Food Research 4 (6) : 1937 - 1946 (December 2020)

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Physico-chemical and quality characterization of pulp oil from two varieties of
pili (Canarium ovatum Engl.) from Bicol, Philippines
1,2
Tugay, M.M.D.R., 1Mopera, L.E., 3Esguerra, E.B. and 1*Castillo-Israel, K.A.T.
1
Institute of Food Science and Technology, College of Agriculture and Food Science, University of the
Philippines Los Baños, College, Laguna, 4031
2
College of Industrial Technology, Catanduanes State University, Calatagan, Virac, Catanduanes, 4800
3
Postharvest Horticulture Training and Research Center, College of Agriculture and Food Science,
University of the Philippines Los Baños, College, Laguna, 4031
Article history:
Abstract
Received: 1 May 2020
Received in revised form: 3
June 2020
This study aimed to characterize and compare pili (Canarium ovatum Engl.) pulp oil from
Accepted: 8 June 2020 two different varieties of pili fruits in Bicol, Philippines namely M. Orolfo and Orbase
Available Online: 29 July varieties for possible utilization into oil-based products. The effects of varietal differences
2020 in pili fruits on physical, chemical and quality characteristics of its pulp oil were
Keywords:
determined. These two oils were also compared with control oils, commercially available
Pili pulp oil, coconut oil and extra virgin olive oil. Pili pulp oil from M. Orolfo had dark color while
M. Orolfo variety, Orbase had color close to extra virgin olive oil. The two varieties did not significantly
Orbase variety, differ from each other in terms of refractive index, moisture and volatile matters, acid
Fatty acid profile,
Coconut oil, value, iodine value, saponification number and percent unsaponifiable matter but
Extra virgin olive oil significantly differed from coconut oil and extra virgin olive oil. On the other hand, the
two varieties significantly differed from each other in terms of peroxide value, Vitamin A
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.26656/fr.2017.4(6).203
and α-tocopherol contents. In terms of fatty acid profile, high amounts of palmitic acid
were determined in both pili varieties (19-25%) compared with coconut oil (6.34%). Oleic
acid in Orbase was 71.5% while M. Orolfo had 58.1%, which are comparable with extra
virgin olive oil (77.9%). Pili pulp oils from M. Orolfo and Orbase can be utilized into oil-
based products because its chemical and quality characteristics are within the standard.
Both can be stored for a longer period of time and healthier in terms of fatty acid
composition and natural antioxidant content.

1. Introduction source is just a waste material from pili nut processing.

Pili fruit is the most important nut-producing species Pham and Dumandan (2015), reported that it has
and an indigenous fruit in the Philippines belonging to dark green color and the major fatty acids present in it
family Burseraceae. It is commonly known as a nut but are palmitic (23.96%), palmitoleic (4.66%), stearic
is actually a drupe that is egg-shaped to oblong-shaped (2.64%), oleic (60.93%) and linoleic (6.63%). They also
that weighs from 15.7 to 45.7 grams. Its pulp contains reported that the lipid molecular species present in the
73% moisture and is about 64.5% of the weight of the unsaponifiable matter of the said oil are carotenoids
fruit. It contains a relatively high amount of fat, 33.6% (141.79 mg/100 g oil), tocopherols (92.44 mg/100 g oil)
based on the dry weight basis per 100 grams (Coronel, and sterols (1,009.61 mg/100 g oil).
1996).
On the other hand, Coronel (1996), described PPO
Pili pulp oil (PPO) is a newly discovered source of differently as clear oil with greenish yellow color
vegetable oil in Bicol, Philippines that is now slowly containing 56.7% oleic glycerides, 13.5% linoleic
making its way into the oil industry. It is very similar to glycerides and 29.3% saturated fatty acids.
olive oil in its chemical and nutritional properties;
however, it contains more beta-carotene and carotenoids Llenaresas (1989) extracted oil from fruit pulp of
that make it more nutritious than olive oil (Asuncion, two pili varieties (Mabunga and Tree #2) and
2006). It is an inexpensive option to olive oil since its characterized them in terms of specific gravity, refractive
index, saponification value, iodine number, hydroxyl
*Corresponding author. eISSN: 2550-2166 / © 2020 The Authors. Published by Rynnye Lyan Resources
Email: kcisrael@up.edu.ph
 1938 Tugay et al. / Food Research 4 (6) (2020) 1937 - 1946

