Hindawi Publishing Corporation

Journal of Sensors
Volume 2016, Article ID 1480307, 8 pages
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2016/1480307

Research Article
Algorithm for Automated Mapping of Land Surface Temperature
Using LANDSAT 8 Satellite Data

Ugur Avdan and Gordana Jovanovska

Research Institute of Earth and Space Sciences, Anadolu University, Iki Eylul Campus, 26555 Eskisehir, Turkey

Correspondence should be addressed to Ugur Avdan; uavdan@anadolu.edu.tr

Received 25 November 2015; Revised 21 January 2016; Accepted 4 February 2016

Academic Editor: Guiyun Tian

Copyright © 2016 U. Avdan and G. Jovanovska. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution
License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly
cited.

Land surface temperature is an important factor in many areas, such as global climate change, hydrological, geo-/biophysical, and
urban land use/land cover. As the latest launched satellite from the LANDSAT family, LANDSAT 8 has opened new possibilities
for understanding the events on the Earth with remote sensing. This study presents an algorithm for the automatic mapping of land
surface temperature from LANDSAT 8 data. The tool was developed using the LANDSAT 8 thermal infrared sensor Band 10 data.
Different methods and formulas were used in the algorithm that successfully retrieves the land surface temperature to help us study
the thermal environment of the ground surface. To verify the algorithm, the land surface temperature and the near-air temperature
were compared. The results showed that, for the first case, the standard deviation was 2.4∘ C, and for the second case, it was 2.7∘ C.
For future studies, the tool should be refined with in situ measurements of land surface temperature.

1. Introduction for doing pixel calculations. Without the tool, the process
of retrieving LST is very long, and it is prone to many
Land surface temperature (LST) is defined as the temperature mistakes. The tool also can be developed in any software
felt when the land surface is touched with the hands or supporting pixel calculations from a given image, following
the skin temperature of the ground [1]. As one of the most step by step this paper. Although an LST retrieval method for
important aspects of the land surface, LST has been a main LANDSAT 8 has been developed [1, 4], a tool is needed for
topic for developing methodologies to be measured from the complicated process of obtaining the LST. A similar study
space. LST is an important factor in many areas of studies, for retrieving LST in ERDAS IMAGINE has been conducted
such as global climate change, hydrological and agricultural for LANDSAT 7 data [5] but not for LANDSAT 8. The tool
processes, and urban land use/land cover. Calculating LST presented in this paper is used for calculating the LST of
from remote sensed images is needed since it is an important a given LANDSAT 8 image with the input of the fourth
factor controlling most physical, chemical, and biological (red wavelength/micrometres, 0.64–0.67), fifth (near infrared
processes of the Earth [2]. There is a growing awareness (NIR) wavelength/micrometres, 0.85–0.88), and tenth (ther-
among environmental scientists that remote sensing can and mal infrared sensor (TIRS) wavelength/micrometres, 10.60–
must play a role in providing the data needed to assess 11.19) bands. Following January 6, 2014, recommendations of
ecosystems conditions and to monitor change at all special USGS of not using TIRS Band 11 due to its larger calibration
scales [3]. The tool developed in this paper is simple and does uncertainty, only Band 10 was included in the algorithm.
not require any background knowledge so scientists can use
it very easy in their researches. 2. Data and Methods
The algorithm introduced in this paper has been devel-
oped using ERDAS IMAGINE 2014, with the Model Maker The algorithm was created in ERDAS IMAGINE 2014, and
allowing us to create a model that will repeat the process it can only be used to process LANDSAT 8 data because
automatically, and it is easy to develop a simple tool useful of the data complexity. The LST of any Landsat 8 satellite
2 Journal of Sensors

Input Band 10 Input Band 4 Input Band 5

Top of atmospheric
Calculating NDVI
spectral radiance
(see Section 2.1) (see Section 2.3.1)

Calculating
proportion of
vegetation P
(see Section 2.3.2)

Conversions of Determination of
radians to at-sensor ground emissivity
temperature
(see Section 2.3.3)
(see Section 2.2)

Calculating LST
(see (7))

LST result

Figure 1: Flowchart for LST retrieval.

