Chapter 2

MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND

SYMBOLS
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the chapter, the student should be able to:
1. Discuss the language, symbols and conventions of mathematics.
2. Explain the nature of mathematics as a language.
3. Perform operations on mathematical expressions correctly.
4. Acknowledge that mathematics is a useful language.

Introduction
Mathematics has its own symbols, syntax and rules. It has also its own
language which must be understood and learned. This will help us communicate
ideas effectively and efficiently. One is expected to have a broad understanding of
the language to be able to express correct ideas. The intention of this part of the
course is to expose the students to the world of mathematics as a language in order
that they may be able to read and write mathematics texts and communicate ideas
with precision and conciseness.

Lesson Proper
Lesson 2.1: Characteristics of Mathematical Language
Mathematics, like any other discipline has its own language. It has its own
symbols, syntax and rules. It is a system used by mathematicians to express ideas
and understand the expressed ideas. Mathematics as a language has the following
characteristics:
1. Precise - ability to make precise distinctions
2. Concise - ability to use symbols to be able to express more

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD 15

 3. Powerful - ability to express complex thoughts to simpler ideas.
As Peter Hilton said “Mathematics cannot be learned without being
understood - it is not a matter of formulae being committed to memory but of
acquiring a capacity for systematic thought.” Systematic thought does not only mean
reducing everything to symbols and equations it also requires precise verbal
expression. Which means that one should understand first the language of
mathematics before one can use it effectively. Understanding the language requires
us to exert efforts in learning the symbols, syntax, rules and the meaning behind
these mathematical terms.

Lesson 2.2: Expressions versus Sentences

Mathematics as a language has its own vocabulary. Like the English language,
Mathematics has “nouns”, “verbs”, “phrases” and “sentences”.
The following diagrams will help us understand the difference of those terms
when it comes to the context of English and Math.

In the English language, nouns are names of persons, places, things and etc.
Phrases are words or groups of words that do not express a complete though and
sentence is a word or group of words that expresses a complete thought.

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD 16

 In the Mathematics language, expressions are nouns. An expression is any
number, variable or a combination of the two separated by an operation. Sentences
in the mathematics language are equations which are either true or false but not
both.

Lesson 2.3: Conventions in the Mathematical Language

There are many symbols used in the Mathematics language but we need to
fully understand the meaning behind those symbols for us to use and communicate
it effectively. A mathematical convention is a fact, name, notation, or usage which is
generally agreed upon by mathematicians. These conventions in the mathematical
language will help us distinguish different types of symbols and operations in a
mathematical expressions.

Lesson 2.4: Four Basic Concepts

Sets (relationships, operations, properties)
A set is a group or collection of objects or numbers. The items in a set are
called members or elements and the symbol “∈” which is read as “is an element of”
is use to denote an element of a set.
We can use the Roster or Set builder notation to denote a specific set.
1. Roster Method – is used to list or enumerate all the members of a set. It is
usually used when there are few elements to of a set to list. When the

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD 17

 elements are too many, we can use the triple dots or “ellipsis” to imply
that the set has more elements to list.
Example: The set of even numbers less than 20.
Let A be the set of even numbers less than 20, using the Roster
method:
A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18}
2. Set Builder notation – is used to denote a set in terms of its common
defining property. This is used when the set has many elements.
Example: The set of even numbers less than 20.
Let A be the set of even numbers less than 20, using the Set-Builder
Notation:
A = { x|x is a n even number less t h an 20 }

Relations
A relation is simply a set or collection of ordered pairs. An ordered pair,
commonly known as a point, has two components which are the x and y coordinates.
The domain is the set of all x or input values. It is the collection of the first values in
the ordered pairs.
The range is the set of all y or output values. The collection of the second
values in the ordered pairs.
Equivalence Relation
o An equivalence relation on a set S, is a relation on S which is reflexive,
symmetric and transitive.
o Reflexive : a∼a
(A set compares to itself)

o Symmetric: If a∼b then b∼a

(If a set has as many elements as another set
then the second set has as many elements as the first)

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD 18

 o Transitive: If a∼b and b∼c then a∼c
(If a set has as many elements as another set and
this, in turn, has the same number of elements as a third
set, then the first and the third are also equivalent)

Example 2.4.1: Suppose we have set A and a relation R on A. If A is {0, 1, 2} and R=

{(0, 0),(1, 1),(2, 2),(0, 1),(0, 2),(1, 0),(1, 2),(2, 0),(2, 1)}. Show that R is an
equivalence relation.
Solution:
R is reflexive since it contains (0,0), (1,1) and (2,2). R is also symmetric if for
very (x, y) in R(x, y) must also be in R. Since (0,1) is in R and (1,0) is also in R. R is
also transitive since it contains (0,1), (1,2) and (0,2). Since R is reflexive, symmetric,
and transitive. Thus R is an equivalence relation.