value and amount of unsaponifiable matter. Results show extraction in Figure 1 using 1:3 w/w of pulp to water
that pili pulp oil have a specific gravity of 0.9001-0.993, ratio.
a refractive index of 1.4520-1.4625, a saponification
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value of 167-184, an iodine number of 70.2-70.3,

hydroxyl value of 0.00, and unsaponifiable matter
content of 1.12-1.88%. The fatty acid analysis shows that
pili pulp oil contains 69.4-80.6% oleic acid, 13.5-19.6%
palmitic acid, 4.6-7.2% linoleic acid, 0.01-1.01% stearic,
and a small amount of palmitoleic acid. Results also
show that the two oils resemble palm oil in terms of fatty
acid composition, saponification value and degree of
unsaturation and thus may be a good substitute for palm
oil. PPO was also found to be high in carotene and
tocopherols and considerable amounts of sterols,
hydrocarbons and xantophylls (Pham, 2014).

There are several studies conducted regarding the

effect of varietal differences on characteristics of
different specific commodity. Gandul-Roxas and
Minguez-Mosquera (1996) reported that variety is one of
the factors that affect the chlorophyll and carotenoid
pigments present in nine varieties of virgin olive oils
from main Spanish producing regions. Helyes et al.
(2012) reported that carotenoid content and composition
of tomato fruits were also significantly affected by
varietal factors. Kiritsakis (1998) reported that cultivar Figure 1. Process Flow for Pili Pulp Oil Extraction. Adapted
influenced flavor components of olive oil. from Pili oil extraction technology in DOST-V by Asuncion
(2006).
To date, there is no study yet on the effect of varietal
differences in pili fruits on the characteristics of its pulp 2.3 Characterization of oils
oil. Thus, this study aimed to determine and compare the
characteristics of PPO from two different varieties of pili Characteristics of pili pulp oil extracted from each
fruits from Bicol, Philippines for possible utilization into replicate of each pili fruit variety were then determined
oil-based products. It is also the objective of this study to in two trials. Commercially available refined coconut oil
compare these PPO samples with two control oils, and extra virgin olive oil served as control oils.
commercially available coconut oil and extra virgin olive
oil. 2.3.1 Physical characteristics

To determine color values (L*, a*, b*, C* and oH),

2. Materials and methods oil samples were packed in polyethylene bags and then
2.1 Procurement of raw material for oil extraction sealed, ensuring no air bubbles were trapped inside.
Color values (L*, a*, b*, C* and oH) were determined
Mature fruits of two varieties of pili fruits, (M.
under a white background using color reader (CR-10,
Orolfo and Orbase) were obtained from the Department
Konica Minolta, Optics Inc., Japan) with hole diameter
of Agriculture, ARDC, Mayon Crossing, Tabaco City,
of 0.75 inch. Meanwhile, specific gravity and refractive
Albay, Philippines. Fruits were placed in net bags (37 cm
index were determined according to the AOAC method
x 35 cm) and were transported to PHTRC, UPLB, Los
(2016).
Baños, Laguna and immediately stored in cold room at
10oC. 2.3.2 Chemical characteristics
2.2 Extraction of pulp oil from two pili fruit varieties Chemical characteristics such as iodine value,
saponification number, fatty acid profile and
A total of 900 pieces of fresh pili fruits from each
unsaponifiable matter were determined according to
pili fruits variety (M. Orolfo and Orbase) were used in
AOAC methods (2016).
pulp oil extraction. Each pili fruit variety was divided
into three lots, each representing one replicate. Each pili
replicate was extracted with oil using the method of oil

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 Tugay et al. / Food Research 4 (6) (2020) 1937 - 1946 1939
o
2.3.3 Quality characteristics L*, C* and H values that are significantly higher than
that of extra virgin olive oil and L* and oH values that
Quality characteristics such as moisture and volatile are significantly lower than that of refined coconut oil. It