image can be retrieved following the steps of Figure 1. The Table 1: Metadata of the satellite images.
data of Landsat 8 is available at the Earth Explorer website
free of charge. In this study, the TIR band 10 was used to Thermal constant, Band 10
estimate brightness temperature and bands 4 and 5 were used 𝐾1 1321.08
for calculating the NDVI. The metadata of the satellite images 𝐾2 777.89
used in the algorithm is presented in Table 1. Rescaling factor, Band 10
𝑀𝐿 0.000342
2.1. Top of Atmospheric Spectral Radiance. The first step of the
𝐴𝐿 0.1
algorithm is the input of Band 10. After inputting band 10, in
Correction, Band 10
the background, the tool uses formulas taken from the USGS
web page for retrieving the top of atmospheric (TOA) spectral 𝑂𝑖 0.29
radiance (𝐿𝜆):
𝐿𝜆 = 𝑀𝐿 ∗ 𝑄cal + 𝐴 𝐿 − 𝑂𝑖 , (1) used in the tool’s algorithm to convert reflectance to BT
where 𝑀𝐿 represents the band-specific multiplicative rescal- [7]:
ing factor, 𝑄cal is the Band 10 image, 𝐴 𝐿 is the band-specific
additive rescaling factor, and 𝑂𝑖 is the correction for Band 10 𝐾2
BT = − 273.15, (2)
[6]. ln [(𝐾1 /𝐿𝜆) + 1]

2.2. Conversion of Radiance to At-Sensor Temperature. After where 𝐾1 and 𝐾2 stand for the band-specific thermal conver-
the digital numbers (DNs) are converted to reflection, the sion constants from the metadata.
TIRS band data should be converted from spectral radiance For obtaining the results in Celsius, the radiant tem-
to brightness temperature (BT) using the thermal constants perature is revised by adding the absolute zero (approx.
provided in the metadata file. The following equation is −273.15∘ C) [8].
Journal of Sensors 3

2.3. NDVI Method for Emissivity Correction When the NDVI is less than 0, it is classified as water, and
the emissivity value of 0.991 is assigned. For NDVI values
2.3.1. Calculating NDVI. Landsat visible and near-infrared between 0 and 0.2, it is considered that the land is covered
bands were used for calculating the Normal Difference with soil, and the emissivity value of 0.996 is assigned. Values
Vegetation Index (NDVI). The importance of estimating the between 0.2 and 0.5 are considered mixtures of soil and
NDVI is essential since the amount of vegetation present is vegetation cover and (6) is applied to retrieve the emissivity.
an important factor and NDVI can be used to infer general In the last case, when the NDVI value is greater than 0.5, it
vegetation condition [9]. The calculation of the NDVI is is considered to be covered with vegetation, and the value of
important because, afterward, the proportion of the vegeta- 0.973 is assigned.
tion (𝑃V ) should be calculated, and they are highly related with The last step of retrieving the LST or the emissivity-
the NDVI, and emissivity (𝜀) should be calculated, which is corrected land surface temperature 𝑇𝑠 is computed as follows
related to the 𝑃V : [14]:
NIR (band 5) − 𝑅 (band 4) BT
NDVI = , (3) 𝑇𝑠 = ,
NIR (band 5) + 𝑅 (band 4) {1 + [(𝜆BT/𝜌) ln 𝜀𝜆 ]}
(7)

