General Mathematics

Quarter 2
Module for Week 5-8

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Lesson
Stocks and Bonds
1
Stocks and bonds - the heartbeat of the economy. Much of the world's business
activity would be impossible without stocks and bonds. But whether you trade on
the Philippine Stocks Exchange, financial terms can always be confusing. So, before
you invest in a stock or a bond, you need to know - what is the difference? And which
one should you choose?
Stocks and bonds are certificates that are sold to raise money for starting a new
company or for expanding an existing company. Stocks and bonds are also called
securities, and people who buy them are called investors.
STOCKS
Companies sell shares of ownership in their company to raise money to finance
operations, plan expansion, and so on. These ownership shares are called stocks.
The buyers of the stock (stockholders) receive stock certificates verifying the
number of shares of stocks they own. The two basic types of stocks are common
stock and preferred stock.
Common stockholders have voting rights. Preferred stockholders do not have voting
rights, but they receive preference over common stockholders in dividends
(payments from profit) and the company’s assets if the company goes bankrupt.
Stock Market provides an orderly trading place for stock wherein prices or market
value vary from day to day and within a day. Only stockbrokers who specialize in
work in the stock market are allowed to trade on the floor. The broker receives a
commission for the services of both buying and selling stocks.
BONDS
Sometimes companies raise money by selling bonds instead of stock. When you buy
a stock, you become a part-owner in the company. To raise money, companies may
not want to sell more stocks and thus dilute the ownership of their current stock
owners, so they sell bonds. A bond is a form of long-term investment issued by a
corporation or government where the purchaser becomes a creditor of the company.
It represents a promise from the company to pay the face amount to the bond owner
at a future date, along with interest payments at a stated rate. The company, state
or municipality that issues the bond is called the issuer.
The annual interest paid by the issuer to the lender (bond holder) on the bond is
referred to as the coupon. The coupon rate is the annual payout as percentage of
the bond’s par value. Bonds have two kinds of values. These are par value and market
value. The par value of the bond is the same as its face value while the market value
of a bond is the price at which the bond is being sold. It may be greater than or less
than the amount of the par value. If the market value is greater than the par value,
then the bond is selling at a premium. If the market value is less than the par value,
then the bond is selling at a discount.

Investors are always told to diversify their portfolios between stocks and bonds, but
what’s the difference between the two types of investments? Here's a look at the
difference between stocks and bonds on the most fundamental level.

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Lesson Different Markets for Stocks
2 and Bonds
Definition of Terms in Relation to stocks

Stocks – share in the ownership of a company

Dividend – share in the company’s profit
Dividend Per Share – ratio of the dividends to the number of shares
Stock Market – a place where stocks can be bought or sold. The stock market in the
Philippines is governed by the Philippine Stock Exchange (PSE).
Market Value – the current price of a stock at which it can be sold
Stock Yield Ratio – ratio of the annual dividend per share and the market value per
share. Also called current stock yield.
Par Value – the per share amount as stated on the company certificate. Unlike
market value, it is determined by the company and remains stable over time.

Stock valuation are considered to have high value if the stockholder gets higher
dividend at present and in the future, otherwise the stock is considered to have a low
value. The computation of the stock value is necessary in order to know if the stock
market value is cheap or expensive at a given time.
Example 1:
A certain financial institution declared a ₱ 30,000,000 dividend for the common
stocks. If there are a total of 700,000 shares of common stocks, how much is the
dividend per share?
Given: Total Dividend = ₱ 30,000,000.00

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Total Shares = 700,000
Find: Dividend per share
Solution:
Dividend per share = Total Dividend/Total Shares
= 30,000,000/700,000
= 42. 86
Therefore, the dividend per share is ₱ 42.86
Example 2:
A certain corporation declared a 3% dividend on a stock with a par value of ₱ 500.00
Mrs. Josefina Ragma owns 200 shares of stocks with a par value of ₱ 500.00 How
much is the dividend she received?
Given: Dividend percentage = 3%
Par Value = ₱ 500.00
Number of Shares = 200
Find: Dividend
Solution:
The dividend per share is: ₱ 500 x 0.03 = ₱15
Since there are 300 shares, the total dividend is: ₱15/share x 200 shares =
₱ 3,000.00
In summary,
Dividend = (Dividend Percentage) x (Par Value) x (No. of Shares)
= (0.03) (500) (200)
= 3,000
Thus, the dividend is ₱ 3,000.00