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matter, acid value, peroxide value, Vitamin A and has a C* value that is significantly higher than that of
Vitamin E content were determined according to AOAC refined coconut oil.
methods (2016).
It is also shown in Table 1 that all of the oil samples
2.4 Experimental design have negative a* value and positive b* values. This
This study employed a complete randomized design means that the hue value of all these samples is within
(CRD). Each treatment was triplicated while each of the green (-a*) and yellow (+b*) zone. This implies the
analysis for each treatment was conducted in two trials. presence of carotenoid and chlorophyll pigments in the
oil samples. Gandul-Roxas et al. (2016) and Minguez-
2.5 Statistical treatment of the data Mosquera et al. (1990) reported that carotenoids and
chlorophyll are mainly responsible for the color of virgin
In a completely randomized design, Analysis of olive oils. Mounts (1981) also reported the presence of
Variance (ANOVA), utilizing STAR software 2.0.1.2014
chlorophyll and a more prevalent and most important
system, was used to determine if significant difference provitamins pigments in soybean oil, β-carotene. The
among mean scores exists and LSD was used to locate
said author also reported that the latter pigment is
the differences among means. Q-test was used to responsible for the red color of palm oil when present in
determine the outlier.
higher concentration. Sahari et al. (2004) also attributed
to the presence of carotenoids in the intensely yellow
3. Results and discussion color of tea seed oil. Moyano et al. (2008) determined
3.1 Physical characteristics the relationship of color of virgin olive oils with their
chlorophyll and carotenoid indices. Pearson coefficients
Physical characteristics of different types of oil are (r*), revealed that that the best correlations are between
shown in Table 1. As shown, physical characteristics, in the carotenoid index and the C* (r* = 0.801) values and
terms of color, specific gravity and refractive index, of b* (r* = 0.802) values. When compared with PPO,
different types of oil vary among each other, except for however, this high positive correlation is not evident. It
the L* values of extra virgin olive and PPO from M. can be observed in Table 4 that pulp oil from M. Orolfo
Orolfo, and refractive indices of the two PPO samples. variety has higher carotenoid (Vitamin A) content than
that from Orbase variety but based on Table 1, the
Varietal differences in pili fruits affect its pulp oil
former has lower C* and b* values than the latter. This
color in terms of lightness (L*), chroma (C*) and hue
indicates how other pigments, aside from carotenoid,
angle (oH). When compared to that from Orbase variety,
affect the C* and a* values in PPO samples. Figure 2
PPO from M. Orolfo variety has lower L* value, C*
shows the actual appearance of the PPO and other oils.
value and oH value. This implies that the latter has a
Darkest color was obtained from M. Orolfo while Orbase
darker and less intense color than that from Orbase
was almost similar in appearance to extra virgin olive oil.
variety. PPO from M. Orolfo variety has an L* value that
Meanwhile, Gandul-Roxas and Minguez-Mosquera
is not significantly different from that of extra virgin
(1996) reported that aside from variety, ripening degree
olive oil but significantly lower than that of refined
of fruit affects the chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments
coconut oil. It has a C* value that is significantly lower
present in nine varieties of virgin olive oils from main
than that of extra virgin olive oil but significantly higher
Spanish producing regions. They further reported that
than that of refined coconut oil. Its oH value is
pheophytin (44-58%) was the predominant pigment in all
significantly higher than that of extra virgin olive oil but
of the oils studied, followed by lutein (18-38%) and β-
significantly lower than that of refined coconut oil.
carotene (6-17%). Psomiadou and Tsimidou (2001) also
On the other hand, PPO from Orbase variety has an reported that pheophytin a was the main pigments in all
Table 1. Physical characteristics of different types of oil
Physical Characteristics
Types of Oil Color Specific Refractive
L* a* b* C* o
H Gravity index at 25oC
Refined coconut oil 78.87a -1.38b 14.18d 14.30d 95.47a 0.9158a 1.4551c
Extra virgin olive oil 66.63c -0.42a 70.63b 70.60b 90.35d 0.9102d 1.4674a
Pili pulp oil (M. Orolfo variety) 66.13c -1.68c 41.33c 41.38c 92.37c 0.9115b 1.4663b
Pili pulp oil (Orbase variety) 73.53b -5.17d 71.87a 72.07a 94.12b 0.9110c 1.4663b
Means followed by the same letter in a column are not significantly different from each other by LSD at α=0.05
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 1940 Tugay et al. / Food Research 4 (6) (2020) 1937 - 1946

of 52 samples of virgin olive oils from various regions of unsaturation of fatty acid, molecular weight and degree
Greece. of conjugation (Ibeto et al., 2012). The higher the
molecular weight of oil and length and degree of
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unsaturation of its fatty acid, the higher is the refractive

index.