where NIR represents the near-infrared band (Band 5) and 𝑅

represents the red band (Band 4). where 𝑇𝑠 is the LST in Celsius (∘ C, (2)), BT is at-sensor BT
(∘ C), 𝜆 is the wavelength of emitted radiance (for which the
peak response and the average of the limiting wavelength (𝜆 =
2.3.2. Calculating the Proportion of Vegetation. 𝑃V is cal-
10.895) [15] will be used), 𝜀𝜆 is the emissivity calculated in (6),
culated according to (4). A method for calculating 𝑃V [4]
and
suggests using the NDVI values for vegetation and soil
(NDVIV = 0.5 and NDVI𝑠 = 0.2) to apply in global conditions 𝑐
[10]: 𝜌=ℎ = 1.438 × 10−2 m K, (8)
𝜎
NDVI − NDVI𝑠 2 where 𝜎 is the Boltzmann constant (1.38 × 10−23 J/K), ℎ is
𝑃V = ( ) . (4)
NDVIV − NDVI𝑠 Planck’s constant (6.626 × 10−34 J s), and 𝑐 is the velocity of
light (2.998 × 108 m/s) [9].
However, since the NDVI values differ for every area, the
value for vegetated surfaces, 0.5, may be too low. Global values
from NDVI can be calculated from at-surface reflectivities, 3. LST Validation
but it would not be possible to establish global values in
the case of an NDVI computed from TOA reflectivities, The two major LST validation models are through ground
since NDVIV and NDVI𝑠 will depend on the atmospheric measurements or near-surface air temperature [16, 17]. The
conditions [11]. LST results comparing with the ground measurements results
may have an error up to 5∘ C; in the case of Srivastava et al., the
accuracy of the results in some area showed difference of ±2∘ C
2.3.3. Calculating Land Surface Emissivity. The land surface
with actual ground temperature measurements. According to
emissivity (LSE (𝜀)) must be known in order to estimate LST,
Liu and Zhang, another method using the mean near-surface
since the LSE is a proportionality factor that scales blackbody
air temperature to verify the retrieved LST results showed that
radiance (Planck’s law) to predict emitted radiance, and it
the LST retrieving error is about 0.7∘ C. For the validation, six
is the efficiency of transmitting thermal energy across the
representative points have been used.
surface into the atmosphere [12]. The determination of the
For the validation of the final retrieved LST results in the
ground emissivity is calculated conditionally as suggested in
presented tool, the mean near-surface air temperature was
[10]:
used [18] but with bigger amount of data and taking not only
𝜀𝜆 = 𝜀V𝜆 𝑃V + 𝜀𝑠𝜆 (1 − 𝑃V ) + 𝐶𝜆 , (5) the mean temperature but also the actual temperature in the
given pixel at the moment of the satellite passing over the area
where 𝜀V and 𝜀𝑠 are the vegetation and soil emissivities, for 27 representative points.
respectively, and 𝐶 represents the surface roughness (𝐶 = 0 The comparison was made with air temperature, which
for homogenous and flat surfaces) taken as a constant value is different and can sometimes result in big differences
of 0.005 [13]. The condition can be represented with the since the resolution of LANDSAT 8 for the used bands
following formula and the emissivity constant values shown is 100 m for the thermal band and 30 m for the red and
in Table 1 [4]: NIR bands. The LST was calculated and taken for the
pixel in which the meteorological station fell. Sometimes,
𝜀𝜆 the differences can be very big depending on the weather
condition and other factors [19]. It should also be taken
{
{ 𝜀𝑠𝜆 , NDVI < NDVI𝑠 , into consideration that there is 1.1 to 2 meters’ differ-
{
{ (6)
= {𝜀V𝜆 𝑃V + 𝜀𝑠𝜆 (1 − 𝑃V ) + 𝐶, NDVI𝑠 ≤ NDVI ≤ NDVIV , ence between the LST and the air temperature, which
{
{
{ means that differences in the temperatures are normal and
{𝜀𝑠𝜆 + 𝐶, NDVI > NDVIV . expected.
4 Journal of Sensors

(b)

(a)
N

W E

(c)

(d)

Figure 2: Application of algorithm in Ontario and Quebec, Canada. (a) Geographic location of Ontario in Canada; (b) frames of satellite
images of study areas; (c) first case located between Toronto and Huntsville; (d) second case located in surrounding area of the city of Moncton.

