative binary operation.
(𝑥+1)(𝑦+1)
(ℝ,∗), where 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 = for all 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ.
2

Department of Mathematics, College of Science, University of Eastern Philippines 62