Functions
A function is actually a “special” kind of relation because it follows an extra
rule. Just like a relation, a function is also a set of ordered pairs; however, every x-
value must be associated to only one y-value.
A function consists of three things; (i) A set called the domain; (ii) A set
called the range; and (iii) A rule which associates each element of the domain with a
unique element of the range.
Usually, a function is written as an equation and is expressed in special
notation f : A → B which means that f is a function with domain A and range B. The
functional notation f ( x )where x is an element of the domain.

Example 2.4.2: If f ( x )=x +3 , find f ( 6 ) ∧its inverse .

Solution:
To find f (6), just substitute 6 with x and add 3 in f (x)= x+3. Thus,
f ( x )=6 +3=9 ,which means that is we take 6 as an input, then the output will be 9.

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD 19

 The inverse of a function should give us back the original value.
Hence the inverse of f ( x )=x +3 is x−3. If you are going to add or subtract 3,
you wil get the original number.

Injective, Surjective and Bijective Functions

o Injective means we won't have two or more "A"s pointing to the same
"B". In other words, if every element in the range is assigned to exactly
one element in the domain.
Example:
f : A → B where A={a , b , c , d } and B={q , r , s , t ,u }

q
a r
b s
c t
d u

o Surjective means that every "B" has at least one matching "A". If every
element in the codomain is assigned to at least one value in the
domain.
f : A → B where A={a , b , c , d } and B={q , r , s , }

a r
b
c s
d

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD 20

 o Bijective means both Injective and Surjective together. A function is
bijective for two sets if every element of one set is paired with only
one element of a second set, and each element in the second set is
paired with only one element of the first set. This means that all
elements are paired and paired once.

f : A → B where A={a , b , c , d } and B={q , r , s , t }

a q
b r
c s
d t

Binary Operations
Binary operation * is an operation which needs two inputs or quantities. A
simple example is the addition operation "+": In 3 + 5 = 8 the operation is "+",
which takes two values (3 and 5) and gives the result 8. Subtraction, multiplication,
division and exponential are also binary operations. The two inputs are called
"operands".
Also, in a binary operation should take and return things of the same type
which means that the inputs and the result must belong to the same set.
Types of Binary Operations
Commutative
A binary operation * on a set A is said to be commutative if a * b = b *
a, for all (a, b) ∈ A (non-empty set).
Example: Both + and ∙ are associative operations on Q. However,
subtraction ¿ is not commutative operation on Q because5−6 ≠6−5.

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD 21

 Associative
The associative property of binary operations hold if, for a non-empty
set A, we can write (a * b) *c = a*(b * c).
Example. Both + and ∙ are associative operations on Q. Subtraction (–)
is not associative operation on Z since
( 2−3 )−4 ≠2−(3−4 )
Identity
If A be a non-empty set and * be the binary operation on A. An element
e is the identity element of a ∈ A, if a * e = a = e * a. If the binary operation is
addition (+), e = 0 and for * is multiplication (×), e = 1.
Example. Zero (0) is the identity element for addition on Z, and one
(1) is the identity element for multiplication on Z. There is no identity
element for subtraction on Z, since for all e ∈ Z we have
e is an identity element ⟹ e – 1=1∧1=1 – e
for –
⟹ e=2∧e=0
⟹c
Since 0=2 is false, the first statement is also false; i.e., for all e ∈ Z, e is
not an identity for −¿ .

Inverse
If a binary operation * on a set A which satisfies a * b = b * a = e, for
all a, b ∈ A. a-1 is invertible if for a * b = b * a= e, a-1 = b. 1 is invertible when
* is multiplication.

Example 2.4.3: The set of natural numbers (N) does not have the inverse property
under the operation of addition (+), because while −x would normally be the
inverse for x under addition, there are no negative numbers in the set of natural
numbers. The inverse must be in the set in order for the property to hold.