However, when compared with the results obtained

from previous studies, refractive indices of pili pulp oil
samples are higher than those reported by Pham and
Dumandan (2015) and Llenaresas (1989). Extracted via
Figure 2. Different Types of Oil. (a) refined coconut oil, (b)
enzymatic process, the former reported an index of
extra virgin olive oil, (c) pili pulp oil (M. Orolfo variety), (d)
pili pulp oil (Orbase variety)
refraction value of 1.4590 at 25oC while the latter
reported a value of 1.4520-1.4625 at 28oC for pulp oils
Pulp oil extracted from M. Orolfo variety has higher from two different varieties of pili (Tree#2 and Mabunga
specific gravity than from the one extracted from Orbase variety). The latter also reported that there is a slight
variety. This implies that varietal differences in pili fruit difference in refractive indices of pulp oil samples
affect specific gravity of its pulp oil. Result of this study extracted from the same variety of pili fruit by different
is similar to that of Llenaresas (1989) who reported solvents (chloroform-methanol and petroleum ether).
varying specific gravity of pulp oil from two different
varieties of pili extracted using the same solvent. It was 3.2 Chemical characteristics
further reported that there is a difference in specific In Table 2, the chemical characteristics of pulp oil
gravity of PPO extracted from one variety of pili fruit by samples from two pili varieties do not significantly vary
different solvents. from each other but both significantly vary from refined
Table 1 also shows that the specific gravity of pili coconut oil and extra virgin olive oil.
pulp oil samples varies from that of refined coconut oil Iodine value is a measure of an amount of iodine that
and extra virgin olive oil. This observation can be can react with 100 parts of fat or oil (Baltes, 1964). It
explained by differences in the percentage of major fatty indicates unsaturation of fat and oils. The lower is the
acid components of each oil samples (Table 3). Presence iodine value of fat, the lower is its degree of
of more lauric acid (shorter chain) in a specified volume unsaturation, the lower its susceptibility to oxidation or
of refined coconut oil makes it heavier than fewer longer vice versa (Sanders, 2003).
chains (oleic acid) in the same volume of PPO and extra
virgin olive oil. As shown in Table 2, iodine values of pili pulp oil
samples are significantly higher than refined coconut oil
The refractive indices of two pili pulp samples are but significantly lower than extra virgin olive oil. Reason
significantly higher than refined coconut oil but for this is the higher percentage of saturated lauric oil in
significantly lower than extra virgin olive oil. This result refined coconut oil and a higher percentage of
can be explained by differences in length and degree of unsaturated oleic acid in extra virgin olive oil than that of
unsaturation of fatty acid present. In Table 3, refined pili pulp oil samples (Table 3).
coconut oil is made up mostly of lauric acid while the
biggest percentage of fatty acid in extra virgin olive oil Based on iodine value, oils can be classified as
and pili pulp oil is oleic acid. Moreover, extra virgin drying oils (above 125 g I2/100 g), semi-drying oils (110-
olive oil has a higher percentage of oleic acid than pili 140 g I2/100 g) or nondrying oils (less than 110 g I2/100
pulp oil, thus resulting in a higher refractive index in the g). Drying oil is most susceptible to oxidation (Ibeto et
former than the latter. Refractive index is the quotient al., 2012). Table 2 shows that pili pulp oil along with
between the speed of light in air and in oil being refined coconut oil and extra virgin olive oil is classified
analyzed. It is affected by the length and degree of as nondrying oil. This implies that this oil can be stored
Table 2. Chemical characteristics of different types of oil
Chemical Characteristics
Types of Oil Iodine value, g Saponification number, Unsaponifiable
iodine/100 g sample mg KOH/g fat matter, %
Refined coconut oil 14.44c 253.50a 0.3167c
Extra virgin olive oil 83.62a 187.39b 0.9017a
Pili pulp oil (M. Orolfo variety) 69.10b 180.19c 0.5283b
Pili pulp oil (Orbase variety) 72.70b 179.89c 0.4783b
Means followed by the same letter in a column are not significantly different from each other by LSD at α=0.05
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Table 3. Fatty acid profile of different types of oil

Types of Oil
Fatty Acid Profile, %w/w Refined coconut Extra virgin olive Pili pulp oil Pili pulp oil

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oil oil (M. orolfo variety) (Orbase variety)
Caproic (C6) 0.543 ND ND ND
Caprylic(C8) 6.65 ND 0.046 ND
Capric (C10) 5.2 ND ND ND
Lauric (C12) 46.9 0.092 0.127 0.078
Myristic (C14) 19.9 0.025 0.183 0.132
Myristoleic (C14:1) ND ND ND ND
Palmitic (C16) 9.67 10.5 25.6 19.4
Palmitoleic (C16:1) ND 0.96 5.61 2.76
Stearic (C18) 3.13 3.6 1.22 1.74
Oleic (C18:1) 6.34 77.9 58.1 71.5
Linoleic (C18:2) 1.61 5.81 7.8 3.96
Linolenic (C18:3) 0.027 0.552 1.23 0.349
Erucic (C22:1) ND 0.7 0.039 0.019
Legend: ND = None Detected
for a longer period since it is less prone to rancidity. oxygen.

