EXAMPLES 5

D
x0

u(t) + x(t) x(t) + + y(t)

B ∫ C
+

FIGURE 1.1 State-equation block diagram.

for j = 1, 2, . . . , p. From this point on the vector notation (1.1) will

be preferred over these scalar decompositions. The state-space descrip-
tion consists of the state differential equation ẋ(t) = Ax(t) + Bu(t) and
the algebraic output equation y(t) = Cx(t) + Du(t) from Equation (1.1).
Figure 1.1 shows the block diagram for the state-space representation of
general multiple-input, multiple-output linear time-invariant systems.
One motivation for the state-space formulation is to convert a cou-
pled system of higher-order ordinary differential equations, for example,
those representing the dynamics of a mechanical system, to a coupled
set of first-order differential equations. In the single-input, single-output
case, the state-space representation converts a single nth-order differen-
tial equation into a system of n coupled first-order differential equations.
In the multiple-input, multiple-output case, in which all equations are of
the same order n, one can convert the system of k nth-order differential
equations into a system of kn coupled first-order differential equations.

1.3 EXAMPLES

In this section we present a series of examples that illustrate the construc-

tion of linear state equations. The first four examples begin with first-
principles modeling of physical systems. In each case we adopt the strat-
egy of associating state variables with the energy storage elements in the
system. This facilitates derivation of the required differential and algebraic
equations in the state-equation format. The last two examples begin with
transfer-function descriptions, hence establishing a link between transfer
functions and state equations that will be pursued in greater detail in later
chapters.

Example 1.1 Given the linear single-input, single-output, mass-spring-

damper translational mechanical system of Figure 1.2, we now derive the
6 INTRODUCTION

y(t)

m f(t)
c

FIGURE 1.2 Translational mechanical system.

ky(t)

m f (t)
cy(t)

FIGURE 1.3 Free-body diagram.

system model and then convert it to a state-space description. For this

system, the input is force f (t) and the output is displacement y(t).
Using Newton’s second law, the dynamic force balance for the free-
body diagram of Figure 1.3 yields the following second-order ordinary
differential equation
mÿ(t) + cẏ(t) + ky(t) = f (t)
that models the system behavior. Because this is a single second-order
differential equation, we need to select a 2 × 1 state vector. In general,
energy storage is a good criterion for choosing the state variables. The
total system energy at any time is composed of potential spring energy
ky(t)2 /2 plus kinetic energy mẏ(t)2 /2 associated with the mass displace-
ment and velocity. We then choose to define the state variables as the
mass displacement and velocity:
 
x1 (t) x1 (t) = y(t)
x(t) =
x2 (t) x2 (t) = ẏ(t) = ẋ1 (t)
Therefore,
ẏ(t) = x2 (t)
ÿ(t) = ẋ2 (t)
Substituting these two state definitions into the original system equation
gives
mẋ2 (t) + cx2 (t) + kx1 (t) = f (t)
 EXAMPLES 7

The original single second-order differential equation can be written as

a coupled system of two first-order differential equations, that is,
ẋ1 (t) = x2 (t)
c k 1
ẋ2 (t) = − x2 (t) − x1 (t) + f (t)
m m m
The output is the mass displacement

y(t) = x1 (t)

The generic variable name for input vectors is u(t), so we define:

u(t) = f (t)

We now write the preceding equations in matrix-vector form to get a

valid state-space description. The general state-space description consists
of the state differential equation and the algebraic output equation. For
Example 1.1, these are
State Differential Equation
ẋ(t) = Ax(t) + Bu(t)
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
  0 1   0
ẋ1 (t) ⎣ ⎦ x1 (t)
= k c + 1 ⎦ u(t)
⎣
ẋ2 (t) − − x2 (t)
m m m
Algebraic Output Equation
y(t) = Cx(t) + Du(t)
 
x1 (t)
y(t) = [ 1 0 ] + [0]u(t)
x2 (t)
The two-dimensional single-input, single-output system matrices in this
example are (with m = p = 1 and n = 2):
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
0 1 0
A=⎣ k c ⎦ B=⎣ 1 ⎦ C = [1 0]
− −
m m m
D=0
In this example, the state vector is composed of the position and
velocity of the mass m. Two states are required because we started with
one second-order differential equation. Note that D = 0 in this example
because no part of the input force is directly coupled to the output. 
8 INTRODUCTION

Example 1.2 Consider the parallel electrical circuit shown in

Figure 1.4. We take the input to be the current produced by the
independent current source u(t) = i(t) and the output to be the capacitor
voltage y(t) = v(t).
It is often convenient to associate state variables with the energy
storage elements in the network, namely, the capacitors and inductors.
Specifically, capacitor voltages and inductor currents, while not only
directly characterizing the energy stored in the associated circuit element,
also facilitate the derivation of the required differential equations. In this
example, the capacitor voltage coincides with the voltage across each
circuit element as a result of the parallel configuration.
This leads to the choice of state variables, that is,

x1 (t) = iL (t)
x2 (t) = v(t)