3.1. Application of the Algorithm to Ontario and Quebec, Table 2: Emissivity of representative terrestrial materials for LAND-
Canada. Hourly data were collected from the Canadian SAT 8 TIRS Band 10.
Weather and Meteorology website (http://climate.weather.gc Terrestrial material Water Building Soil Vegetation
.ca/) and used for comparison with the retrieved LST for
Emissivity 0.991 0.962 0.966 0.973
which, according to the available data, satellite images were
downloaded for 02/05/2015 (Toronto area) and 04/06/2015
(Moncton area) for the areas shown in Figure 2.
The study area was the Canadian provinces of Ontario 4. Conclusion
and Quebec (Figure 2). One satellite image was downloaded
from each of the two provinces. These areas were chosen This paper presented a new LST software tool and its
because of their specifications. That is, both study areas algorithm created in ERDAS for calculating the LST from
included water, urban areas, and green areas. LANDSAT 8 TIRS. The algorithm was derived using the
observed thermal radiance of the TIRS Band 10 of LANDSAT
3.2. Comparison of LST Validation Results. To compare the 8 TIRS. To verify the final retrieved LST results, the near-
results, two different satellite images from two different surface air temperature method was used. From the anal-
dates in two different areas were chosen according to the ysis of the two areas in Canada from two different dates,
available data. After downloading the satellite images from the standard deviation calculated for the first case based
http://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/, LSTs were retrieved in ERDAS on 16 meteorological stations was 2.4∘ C, and that for the
using the algorithm presented in this paper. In the first case, second case based on 11 stations was 2.7∘ C. It should be
the satellite image was located between Toronto and the city mentioned that sometimes, the difference between the near-
of Huntsville near Lake Simcoe in Ontario, Canada. For this surface temperature and the LST can be drastic since we
area, 20 meteorological stations were found, but only 16 of are comparing two different temperatures in different places
them were used for the accuracy assessment because of the (ground temperature and 1.1 to 2.0 m off the ground). It
presence of clouds or other unwanted events. The differences should also be taken into consideration that the resolution
between the retrieved LSTs and the air temperatures and of the LANDSAT 8 TIRS data is 100 m for the thermal band
details on the stations are presented in Table 2 and Figure 3. and 30 m for the red and NIR bands. Values smaller than
In the second case, the study area was located in the −5∘ C in the two cases were considered to be clouds or other
area surrounding the city of Moncton and included part of unwanted events on the satellite images since the data were
New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia in from springtime; it was not expected. From Tables 3 and 4
Canada. For this area, we found 11 meteorological stations, and Figures 3 and 4, it can be concluded that, for the first
and all of them were used for the accuracy assessment. The case, the smallest difference between the LST retrieved from
details are presented in Table 3 and Figure 4. the presented tool and the near-air temperature was 0.7∘ C and
Journal of Sensors 5

W S E

Collingwood Pa Hardwood
Mountain Bike Park
Barrie Oro Lagoon City

Borden Awos
Egbert CS
Pa Tornto Pa Udora Strong
Inter.
Mono Centre
Uxbridge West
Pa Caledon E Park Pa Uxbridge Taris
Pa Atmos Erin
Pa Atmos Vaughan Pa Claremont Silo Farm
Pa Atmos Vaughan Pa Atmos Claremont
Pa Atmos Bran. Toronto Button Ville A
Pa Markham North
Toyota

0 5 10 20
(km)

Meteorological stations
LST (∘ C)
<−5∘ C 10–17∘ C
−5–3∘ C 17–20∘ C
3–6∘ C 20–24∘ C
6–9∘ C 24-25∘ C
9-10∘ C >−25∘ C

Figure 3: Retrieved LST image and meteorological stations from first study area used in accuracy assessment.
6 Journal of Sensors

W E

Doaktown Auto RCS

Buctouche CDA Cs Pa Atmos Erin

Moncton Intl A

Gagetown A
Gagetown Awos
Napan Auto
Mechanic
Settlement

Fundy Park (Alma) Cs

Parsboro
Saint Jhon A

0 5 10 20
(km)
Meteorological stations
LST (∘ C)
<−5∘ C 10-11∘ C
−5–3∘ C 11–13∘ C
3–6∘ C 13–17∘ C
6–9∘ C 17–20∘ C
9-10∘ C >−20∘ C

Figure 4: Retrieved LST image and meteorological stations from second study area used in accuracy assessment.
Journal of Sensors 7

Table 3: Details and differences of station from first study case.