The iodine value of pili pulp oil (M. Orolfo variety) Findings of Sahari et al. (2004) on the characteristics
is lower but very close to the values reported by of tea seed oil in comparison to olive oil are different
Llenaresas (1989). On the other hand, iodine value of pili from this study. The iodine value of tea seed oil was
pulp oil from Orbase variety lies in between the values significantly higher than olive oil, though the
obtained by Llenaresas (1989) and Pham and Dumandan saponification value of the two mentioned oils was
(2015). The former reported a value ranging from 70.2- similar to each other.
70.3 while the latter reported a value of 74.57. This
variation can be attributed to varying methods of oil Unsaponifiable matters are hydrophobic components
extraction and differences in variety among pili fruits. that are stable towards bases and do not volatilize at
100oC like sterols, hydrocarbons, alcohols, mineral oils,
Saponification number is the number of mg of KOH carotenoids and the like (Baltes, 1964). Percent
needed to neutralize and saponify the free and esterified unsaponifiable matter in pili pulp oil samples is
organic acids, respectively in one gram of fat or oils significantly higher than refined coconut oil but
(Baltes, 1964). It indirectly accounts the average significantly lower than extra virgin olive oil (Table 2).
molecular weight of the triglycerides of fat and oil The lower amount of unsaponifiable matter obtained
(Bockisch, 1998). Saponification number of different from refined coconut oil is attributed to the refinement
types of oil is shown in Table 2. Pili pulp oil samples process undergone by this oil. Bleaching, as part of oil
have significantly lower saponification number than refinement processes, removes a wide range of different
extra virgin olive oil and refined coconut oil. This impurities like pigments and some oxidation products.
indicates that there are more triglycerides, which consist Originally it was only used to reduce the oil color but
of fatty acids with longer carbon chain, present in pili nowadays, this step is done to get rid of or convert
pulp oil samples than that from the other two oils. When detrimental by-products to safe ones (Zschau, 2001). It
compared with other studies, saponification numbers of usually improved the quality of oil with respect to color,
pili pulp oil samples are higher than that reported by oxidative stability and initial and aged flavor (Mounts,
Pham and Dumandan (2015) which is equivalent to 178 1981). Moreover, lower amount of unsaponifiable
mg KOH/g and are within, though not equal to the range matters in pili pulp oil than in olive oil implies higher
of values (167-437 mg KOH/g) obtained by Llenaresas purity of the former than the latter.
(1989) from pili pulp oil extracted from different
varieties of pili fruits by different solvents. This implies The amount of unsaponifiable matter obtained from
that the method of oil extraction affects the fatty acid pili pulp oil samples (Table 2) is way lower than that
composition and as well as saponification number of oil. obtained by Pham and Dumandan (2015) and Llenaresas
Moreover, Llenaresas (1989) pointed out also that aside (1989). The former reported a mean value equivalent to
from extracting solvents, the extent of oxidation or 1.69% while the latter reported values ranging from
rancidity of oil also affects saponification value of pili 1.12% to 1.88% of unsaponifiable matters in pili pulp oil
pulp oil as carboxylic acids are produced when double samples while for the samples is 0.4783% - 0.5283%.
bonds present in fatty acids of oils are attacked by This result is attributed to the solvent used in the
isolation of unsaponifiable matters. For this study,

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hexane is used as extracting solvent in the determination Llenaresas (1989) reported a value from 69.4-80.6 for
of unsaponifiable matters while the other mentioned the percentage of oleic acid from different pulp oil
researchers use diethyl ether. Solvents that are samples from different varieties by different solvents.
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commonly used for the extraction of unsaponifiable