In terms of these state variables, the inductor’s voltage-current relationship

is given by
x2 (t) = Lẋ1 (t)

Next, Kirchhoff’s current law applied to the top node produces

1
x2 (t) + x1 (t) + C ẋ2 (t) = u(t)
R
These relationships can be rearranged so as to isolate state-variable
time derivatives as follows:
1
ẋ1 (t) = x2 (t)
L
1 1 1
ẋ2 (t) = − x1 (t) − x2 (t) + u(t)
C RC C

iL(t) +
i(t) R L C v(t)
−

FIGURE 1.4 Parallel electrical circuit.

 EXAMPLES 9

This pair of coupled first-order differential equations, along with the

output definition y(t) = x2 (t), yields the following state-space description
for this electrical circuit:
State Differential Equation
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
  1  
0 0
ẋ1 (t) ⎢ L ⎥ x1 (t) ⎣
=⎣ 1 1 ⎦ x2 (t) + 1 ⎦ u(t)
ẋ2 (t)
− − C
C RC
Algebraic Output Equation
 
x1 (t)
y(t) = [ 0 1 ] + [0]u(t)
x2 (t)

from which the coefficient matrices A, B, C, and D are found by inspec-

tion, that is,
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1
0 0
⎢ ⎥
A=⎣ 1 L
1 ⎦ B= 1⎦⎣ C = [0 1]
− − C
C RC
D=0

Note that D = 0 in this example because there is no direct coupling

between the current source and the capacitor voltage. 

Example 1.3 Consider the translational mechanical system shown in

Figure 1.5, in which y1 (t) and y2 (t) denote the displacement of the asso-
ciated mass from its static equilibrium position, and f (t) represents a
force applied to the first mass m1 . The parameters are masses m1 and
m2 , viscous damping coefficient c, and spring stiffnesses k1 and k2 . The
input is the applied force u(t) = f (t), and the outputs are taken as the
mass displacements. We now derive a mathematical system model and
then determine a valid state-space representation.
Newton’s second law applied to each mass yields the coupled second-
order differential equations, that is,

m1 ÿ1 (t) + k1 y1 (t) − k2 [y2 (t) − y1 (t)] = f (t)

m2 ÿ2 (t) + cẏ2 (t) + k2 [y2 (t) − y1 (t)] = 0

Here, the energy-storage elements are the two springs and the two masses.
Defining state variables in terms of mass displacements and velocities
10 INTRODUCTION

y1(t) y2(t)

f(t)

k1 k2 c
m1 m2

FIGURE 1.5 Translational mechanical system.

yields
x1 (t) = y1 (t)
x2 (t) = y2 (t) − y1 (t)
x3 (t) = ẏ1 (t)
x4 (t) = ẏ2 (t)

Straightforward algebra yields the following state equation representa-

tion:
State Differential Equation
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
0 0 1 0
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ 0
ẋ1 (t) ⎢ 0 0 −1 1 ⎥ x1 (t) ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ẋ2 (t) ⎥ ⎢ k1 k2 ⎥ ⎢ x2 (t) ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ẋ (t) ⎦ = ⎢ − 0 0 ⎥⎣ ⎦ +⎢⎢ 1 ⎥ u(t)
⎥
⎢ m1 m1 ⎥ x3 (t) ⎣ m1 ⎦
3
ẋ4 (t) ⎣ −k2 c ⎦ x4 (t)
0 0 − 0
m2 m2
Algebraic Output Equation
⎡ ⎤
   x1 (t)
  
y1 (t) 1 0 0 0 ⎢ x2 (t) ⎥ 0
= +
0 ⎣ x3 (t) ⎦
u(t)
y2 (t) 1 1 0 0
x4 (t)
from which the coefficient matrices A, B, C, and D can be identified.
Note that D = [ 0 0 ]T because there is no direct feedthrough from the
input to the output.
Now, it was convenient earlier to define the second state variable as
the difference in mass displacements, x2 (t) = y2 (t) − y1 (t), because this
relative displacement is the amount the second spring is stretched. Instead
 EXAMPLES 11

we could have defined the second state variable based on the absolute
mass displacement, that is x2 (t) = y2 (t), and derived an equally valid
state-space representation. Making this one change in our state variable
definitions, that is,
x1 (t) = y1 (t)
x2 (t) = y2 (t)
x3 (t) = ẏ1 (t)
x4 (t) = ẏ2 (t)
yields the new A and C matrices
⎡ ⎤
0 0 1 0
⎢ 0 0 0 1 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ (k + k2 ) k2 ⎥
A = ⎢− 1 0 0 ⎥
⎢ m1 m1 ⎥
⎣ k2 −k2 c ⎦
0 −
m2 m2 m2
 
1 0 0 0
C=
0 1 0 0
The B and D matrices are unchanged. 