Example 3:
Corporation A, with a current market value of ₱ 52.00, give a dividend of ₱ 8.00 per
share of its common stock. Corporation B, with a current market value of ₱ 95.00,
give a dividend of ₱ 12.00 per share. Use the stock yield ratio to measure how much
dividends shareholders are getting in relation to the amount invested.
Solution.
Given: Corporation A:
Dividend per share = ₱ 8
Market Value = ₱ 52
Find: Stock yield ratio
Stock yield ratio = dividend per share/market value
=𝟖/𝟓𝟐
= 0.1538 = 15.38%
Given: Corporation B
Dividend per share = ₱ 12.00
Market Value = ₱ 95.00
Find: Stock yield ratio
Stock yield ratio = dividend per share/market value
= 12/95
= 0.1263 = 12.63%
Corporation A has a higher stock-yield-ratio than Corporation B. thus, each peso will
earn you more if you invest in corporation A than in corporation B. If all other things
are equal, then it is wiser to invest in Corporation A.
As example 3 shows, the stock yield ratio can be used to compare two or more
investments.

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Definition of Terms in Relation to stocks
Bond – interest-bearing security which promises to pay (1) stated amount of money
on the maturity date, and (2) regular interest payments called coupons.
Coupon – periodic interest payment that the bondholder receives during the time
between purchase date and maturity date; usually receive semi-annually.
Coupon Rate – the rate per coupon payment period; denoted by r.
Price of a bind – the price of the bond at purchase time; denoted by P.
Par Value or Face Value – the amount payable on the maturity date; denoted by F.
If P = F, the bond is purchase at par.
If P < F, the bond is purchased at a discount.
If P > F, the bond is purchased at premium.
Term of a Bond – fixed period of time (in years) at which the bond is redeemable as
stated in the bond certificate; number of years from the time of purchased to maturity
date.
Fair Price of a Bond – present value of all cash inflows to the bondholder.
Example 4: Determine the amount of the semi-annual coupon for a bond with a face
value of ₱300,000.00 that pays 10% payable semi-annual for its coupon.
Given: Face Value F = 300,000
Coupon Rate = 10%
Find: Amount of the semi-annual coupon
Solution:
Annual Coupon amount: 300,000(0.10) = 30,000
Semi-Annual Coupon Amount: 30,000 (12) = 15,000
Thus, the amount of semi-annual coupon is ₱ 15,000.00
Note: The coupon rate is used only for computing the coupon amount, usually paid
semi-annually. It is not the rate at which money grows. Instead current market
conditions are reflected by the market rate, and it will be used to compute the present
value of future payments.
Example 5:
Find the value of a ₱ 20,000.00 bond with interest of 14% compounded semi-
annually which is redeemable at 108% in 5 years that yields the purchaser 6%
converted semi-annually.
Solution:
Finding the purchase price of the bond requires us to determine first the coupon
payment and the redemption value of the bond. Using the information given in the
problem, substitute the values to the respective formulas. Thus, we have

Therefore, the investor who pays ₱28,014.71 is investing the money.

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 ACTIVITY SHEET 5

Written Work # 5

Multiple Choice. Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a
separate sheet of paper.
1. What is another term for stock?
a. bond c. debt instrument
b. debenture d. equity instrument
2. It is a type of stock for which stockholders get first choice in distributed profits.
a. common stock c. face value stock
b. stock market d. preferred stock
3. Another term for a bond’s face value.
a. par value b. maturity
b. coupon d. final payment
4. A bond that pays all of its interest and principal at the bond’s maturity date.
a. bond fund c. coupon bond
b. par-value fund d. zero-coupon bond
5. Which financial assets carries the most risk?
a. bond c. savings deposits
b. stock d. checking deposits

6. The periodic interest payment that the bondholder receives during the time.
a. Coupon Amount b. Coupon Rate
c. Face Value d. Market Value
7. It is the rate per coupon payment period; denoted by r.
a. Coupon Amount b. Coupon Rate
c. Face Value d. Market Value
8. It is the interest rate the bond issuer will use in computing the interest payment,
usually expressed in percent.
a. Coupon Date b. Dividend
c. Dividend Rate d. Maturity Date
9. It is the ratio of the annual dividend per share and the market value per share.
a. Coupon Amount b. Dividend Rate
c. Market Value d. Stock yield ratio
10. A bank declared a dividend of ₱ 35.00 per share for the common stock. If the
common stock closes at ₱ 98.00, how large is the stock yield ratio on this
investment?
a. 0.36 b. 0.39 c. 0.63 d. 0.66

Performance Task # 5
A. Let ME Decide!
Read and analyze each scenario and decide which one is the better choice by solving
and applying the knowledge in stocks and bonds. Explain your answer.
Scenario 1.
Your grandparents gave you ₱ 175,000.00 on your 16th birthday. You were
instructed to invest the money so that the earnings can be used to pay for your
tuition fee in college. Having heard about the risks and rewards of the stock market

