San Jose Community College

College of Education
Malilipot, Albay

Mathematics in the
Modern World

BSED ENGLISH 1D
First Semester
S.Y: 2022-2023

Prepared by:

Christian B. Besin
Instructor
Chapter 3 Problem Solving
Most occupations require good problem-solving skills. For instance, architects and
engineers must solve many complicated problems as they design and construct modern
buildings that are aesthetically pleasing, functional, and that meet stringent safety
requirements. Two goals of this chapter are to help you become a better problem solver
and to demonstrate that problem solving can be an enjoyable experience.

SECTION 3.1 Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Inductive Reasoning
The type of reasoning that forms a conclusion based on the examination of specific
examples is called inductive reasoning. The conclusion formed by using inductive
reasoning is a conjecture, since it may or may not be correct.

Inductive Reasoning
Inductive Reasoning is the process of reaching a general conclusion by examining specific
examples.
When you examine a list of numbers and predict the next number in the list
according to some pattern you have observed, you are using inductive reasoning.
EXAMPLE 1 Use Inductive Reasoning to Predict a Number
Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each of the following lists.
a. 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, ? b. 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, ?
SOLUTION
a. Each successive number is 3 larger than the preceding number. Thus, we predict
that the next number in the list is 3 larger than 15, which is 18.
b. The first two numbers differ by 2. The second and the third numbers differ by 3. It
appears that the difference between any two numbers is always 1 more than the
preceding difference. Since 10 and 15 differ by 5, we predict that the next number
in the list will be 6 larger than 15, which is 21.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1 Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in
each of the following lists.
a. 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, ? b. 2, 5, 10, 17, 26, ?

Inductive reasoning is not used just to predict the next number in a list. In example
2, we use inductive reasoning to make a conjecture about an arithmetic procedure.
EXAMPLE 2 Use Inductive Reasoning to Make a Conjecture
Consider the following procedure:
Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the product, divide the sum by
2, and subtract 3.
 Complete the above procedure for several different numbers. Use inductive
reasoning to make a conjecture about the relationship between the size of the resulting
number and the size of the original number.
SOLUTION
Suppose we pick 5 as our original number. Then the procedure would produce the
following results:
Original number: 5
Multiply by 8: 8 × 5 = 40
Add 6: 40 + 6 = 46
Divide by 2: 46 ÷ 2 = 23
Subtract 3: 23 − 3 = 20
We started with 5 and followed the procedure to produce 20. Starting with 6 as our original
number produces a final result of 24. Starting with 10 produces a final result of 40. Starting
with 100 produces a final result of 400. In each of these cases, the resulting number is
four times the original number. We conjecture that following the given procedure produces
a number that is four times the original number.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2
Consider the following procedure:
Pick a number. Multiply the number by 9, add 15 to the product, divide the sum by
3, and subtract 5.
Complete the above procedure for several different numbers. Use inductive
reasoning to make a conjecture about the relationship between the size of the resulting
number and the size of the original number.

Deductive Reasoning
Another type of reasoning is called deductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning is
distinguished from inductive reasoning in that it is the process of reaching a conclusion
by applying general principles and procedures.

Inductive Reasoning
Deductive reasoning is the process of reaching a conclusion by applying general assumptions,
procedures, or principles.

EXAMPLE 3 Use Deductive Reasoning to Establish a Conjecture

Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure produces a number that is
four times the original number.
Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the product, divide
the sum by 2, and subtract 3.
SOLUTION:
Let 𝑛 represent the original number.
Multiply the number by 8: 8𝑛
Add 6 to the product: 8𝑛 + 6
8𝑛+6
Divide the sum by 2: = 4𝑛 + 3
2
 Subtract by 3 4𝑛 + 3 − 3 = 4𝑛
We started with 𝑛 and ended with 4𝑛. The procedure given in this example produces a
number that is four times the original number.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 3
Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure produces a number
that is three times the original number.
Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 6, add to the product, divide the
sum by 2, and subtract 5.
HINT: Let 𝑛 represent the original number.