matters are diethyl ether and light petroleum. The latter A difference in the fatty acid profile is also observed
is usually preferred for vegetable oils because of the between the two pili pulp oil samples in Table 3. The
lesser tendency to form emulsions. However, in most of same result is reported by Llenaresas (1989) about the
the cases, noticeable variations are observed in the result fatty acid composition of two pulp oil samples extracted
with the use of the two solvents since the extraction with from Tree#2 and Mabunga variety of pili fruits by two
light petroleum is incomplete (Tous, 1964). This solvents. Llenaresas (1989) also reported that fatty acid
indicates that the use of light petroleum, in the majority composition of each pili pulp oil samples from two
of cases, yields to lower results of total unsaponifiable different varieties of pili also varies with the use of
matter than with the use of diethyl ether. different extracting solvents (petroleum ether and
chloroform-methanol). Abdolshahi et al. (2015)
Table 3 shows the fatty acid profile of different types determined the fatty acid composition of pistachio oil
of oil. Oleic acid is the predominant fatty acid present in extracted by two different conventional methods, Soxhlet
extra virgin olive oil and in both of the pili pulp oil extraction and maceration, each using four solvents with
samples while lauric acid for refined coconut oil. The different polarities (n-hexane, dichloromethane, ethyl
total amount of saturated fatty acids in refined coconut acetate and ethanol). Fatty acid profiles of pistachio oil
oil is 91.993% while 14.217%-27.176% in extra virgin were not affected by a different method of oil extraction
olive oil and both pili pulp oil samples. Meanwhile, the but their contents were significantly affected with
total amount of unsaturated fatty acids in the former is highest unsaturated fatty acid content (88.493%)
7.977% while 72.779%-85.922% in the latter. This obtained by Soxhlet extraction with ethyl acetate. This
supports the lower refractive index (1.455 at 25oC) and was generally due to high operational temperature,
iodine value (14.44) but higher saponification number solvent recycle and solvent/solute interaction. Tir et al.
(253.50) of the refined coconut oil as compared to (2012) found that fatty acids, sterols and tocopherols
1.4663-1.4674 refractive indices at 25oC, 69.10-83.62 extracted along with oil from Algerian sesame seeds vary
iodine values and 179.80-187.39 saponification numbers due to differences in solvent polarity, thus leading to
of the three other oils. variation in the quality of the extracted oil. Carvalho et
al. (2012) reported that fatty acid compositions
The second most predominant fatty acid in pili pulp significantly differ in sesame oils obtained by Soxhlet
oil samples and extra virgin olive oils is palmitic acid extraction using different solvents (ethanol and
while in refined coconut oil is myristic acid. Linoleic petroleum ether).
acid is the third most predominant fatty acid in pili pulp
oil samples and extra virgin olive oil while for refined Aguilera et al. (2005) also reported the effect of
coconut oil is palmitic acid. These findings are different environmental conditions on characteristics of virgin
from the one reported by Borchani et al. (2010) when olive oils. It was found that the characteristics of virgin
characteristics of sesame seeds and olive oils were olive oils from two cultivars (Frantoio and Leccino)
compared. Linoleic acid was reported as the second most grown in two different locations significantly differs.
predominant fatty acid in both oils, next to oleic acid. Oils had higher oleic acid content and higher stability
when the origin of its fruits are grown at higher altitude.
It is also observed that caprylic acid is the only fatty In the open, oils had higher linoleic acid content and
acid present in M. Orolfo variety that is not present in tocopherol content.
Orbase variety and extra virgin olive oil. Linolenic acid
is higher in M. Orolfo variety than that from Orbase 3.3 Quality characteristics
variety but stearic acid is higher in the latter than the
former. Erucic acid is the lowest fatty acid components The quality characteristics of different types of oil
in both of the pili oil samples, while myristic and are shown in Table 4. Significant differences exist
linolenic acid for extra virgin olive oil and refined among samples in terms of percent moisture and volatile
coconut oil, respectively. matter, peroxide value, acid value, vitamin A content and
vitamin E content.
Same results were obtained by Llenaresas (1989),
Colonel (1996), and Pham and Dumandan (2015), on the In terms of moisture, pili pulp oil samples do not
predominance of oleic acid in pili pulp samples studied. significantly differ from each other but both are
Colonel (1996) reported a value of 56.7%; Pham and significantly higher than the refined coconut and extra
Dumandan (2015) reported a value of 60.93%; virgin olive oil. Comparing with the Codex Standard, the

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Table 4. Quality characteristics of different types of oil

Quality Characteristics
Types of Oil Moisture and volatile Acid value, mg Peroxide value, meq. Vitamin A dl-α- tocopherol