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 from your parents, you become interested in buying stocks in a particular company.
Below are the options given to you by your parents:
Option1: Company ABC’s selling stock is ₱ 1,500.00 per share that will have a
dividend of ₱ 200.00 per year. The stock can be sold after two years at ₱2,000.00
and the market requires a rate of return of 15%.
Option2: Company XYZ’s selling stock is ₱ 1,000.00 per share that will have a
dividend of ₱ 180.00 per year. The stock can be sold after two years at ₱2,000.00
and the market requires a rate of return of 7%.

In which company will you invest your money? Why?

__________________________________________________________________________________
Scenario 2.
Suppose that you withdraw ₱ 1,500.00 from your savings account. Over the
weekend, several people want to borrow money from you. Read the stories and decide
to whom you will lend your money.
Story1. Your younger sister is having a garage sale. She needs cash to make change
for the day. She will sell you a bond for ₱ 1,000.00 You will keep the bond for a week,
and she promises to pay you back.

Story2. Your older brother has a small business idea but doesn’t have any money.
He wants to borrow your ₱ 1,500.00 and promises to pay you back ₱ 1,800.00 in
four weeks.

Story3. Your best friend at school, whom you know very-well, wants to borrow your
₱ 1,500.00 to buy cupcakes. She plans to sell at a higher price and promises to pay
you back ₱1,700.00 in two weeks.

Whose bonds will you buy? Why?

__________________________________________________________________________________

B. The Artist in ME!

Stocks and bonds are efficient ways to help businesses grow. For businesses,
alternative ways to raise money for growth, such as saving and reinvesting its profits,
can take a very long time. Create a poster showing the importance of stocks and
bonds for you as an individual, for the community and for the nation.

Lesson Business and Consumer

3 Loans
According to Max of the movie The Adventures of Sharkboy and Lavagirl, “Dream a
better dream, then work to make it real”. If you have a big dream, you should have
an extra bigger persistence to achieve that dream. If you want to buy something big
and expensive, you have to save for it. If you want a car, a house, or if you want to
start your own business, you have to deal with it diligently. Right?

But in this world of modern business, you have the option to achieve these dreams
or buy what you want instantly. By just paying a certain amount at a certain period
and interest, you can have the money. Yes, you are right, we can apply for loans.

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Read the story of two best friends and analyze their situation.

Best Friends Forever

Bessy and Conny are childhood best friends since elementary. Even their parents
are also friends and treated each other as family. The two girls went to same school
up to college but of different courses. Conny took up Architecture while Bessy got
into Business Administration. But even though they were not in the same college,
they see to it that they still have time to each other especially at times that they
need someone to lean on and a shoulder to cry on.
Because of their dedication, hard work and innate intelligence, there is no doubt
that both of them graduated as Cum Laude. Bessy and Conny have big dreams.
They are dreaming not only for themselves but for their family. The Filipino culture
of close family ties was very evident among them.
One day, after graduation Bessy and Conny talk to each other and discuss their
plans.
“Hi sister, how are you today” Bessy said.
“I’m good sister, how about you? Conny asked.
“I’m also fine sis” Bessy said.
“So, what’s our plan sis? Now that we graduated from college, it’s our turn to help
our family”, Conny said.
“Yeah, I am planning to expand our family business so that I could practice my
degree at the same time I could help my parents” Bessy said.
“That’s a good plan. Well, I also want to practice my degree in Architecture. That’s
why I want to build a new house for my family. I want to give my parents their
dream house” Conny replied.
“We really have big dreams sis, but we are just starting, how can we do that?”
Bessy asked.
“Well, my uncle is working at North-South bank and they offer loans that we can
pay while working with our plans.” Conny explained.
“I think that is a good idea sis. We will be working hard to make a good payment
for that loan at the same time we could start with what we are dreaming of.”
Bessy said.
The next morning, Bessy and Conny went to the bank to apply for their loans.
After talking to the bank manager, accomplishing all the forms and submitting all
the requirements, their loans were approved.
“How is your application sis?” Bessy asked.
“It’s okay, they asked me for a collateral, and I submitted an income tax return
and a bank statement. Then they give me 10 years as the term of my loan at 6.5%
annual interest” Conny explained.
“Hmm, I see. Well, I was also asked for a collateral, so I gave the title of our house.
They also require the owners of our business who happened to be my parents as
guarantors. I was also asked to submit credit report, income tax returns and our
business’ financial statement. They only give me 5 years to pay my loan at 10%
interest rate.” Bessy also explained.
Even though they applied for different loans, good thing that it was both approved.
And the two promised to make the best out of the money lent to them to start their
dreams.