Example 1.4 Consider the electrical network shown in Figure 1.6. We

now derive the mathematical model and then determine a valid state-space
representation. The two inputs are the independent voltage and current
sources vin (t) and iin (t), and the single output is the inductor voltage vL (t).
In terms of clockwise circulating mesh currents i1 (t), i2 (t), and i3 (t),
Kirchhoff’s voltage law applied around the leftmost two meshes yields
d
R1 i1 (t) + vC1 (t) + L [i1 (t) − i2 (t)] = vin (t)
dt
d
L [i2 (t) − i1 (t)] + vC2 (t) + R2 [i2 (t) − i3 (t)] = 0
dt
and Kirchhoff’s current law applied to the rightmost mesh yields

i3 (t) = −iin (t)

In addition, Kirchoff’s current law applied at the top node of the induc-
tor gives
iL (t) = i1 (t) − i2 (t)
12 INTRODUCTION

+ vC1(t) − + vC2(t) −

R1
C1 C2
vin(t) + iin(t)
L iL(t) R2
−
i1(t) i2(t) i3(t)

FIGURE 1.6 Electrical circuit.

As in Example 1.2, it is again convenient to associate state variables

with the capacitor and inductor energy-storage elements in the network.
Here, we select

x1 (t) = vC1 (t)

x2 (t) = vC2 (t)
x3 (t) = iL (t)

We also associate inputs with the independent sources via

u1 (t) = vin (t)

u2 (t) = iin (t)

and designate the inductor voltage vL (t) as the output so that

y(t) = vL (t) = Lẋ3 (t)

Using the relationships

C1 ẋ1 (t) = i1 (t)

C2 ẋ2 (t) = i2 (t)
x3 (t) = C1 ẋ1 (t) − C2 ẋ2 (t)

the preceding circuit analysis now can be recast as

R1 C1 ẋ1 (t) + Lẋ3 (t) = −x1 (t) + u1 (t)

R2 C2 ẋ2 (t) − Lẋ3 (t) = −x2 (t) − R2 u2 (t)
C1 ẋ1 (t) − C2 ẋ2 (t) = x3 (t)
 EXAMPLES 13

Packaging these equations in matrix form and isolating the state-variable

time derivatives gives
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤−1
ẋ1 (t) R1 C1 0 L
⎣ ẋ2 (t) ⎦ = ⎣ 0 R2 C2 −L ⎦
ẋ3 (t) C1 −C2 0
⎛⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎞
−1 0 0 x1 (t) 1 0  
⎝⎣ 0 −1 0 ⎦ ⎣ x2 (t) ⎦ + ⎣ 0 −R2 ⎦ u1 (t) ⎠
u2 (t)
0 0 0 x3 (t) 0 0

Calculating and multiplying through by the inverse and yields the state
differential equation, that is,
⎡ 1 −1 R2 ⎤
⎡ ⎤ ⎢ (R1 + R2 )C1 (R1 + R2 )C1 (R1 + R2 )C1 ⎥ ⎡ ⎤
ẋ1 (t) ⎢ ⎥ x1 (t)
⎢ −1 −1 −R ⎥
⎣ ẋ2 (t) ⎦ = ⎢ 1 ⎥ ⎣ x2 (t) ⎦
⎢ (R + R )C + + ⎥
ẋ3 (t) ⎢ 1 2 2 (R 1 R 2 )C 2 (R 1 R 2 )C 2 ⎥ x3 (t)
⎣ −R2 R1 −R1 R2 ⎦
(R1 + R2 )L (R1 + R2 )L (R1 + R2 )L
⎡ 1 −R2 ⎤
⎢ (R1 + R2 )C1 (R1 + R2 )C1 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ 
⎢ 1 −R2 ⎥ u1 (t)
+⎢⎢ ⎥
⎥
⎢ (R1 + R2 )C2 (R1 + R2 )C2 ⎥ u2 (t)
⎣ R2 R1 R2 ⎦
(R1 + R2 )L (R1 + R2 )L
which is in the required format from which coefficient matrices A and B
can be identified. In addition, the associated output equation y(t) = Lẋ3 (t)
can be expanded to the algebraic output equation as follows
⎡ ⎤
  x1 (t)
−R2 R1 −R1 R2
y(t) = ⎣ x2 (t) ⎦
(R1 + R2 ) (R1 + R2 ) (R1 + R2 ) x (t) 3
  
R2 R1 R2 u1 (t)
+
(R1 + R2 ) (R1 + R2 ) u2 (t)

from which coefficient matrices C and D can be identified.

Note that in this example, there is direct coupling between the indepen-
dent voltage and current source inputs vin (t) and iin (t) and the inductor
voltage output vL (t), and hence the coefficient matrix D is nonzero.