ST name Data 12pm LST Difference Latitude Longitude 𝐻

Barrie-Oro 19.9 20.9 −1.0 44 29󸀠 00.000󸀠󸀠
∘
79∘ 33󸀠 00.000󸀠󸀠 289.00 m
Pa Hardwood Mountain Bike Park 19.2 24.9 −5.7 44∘ 31󸀠 08.900󸀠󸀠 79∘ 35󸀠 24.200󸀠󸀠 334.50 m
Borden Awos 20.0 20.7 −0.7 44∘ 16󸀠 20.000󸀠󸀠 79∘ 54󸀠 42.000󸀠󸀠 222.50 m
Pa Udora Strong 19.8 22.3 −2.5 44∘ 15󸀠 03.600󸀠󸀠 79∘ 12󸀠 18.300󸀠󸀠 266.50 m
Lagoon City 10.7 9.2 1.5 44∘ 32󸀠 50.000󸀠󸀠 79∘ 13󸀠 00.000󸀠󸀠 220.70 m
Collingwood 13.8 18.7 −4.9 44∘ 30󸀠 00.000󸀠󸀠 80∘ 13󸀠 00.000󸀠󸀠 179.80 m
Mono Centre 19.1 18.4 0.7 44∘ 01󸀠 56.100󸀠󸀠 80∘ 01󸀠 28.010󸀠󸀠 436.00 m
Uxbridge West 19.4 22.3 −2.9 44∘ 05󸀠 54.000󸀠󸀠 79∘ 09󸀠 49.020󸀠󸀠 325.00 m
Pa Uxbridge Taris 19.7 23.2 −3.5 44∘ 03󸀠 16.000󸀠󸀠 79∘ 06󸀠 55.000󸀠󸀠 359.50 m
Pa Atmos Vaughan 20.9 17.9 3.1 43∘ 51󸀠 47.700󸀠󸀠 79∘ 32󸀠 28.900󸀠󸀠 254.00 m
Pa Angus Glen Golf Club 20.4 23.3 −2.9 43∘ 54󸀠 29.800󸀠󸀠 79∘ 19󸀠 23.400󸀠󸀠 230.50 m
Toronto Buttonville A 21.2 23.3 −2.1 43∘ 51󸀠 44.000󸀠󸀠 79∘ 22󸀠 12.000󸀠󸀠 198.10 m
Pa Claremont Silo Farm 19.8 21.8 −2.0 43∘ 59󸀠 37.900󸀠󸀠 79∘ 05󸀠 43.900󸀠󸀠 263.50 m
Pa Markham North Toyota 21.6 27.4 −5.8 43∘ 49󸀠 01.000󸀠󸀠 79∘ 20󸀠 33.810󸀠󸀠 187.50 m
Pa Atmos Claremont 21.5 23.5 −2.0 43∘ 56󸀠 09.800󸀠󸀠 79∘ 05󸀠 05.400󸀠󸀠 167.00 m
Pa Atmos Erin 19.8 21.6 −1.8 43∘ 49󸀠 33.620󸀠󸀠 80∘ 07󸀠 12.840󸀠󸀠 470.00 m

Table 4: Details and differences of station from second study case.

ST name Data 11pm LST Difference Latitude Longitude 𝐻

Mechanic Settlement 8.4 8.6 −0.2 45∘ 41󸀠 37.040󸀠󸀠 65∘ 09󸀠 54.040󸀠󸀠 403.00 m
Moncton Intl A 15.3 14.3 1.0 46∘ 06󸀠 44.000󸀠󸀠 64∘ 40󸀠 43.000󸀠󸀠 70.70 m
Fundy Park (Alma) Cs 12.4 10.2 2.2 45∘ 36󸀠 00.000󸀠󸀠 64∘ 57󸀠 00.000󸀠󸀠 42.70 m
Buctouche Cda Cs 15.1 14.9 0.2 46∘ 25󸀠 49.006󸀠󸀠 64∘ 46󸀠 05.009󸀠󸀠 35.90 m
Nappan Auto 15.4 13.3 2.1 45∘ 45󸀠 34.400󸀠󸀠 64∘ 14󸀠 29.200󸀠󸀠 19.80 m
Doaktown Auto Rcs 15.9 11.5 4.4 46∘ 35󸀠 06.090󸀠󸀠 66∘ 00󸀠 35.071󸀠󸀠 43.00 m
Saint John A 15.1 12.5 2.6 45∘ 18󸀠 58.000󸀠󸀠 65∘ 53󸀠 24.000󸀠󸀠 108.80 m
Parrsboro 15.9 8.1 7.8 45∘ 24󸀠 48.000󸀠󸀠 64∘ 20󸀠 49.000󸀠󸀠 30.90 m
Gagetown A 15.0 10.2 4.8 45∘ 50󸀠 00.000󸀠󸀠 66∘ 26󸀠 00.000󸀠󸀠 50.60 m
Gagetown Awos A 16.3 18.6 −2.3 45∘ 50󸀠 20.000󸀠󸀠 66∘ 26󸀠 59.000󸀠󸀠 /
Summerside 13.9 11.7 2.2 46∘ 26󸀠 28.000󸀠󸀠 63∘ 50󸀠 17.000󸀠󸀠 12.20 m

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