The story of Bessy and Conny aside from it’s a story of best friends, it is also a story
of two different kinds of loans - the business loan and consumer loan.
A business loan is what Bessy applied for. A business loan is money lent specifically
for a business purpose. It may be used to start a business or to have a business
expansion. The business loan includes microloans, invoice financing, mezzanine

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financing, bank loans, asset-based financing, cash flow loans, as well as business
cash advances. On the other hand, Conny applied for a consumer loan which is
money lent to an individual for personal or family purposes. Consumer loan includes
credit cards, mortgages, home equity lines of credit, refinances, auto loans, student
loans, as well as personal loans.
While reading the story, you also encountered the following terms:
• Collateral – assets used to secure the loan. It may be real estate or other
investments
• Term of the loan – time to pay the entire loan
• Guarantor – a person who guarantees to pay for someone else’s financial
obligation if the borrowers fail to do so.
Business Loan versus Consumer Loan

Examples:
1. Andrea, a hardworking transwoman who recently finished her short course on
hair and makeup is planning to put up her small salon. She was advised by her
friends to apply for a bank loan. Which loan will she apply? A business loan or a
consumer loan?

Answer: Andrea needs a business loan since she is planning to use the
money to start her salon business.
2. Mr. Zion is an environmentalist who is planning to conduct a mangrove planting
at Brgy. Barra. He wants to cover all the expenses for this activity, but he realized
that his money is not enough. So, he needs to borrow money to finance his advocacy.
Is he going to apply for a business loan or a consumer loan?

Answer: Mr. Zion will apply for a consumer loan since the money that he
will borrow is for the finances of his activity.

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Lesson Solving Problems on Business
4 and Consumer Loans
Most people think about the security and comfort of their families. This
security and comfort include the provision of a house and in case of a far workplace
by having a personal car or motorcycle. However, a large amount of money is needed
to buy them in straight cash. Recently, the government implemented a program
called the Balik-Probinsya, Balik-Pag-asa program that will provide resources for
those who will be coming back to provinces from Manila to start a new life. This may
mean having something to provide for the stability of a family such as a house or
maybe a motorcycle in less amount. A house to provide for the family shelter while a
motorcycle may be necessary as a means of transportation to report to work. But
despite the help the government may provide, this still seems difficult to have if you
have no cash on hand. So, you will resort to what we call a loan.
A loan is something borrowed, especially a certain amount, that you are
obligated to pay fully at a certain period with interest. So, for instance a bank may
lend you a capital of ₱500,000.00 for your intended business but you must pay it
fully at a certain period of time for instance in 3 years with 12% interest per annum.
The following examples will help you with amortization and mortgage. But before
that, let us learn some terms which can guide you as you study this module:
• Amortization - it is the process of paying off debt with regular payments made
over time.
• Mortgage - it is a loan from a bank or other financial institutions that help a
borrower purchase a home or a car.
• Mortgagor - is the one who borrows a mortgage.
• Mortgagee - is the one who lends a mortgage.
• Collaterals - are assets that can secure a loan.
• Fixed-rate mortgage - a type of mortgage where interest remains constant
• Obligation - it is what parties may do under a contract or terms of agreement.
• Outstanding balance - any remaining debt at a specified time.

Example 1
Mario came from a poor family. His parents have no stable jobs. But due to Mario’s
determination, he excelled and was able to graduate college. After being permanent
for 2 years in his work, Mario dreamt of providing a simple and decent shelter for
his family. He went to the bank and applied for ₱1,000,000.00 loan. The bank
approved his application with the following terms: 10% down payment, 12% total
interest, and must be paid in full after 5 years.
a. How much is his mortgaged amount?
b. How much should he have paid after 5 years?
Solution:
(a) Down payment = (down payment rate) x (amount of loan applied)

= (0.10) (1,000,000)
= 100,000
Thus,
Mortgaged amount = (amount of loan applied) – (down payment)
= 1,000,000 – 100,000
= 900,000

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Therefore, Mario should have paid ₱1,586,108 after 5 years.