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD 22

Lesson 2.5: Elementary Logic
Logic is the science of correct reasoning and reasoning is any argument in
which certain assumptions of premises are stated, and then some other conclusion
or fact necessarily follows.
Logic is sometimes called the science of necessary inference.
Proposition is a statement that is either true or false but not both. Variables
such as p, q, r, s and t are used to represent propositions. Propositional Logic is
concerned with propositions and their interrelationships.
Examples of propositions are:
1. Manila is the capital of the Philippines.
2. Mt. Mayon is located in Cagayan.
3. 2 + 3 = 5
4. DMMMSU is a state university.
5. 3 + 6 = 8
If a proposition is true, then its truth value is true and false if not. From the
examples, propositions 1, 3 and 4 are true while 2 and 5 are false.
Simple Statement is a statement that conveys a single piece of information.
We combine simple statements to form a compound statement by joining them with
the different logical connectives. The following table summarizes the different
logical connectives together with its symbols.
Connectives Symbol Name
and ^ Conjunction
or v Disjunction
not ¬/~ Negation
if…then → Implication
iff ↔ Biconditional

Conjunction (and)
Let p and q be propositions. The proposition of “p and q” – denoted by p ∧q,
is TRUE when BOTH p and q are true and otherwise is FALSE.

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD 23

Disjunction (or)
The proposition of “p or q” – denoted p ∨q, is FALSE when BOTH p and q are
FALSE and TRUE otherwise

Negation (not)
Let p be a proposition with a True truth value, then not p is False. The
negation of p is denoted by ¬ p , and read as “not p”

Implication (if … then)

Suppose p and q are propositions, The conditional statement (implication)
p →q is read as “ if p, then q”, where p hypothesis – antecedent – premise and q
conclusion – consequence, which is false only if p is true and q is false.

Biconditional (iff)
Suppose p and q are propositions, the biconditional statement (bi-
implication¿ p ↔q which is read as “ p if and only if q”, is true only when both p and
q have the same truth values.

Example 2.5.1:
Let p and q be propositions “Today is Monday” and “I am a freshman
student” respectively. Find
a. p ∧q : Today is Monday and I am a freshman student.
b. p ∨q : Today is Monday or I am a freshman student.
c. ¬ q : I am not a freshman student.
d. p →q : If today is Monday then I am a freshman student.
e. p ↔q : Today is Monday if and only if I am a freshman student.

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Truth Table
A truth table displays the truth value that correspond to the values of the
combined/compound propositions. The following table summarizes the truth values
of the above-mentioned logical connectives.

p q p ∧q p ∨q ¬p ¬q p →q p ↔q
T T T T F F T T
T F F T F T F F
F T F T T F T F
F F F F T T T T

Example 2.5.2: Consider the examples in Example 2.5.1, determine the truth value of
the compound proposition if p is true and q is false.
1. p ∧q : T ∧ F=F
2. p ∨q : T ∨ F=T
3. ¬ q : Since, q=F t h en ¬q=T
4. p →q : T → F=F
5. p ↔q : T ↔ F=F

Example 2.5.3: Construct a truth table for the following propositions:

1. ( p ∨q) →( p ∧q)
P q p ∨q p ∧q ( p ∨q) →( p ∧q)
T T T T T
T F T F F
F T T F F
F F F F T

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD 25

 2. ( p ↔ q)→( p ∧q)
P q p ↔q p ∧q ( p ↔ q)→( p ∧q)
T T T T T
T F F F T
F T F F T
F F T F F

Lesson 2.6: Formality

Formality is expressed in a form (usually mathematical) such that there is no
ambiguity as to the meaning and implications of its expressions. This implies that
the same statement read by two different mathematicians, at different moments is
supposed to be interpreted in exactly the same way.
The following are excerpts of the study of Francis Heylighen and Jean-Marc
Dewaele “Formality of Language: Definition and Measurement”:
“Linguistic concept of formality, which can be generally characterized as
"attention to the form of expressions", by subdividing it into two parts: surface
formality, characterized by attention to form for the sake of convention, and deep
formality, characterized by attention to form for the sake of clear understanding. We
have argued that the deep part is the most important one, and that the surface
variant will inherit most of its stylistic features from the deep version.”
They have elaborated the definition of deep formality by noting that formal
language is an attempt to avoid ambiguity by minimizing the context-dependence
and fuzziness of expressions. An expression is defined as context-dependent if its
meaning is clear, but only to someone aware of the context in which it is produced.
An expression is defined as fuzzy if its meaning is imprecise even when the context
is known. Since fuzziness basically results from an intrinsic lack of information
about the thing being described, a sender will have much more control over the
contextuality than over the fuzziness of his or her expressions, so that contextuality
may be assumed to be a better indicator of the intended degree of formality.

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