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matters, % KOH/g fat peroxide/kg sample content, I.U. content, mg/kg
Refined coconut oil 0.0367b 0.27c 0.70d 41.22d 93.59a
Extra virgin olive oil 0.0400b 0.75a 10.38c 165.73b 2.76b
Pili pulp oil (M. Orolfo variety) 0.1000a 0.48b 13.50b 278.36a 125.85a
Pili pulp oil (Orbase variety) 0.0833a 0.43b 14.58a 123.00c 2.45b
Means followed by the same letter in a column are not significantly different from each other by LSD at α=0.05
moisture and volatile matter content of both of the pili Refined coconut oil sample obtained the lowest
pulp oil samples are within the maximum level of 0.2% peroxide value. According to Zschau (2001), bleaching
(Codex Alimentarius Commission, 1999). This implies removes products of oxidation. Also, refined coconut oil
that both of the pili pulp oil samples are in good quality is composed mostly of saturated fatty acid (Table 3)
and that the method used for its extraction is effective. unlike pili pulp oil samples and extra virgin olive oil.
Saturated fatty acids are less prone to oxidation than
Moisture is an important quality parameter for oils unsaturated ones (Sanders, 2003).
because it is one of the reactants in oil hydrolysis. Oil
hydrolysis yields free fatty acids which cause hydrolytic Akinoso et al. (2010) conducted a study on the effect
rancidity. Refined coconut oil in Table 4 has the lowest of moisture on the peroxide value of unrefined sesame
acid value because it has the lowest moisture content and oil. Results revealed that peroxide value increased with
because almost all of the non-fat components had been increasing moisture content. The same result was found
removed during refinement. However, pili pulp oil in this study. It is shown in Table 4 that moisture content
samples which have higher moisture content than extra of two pili pulp oil samples (with higher peroxide
virgin olive oil have lower acid value than the latter. values) is significantly higher than that of refined
Another factor which could affect acid value is the coconut oil and extra virgin olive oil.
method of extraction. Virgin oils are obtained by
pressing and application of heat while cold press oils are In terms of peroxide value, the Codex Standard for
obtained by pressing only. Aside from its reactants and refined coconut oil is up to 10 milliequivalents of active
enzymes, oil requires heat to hydrolyze. Thus, the oxygen per kilogram oil (Codex Alimentarius
application of heat during extraction causes the acid Commission, 2001a), for virgin olive oil, it is up to 20
value of the extra virgin oil sample to increase. Also, milliequivalents of active oxygen per kilogram (Codex
pressing of olive oils is not continuous, that filter mats Alimentarius Commission, 2001b), and for other oils not
could easily become contaminated which leads to the covered by other individual standards, it is up to 15
introduction of fermentation and oxidative defects into milliequivalents of active oxygen per kilogram oil
oils (Vossen, 2007). (Codex Alimentarius Commission, 1999). Therefore, it
can be implied that all of the four oil samples are still in
In terms of acid value, the Codex Standard for good quality.
refined coconut oil is up to 0.6 mg KOH/gram oil
(Codex Alimentarius Commission, 2001a), for virgin When the two pili pulp oil samples are compared, it
olive oil, it is up to 6.6 mg KOH/gram oil (Codex can be observed that the oil sample from M. Orolfo
Alimentarius Commission, 2001b), and for other oils not variety has a lower peroxide value than the other. This
covered by individual standards, it is up to 4.0 mg KOH/ can be explained by the higher amount of unsaponifiable
gram oil (Codex Alimentarius Commission, 1999). matters (Table 2) in M. Orolfo variety compared to the
Therefore, it can be implied that all of the four oil Orbase variety. Important natural antioxidants present in
samples are in good quality. oil like Vitamin A and Vitamin E are unsaponifiable. It
is shown in Table 4 that Vitamin A and Vitamin E
Peroxide value is one of the most important components of M. Orolfo are significantly higher than
properties for determining the level of fat deterioration. Orbase variety. Antioxidants help to reduce oxidation in
It shows the molar equivalent of oxygen, bound as oils. In fact, due to the high content of antioxidant, oils
peroxide, which is present in one kilogram fat (Baltes, with high initial peroxide value may have unpredictably
1964). longer shelf-life (Tsimidou et al., 2003). Thus, it can be
implied that M. Orolfo variety is less prone to oxidation
All of the four oil samples significantly differ among than oil from Orbase variety because of the higher
each other in terms of peroxide value (Table 4). Orbase amount of natural antioxidant (Vitamin A and E) it
fruit variety has the highest peroxide value, followed by contains. Sahari et al. (2004) also attributed to the
M. Orolfo variety and then by extra virgin olive oil. presence of carotenoids and antioxidant activity of tea