EXERCISE SET 3.1

A. Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each list.
1. 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, ?
2. 5, 11, 17, 23, 29, 35, ?
3. 3, 5, 9, 15, 23, 33, ?
4. 1, 8, 27, 64, 125, ?
5. 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, ?
B. Use deductive reasoning in solving the following problem.
6. Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure always produces
a number that is equal to the original number.
Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 6 and add 8. Divide the sum
by 2, subtract twice the original number, and subtract 4.
7. Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure always produces
a number 5.
Procedure: Pick a number. Add 4 to the number and multiply the sum by 3.
Subtract 7 and then decrease this difference by the triple of the original number.
SECTION 3.1 Problem Solving with Patterns
Terms of a Sequence

An ordered list of numbers such as

5, 14, 27, 44, 65, …
Is called a sequence. The numbers in the sequence that are separated by commas are
the terms of the sequence. In the above sequence, 5 is the first term, 14 is the second
term, 27 is the third term, 44 is the fourth term, and 65 is the fifth term. The three dots
“…” indicate that the sequence continues beyond 65, which is the last written term. It is
customary to use the subscript notation 𝑎𝑛 to designate the 𝒏𝒕𝒉 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒔𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆.
That is,
𝑎1 represents the first term of a sequence.
𝑎2 represents the second term of a sequence.
𝑎3 represents the third term of a sequence.
.
.
.
𝑎𝑛 represents the 𝑛th term of a sequence.
In the sequence, 2, 6, 12, 20, 30, … , 𝑛2 + 𝑛, …
𝑎1 = 2, 𝑎2 = 6, 𝑎3 = 12, 𝑎4 = 20, 𝑎5 = 30, and 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛2 + 𝑛.
When we examine a sequence, it is natural to ask:
• What is the next term?
• What formula or rule can be used to generate the terms?
To answer these questions, we often construct a difference table, which shows the
difference between successive terms of the sequence. The following table is a difference
table for the sequence 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, …

Each of the numbers in row (1) of the table is the difference between the two closest
numbers just above it (upper right number minus upper left number). The differences in
row (1) are called the first differences of the sequence. In this case, the first differences
are all the same. Thus, if we use the above difference table to predict the next number in
the sequence, we predict that 14 + 3 = 17 is the next term of the sequence. This
prediction might be wrong; however, the pattern shown by the first differences seems to
indicate that each successive term is 3 larger than the preceding term.
The following table is a difference table for the sequence 5, 14, 27, 44, 65, …
 In this table, the firs differences are not all the same. In such a situation it is often
helpful to compute the successive differences of the first differences. These are shown in
row (2). These differences of the first differences are called the second differences. The
differences of the second differences are called the third differences.

To predict the next term of a sequence, we often look for a pattern in a row of
differences. For instance, in the following table, the second differences shown in blue are
all the same constant, namely 4. If the pattern continues, then a 4 would also be the next
second difference, and we can extend the table to the right as shown.

Now we work upward. That is, we add 4 to the first difference 21 to produce the
next first difference, 25. We then add this difference to the fifth term, 65, to predict that 90
is the next term in the sequence. This product can be repeated to predict additional terms
of the sequence.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1

Use a difference table to predict the next term in the sequence 1, 14, 51, 124, 245, 426, . ..

Find the nth-term Formula

Assume the pattern shown by the square tiles in the following figures continues.
a. What is the nth-term formula for the number of tiles in the nth figure of the
sequence?
b. How many tiles are in the eighth figure of the sequence?
c. Which figure will consist of exactly 320 tiles?

Solution:
 a. Examine the figures for patterns. Note that the second figure has two tiles on each
of the horizontal sections and one tile between the horizontal sections. The third
figure has three tiles on each horizontal section and two tiles between the
horizontal sections. The fourth figure has four tiles on each horizontal section and
three tiles between the horizontal sections.

Thus, the number of tiles in the nth figure is given by two groups of n plus a
group of n less one. That is,
𝑎𝑛 = 2𝑛 + (𝑛 − 1)
𝑎𝑛 = 3𝑛 − 1
b. The number of tiles in the eighth figure of the sequence is 3(8) − 1 = 23.
c. To determine which figure in the sequence will have 320 tiles, we solve the
equation 3𝑛 − 1 = 320.
3𝑛 − 1 = 320
3𝑛 = 321
𝑛 = 107
The 107th figure is composed of 320 tiles.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2

Assume that the pattern shown by the square tiles in the following figure continues.
a. What is the nth-term formula for the number of tiles in the nth figure of the
sequence?
b. How many tiles are in the tenth figure of the sequence?
c. Which figure will consist of exactly 419 tiles?
The Fibonacci Sequence
Leonardo of Pisa, also known as Fibonacci (c. 1170-1250), is one of the best-
known mathematicians of medieval Europe.
A recursive definition for a sequence is one in which each successive term of the
sequence is defined by using some of the preceding term. If we use the mathematical
notation 𝐹𝑛 to represent the nth Fibonacci number, then the numbers in the Fibonacci
sequence are given by the following recursive definition.

The Fibonacci Numbers

𝐹1 = 1, 𝐹2 = 1, and 𝐹𝑛 = 𝐹𝑛−1 + 𝐹𝑛−2 for 𝑛 ≥ 3.