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 1944 Tugay et al. / Food Research 4 (6) (2020) 1937 - 1946

seed oil. Kamal-Eldin (2006) reported that the oxidative Helyes et al. (2012) reported that carotenoid content and
stability of vegetable oils is determined by fatty acid composition of tomato fruits were significantly affected
composition and presence of antioxidants, which are by varietal factors and water supply. Kotikova et al.
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generally tocopherols and other non-saponifiable (2007) found that carotenoid content in potato tubers was
components. Based on this finding, it is recommended significantly affected by maturity, year of cultivation and
that further study should be made to determine the effect variety.
of fatty acid composition and antioxidant content of pili
pulp oil from different varieties of pili fruits on its shelf- M. Orolfo variety has the highest α-tocopherol
life measured in terms of peroxide value. content that is not significantly different from that of
refined coconut oil. Presence of α-tocopherol in refined
Important antioxidants in oils, Vitamin A and E (as α coconut oil could mean that it is extracted from coconut
-tocopherol), are shown in Table 4. It can be observed meat with its testa. This claim is proven by Dia (2005).
from Table 4 that M. Orolfo variety has the highest In order to prove that α-tocopherol is present in coconut
Vitamin A content, followed by extra virgin olive oil, testa and not in coconut endosperm, the said author
Orbase variety and refined coconut oil, respectively. subjected both coconut testa and coconut milk to
Vitamin A present in refined coconut oil comes from Vitamin E analysis. Results of this investigation revealed
fortification done by the manufacturer. Its label declares that the former contains 732 µg tocopherol while the
that it contains around 61 I.U. of Vitamin A per gram oil. latter did not contain any.
However, a mean value of 41.22 I.U. of Vitamin A per
gram oil has been obtained from the analysis. On the other hand, both Orbase variety and extra
virgin olive oil have a significantly lower content of α-
The varying Vitamin A content between two pili tocopherol than the two other oils. The varying α-
pulp oil samples may be due to varietal differences in pili tocopherol content between two pili pulp oil samples
fruits. Oil from Orbase variety has significantly lower may be due to differences in pili fruit variety. Aside from
Vitamin A content than extra virgin olive oil while that variety, Aguilera (2005) reported that the tocopherol
one from M. Orolfo variety is significantly higher than content of virgin olive oil is affected by environmental
extra virgin olive oil. conditions. The said author reported that the tocopherol
content of virgin olive oil is lower when its fruit sources
The value of Vitamin A from two pili pulp oil were grown in higher altitude. Values of α-tocopherol
samples are way lower than that reported by Pham and content in two pili pulp oil samples are far lower than
Dumandan (2015). These authors reported a value of that reported by Pham and Dumandan (2015) which is
1417.9 µg of carotenoids or 1181.58 I.U. of Vitamin A 924 µg α-tocopherol per gram of pili pulp oil. Possible
per gram of pili pulp oil. This may be due to the reasons for this are different method used in the analysis
difference in the method used in the determination of the of the said component, method of oil extraction, varietal
said component, varietal differences of pili fruits and differences of pili fruits used in the study and sample
method of oil extraction. This study utilized the hexane storage time. Rastrelli et al. (2002) reported a 20% and
distillation method to determine the amount of 92% decrease in α-tocopherol content of olive oil after 2
unsaponifiable matters, wherein samples were refluxed months and 12 months, respectively of storage in the
for almost two hours. The refluxing process may have dark.
degraded some of the carotenoids in oil. Destruction of
carotenoids in crude palm oil increased with both
temperature and duration of exposure to heat (Fabien, et 4. Conclusion
al., 2014). Onyewu et al. (1986) heated 10 g β-carotene Characteristics of pili pulp oil samples from two
o
in glycerol at 210 C for 4 hrs, 1 hr, 15 mins, and 5 mins varieties of pili (M. Orolfo and Orbase) were determined
and results showed that at 210oC, degradation of β- for possible utilization into oil-based products. Physical
carotene was almost complete after 4 hrs and most of the characteristics of pulp oil samples from two different
nonvolatile products were viscous and yellow-brownish varieties of pili fruits vary from each other and from
in color. Less degradation was observed at shorter times commercially available oil samples, except for L* values
(1 hr, 15 mins, and 5 mins). Aside from variety, other of extra virgin olive and PPO from M. Orolfo. Chemical
factors that affect carotenoid content in plant food are characteristics of two pili pulp oil samples do not
genotype, season, geographic location, climate, stage of significantly vary from each other but both significantly
maturity and growing conditions (Kocher et al., 2014). vary from commercially available oil samples, except for
Aherne et al. (2009) reported that differences in type and refractive indices of the two PPO samples. Quality
geographical locations of tomato significantly affect its characteristics of two pili pulp oil samples significantly
carotenoid content and bioaccessibility. Meanwhile, vary from commercially available oil samples. There is

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 Tugay et al. / Food Research 4 (6) (2020) 1937 - 1946 1945

no significant difference between mean values of these DOST-V. Retrieved on July 28, 2013 from DOST-
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