EXAMPLE Determine the properties of Fibonacci Numbers

Determine whether each of the following statements about Fibonacci numbers is true or
false. Note: The first 10 terms of the Fibonacci sequence are
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, and 55.
a. If 𝑛 is even, then 𝐹𝑛 is an odd number.
b. 2𝐹𝑛 − 𝐹𝑛−2 = 𝐹𝑛+1 for 𝑛 ≥ 3.
SOLUTION:
a. An examination of Fibonacci numbers shows that the second Fibonacci number,
1, is odd and the fourth Fibonacci number, 3, is odd, but the sixth Fibonacci
number, 8, is even. Thus, the statement “If 𝑛 is even, then 𝐹𝑛 is an odd number”
is false.
b. Experiment to see whether 2𝐹𝑛 − 𝐹𝑛−2 = 𝐹𝑛+1 for several values of 𝑛. For
instance, for 𝑛 = 7, we get
2𝐹𝑛 − 𝐹𝑛−2 = 𝐹𝑛+1
2𝐹7 − 𝐹7−2 = 𝐹7+1
2𝐹7 − 𝐹5 = 𝐹8
2(13) − 5 = 21
26 − 5 = 21
21 = 21
which is true. Evaluating 2𝐹𝑛 − 𝐹𝑛−2 = 𝐹𝑛+1 for several values of 𝑛, 𝑛 ≥ 3, we find
that in each case 2𝐹𝑛 − 𝐹𝑛−2 = 𝐹𝑛+1 . Thus, by inductive reasoning, we conjecture
that 2𝐹𝑛 − 𝐹𝑛−2 = 𝐹𝑛+1 for 𝑛 ≥ 3 is a true statement. Note: This property of
Fibonacci numbers can also be established using deductive reasoning.

Polygonal Numbers
The ancient Greek mathematicians were interested in the geometric shapes
associated with numbers. For instance, they noticed that triangles can be constructed
using 1, 3, 6, 10 or 15 as shown in the figure below. They called the numbers 1, 3, 6,
10, 15, …triangular numbers. The Greeks called the numbers 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, … square
numbers and the numbers 1, 5, 12, 22, 35, …pentagonal numbers.
An 𝑛𝑡ℎ-term formula for the triangular numbers is:
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑛 =
2
The square numbers have an 𝑛𝑡ℎ-term formula of
𝑆𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛 = 𝑛2
The 𝑛𝑡ℎ-term formula for the pentagonal numbers is
𝑛(3𝑛 − 1)
𝑃𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑛 =
2
EXERCISE SET
Construct a difference table to predict the next term of each sequence.
1. 1, 7, 17, 31, 49, 71, …
2. 10, 10, 12, 16, 22, 30, …
3. −1, 4, 21, 56, 115, 204, …
4. 0, 10, 24, 56, 112, 190, …
5. 9, 4, 3, 12, 37, 84, …
A. Cannonballs can be stacked to form a pyramid with a triangular base. Five of
these pyramids are shown below.
6. Use a difference table to predict the number of cannonballs in the sixth
pyramid and in the seventh pyramid.
7. The sequence formed by the number of cannonballs in the above pyramids is
called tetrahedral sequence. The nth-term formula for the tetrahedral
sequence is
1
𝑇𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎ℎ𝑒𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑛 = 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 2)
6
Find 𝑇𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎ℎ𝑒𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑙10 and 𝑇𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎ℎ𝑒𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑙13
8. Pieces vs. Cuts One cut of a stick of licorice produces two pieces.
Two cuts produce three pieces. Three cuts produce four pieces.
a. How many pieces are produced by five cuts and by six cuts
b. Predict the nth-term formula for the number of pieces of licorice that are
produced by 𝑛 cuts of a stick of licorice.
9. Pieces vs Cuts One straight cut across a pizza produces 2 pieces.
Two cuts can produce a maximum of 4 pieces. Three cuts can produce a
maximum of 7 pieces. Four cuts can produce a maximum of 11 pieces.
a. Use a difference table to predict the maximum number of pieces that can
be produced with seven cuts.
b. How are the pizza slicing numbers related to the triangular numbers,
which are defined by;
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑛 =
2

10. Fibonacci Properties The Fibonacci sequence has many unusual

properties. Experiment to decide which of the following properties ae valid.
Note: 𝐹𝑛 represents the 𝑛th Fibonacci number.
a. 3𝐹𝑛 − 𝐹𝑛−2 = 𝐹𝑛+2 for 𝑛 ≥ 3
b. 𝐹𝑛 𝐹𝑛+3 = 𝐹𝑛+1 𝐹𝑛+2
c. 𝐹3𝑛 is an even number
d. 𝐹5𝑛 − 2𝐹𝑛−2 = 𝐹𝑛+3 for 𝑛 ≥ 3