Example 2
Cathy finished Senior High School in her hometown. She took a TVL strand in
dressmaking, However, because of financial incapacity, she was not able to continue
in college. She decided to help her mother in their small business of dressmaking.
Their business increased in production due to her hard work. Subsequently, Cathy
decided to venture on a larger scale and wished to export their Filipiniana-style
products. But this would need a bigger capital. So, she decides to go to a financing
institution, Phiram Inc., to borrow ₱500,000.00. If her monthly payment is
₱12,000.00 on a 5-year mortgage, how much is the total amount of interest?
Solution:
Given P = 500,000, monthly payment = 15,000
Total Amount = (12,000) (12 months) (5 years) = 720,000
Total Amount of Interest = Total Amount – Amount of mortgage
= 720,000 – 500,000 = 220,000
Therefore, the total amount of interest is ₱220,000.00
Example 3
During his STEM high school years, Albert was fond of experimenting on RC motors.
In his engineering years in college, he creatively thought of experimenting about
perpetual motion that could provide energy to machines. However, he was short of
finances to start this project which is primarily Filipino-made. AG Resibo Company
approached Albert and offered to lend him a capital of ₱2,000,000.00 to be paid in 5
years with 10% monthly interest. Moreover, there is an outright deduction of 100,000
from his applied loan.
(a) How much is his monthly payment?
Solution:

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 ACTIVITY SHEET 6

Written Work # 6
A. Identify whether the following illustrates a business loan or a consumer loan.
Write BL if the situation shows business loan and CL if it states a consumer loan.
____1. Mr. MJ Manuel plans to have a barbershop. He wants to borrow some money
from the bank for him to buy the equipment and furniture for the
barbershop.
____2. Dan Anjelo is planning to take up Engineering as her college course. To
support her, Mr. And Mrs. Alvar, her parents, borrowed money from the bank for her
financial needs.
____3. Because of his love for our country, Mr. Manalastas always conduct an
Independence Day presentation to his barangay. But because of COVID - 19, he got
a problem with his business and need extra money to finance his advocacy. He
realized that he needs to borrow money from the bank to continue his annual
Independence Day activity.
____4. Mr. Daliva wants to have some improvements on their 100-year old ancestral
house in Sariaya, Quezon which was also identified as a historical house in the
province. He wants to repair the ceiling in preparation for the rainy season. He will
borrow some money from the bank to finance this plan.
____5. Mr. Rollie Valdez owns the Kakanin food cart business. He wants to out
another food cart on a new mall in Tayabas City. He decided to have a loan amounting
to ₱100,000.00 to establish the new business.
____6. In preparation for the online learning of her children due to the COVID-19
pandemic, Mrs. Macaraeg decided to buy laptops for them and got an internet
connection. But because of short in budget, she needed to borrow money amounting
to ₱80,000.00 for this school preparation.
____7. Instead of working as a Manager in a certain company, Mr. Lester Vic Pascua
decided to leave his job and put up an internet cafe instead. To finance his business,
he borrowed money from a Kabayan Bank.
____8. Because Shiela believed that Filipinos are truly honest, she decided to put up
an Honesty Bookstore in front of Excellence National High School. Everyone can get
what they need and pay for it without anyone in the cashier. But before she can own
this shop, she borrowed ₱1,000,000.00 from the bank to finance the expenses in
putting up this bookstore.
____9. Leslie excelled in Science and even won various competitions relative to
Applied Science. At the back of her achievements are her supportive parents. Before
she invented the COVID-19 scanning robot, her parents need to finance her project
with a big amount. Because her parents believed in her, they even borrowed money
from the bank just for her to finish her invention.
____10. Doan Joy really loves her family. They supported her in all of her endeavors.
As return of gratitude, she promised them that they will make a tour of great places
in the world. To realize her promise, and to help her finance their tour, she applied
for a personal loan amounting to ₱200,000.00 to Bank XY.

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 B. Using the Venn Diagram, write words or statements that will compare
business from consumer loans.

Performance Task # 6
Read each problem carefully and answer each question to solve the problem
1. A business loan worth ₱500,000.00 is to be repaid in quarterly installment in 3
years. How much is the quarterly payment if money is worth 10% converted
quarterly?
2. A newly married couple decided to buy a brand-new car. The net amount of the
loan is ₱800,000.00. They plan to amortize the loan un monthly installment for 3
years, if money is worth 12% convertible monthly, how much is the monthly
installment
3. AJ Raval decided to venture in an online business and decided to go to a financing
institution to borrow ₱50,000.00. If her monthly payment is ₱1,500.00 on a 5-year
mortgage, how much is the total amount of interest?
4. PC Yaw Inc. approached Aljur and offered to lend him a capital for his computer
business amounting to ₱300,000.00 to be paid in 3 years with 12% monthly interest.
How much would be is his monthly payment?

Lesson
5 LOGIC: Propositions
Math involves logic. There is logic in performing mathematical operations, in
playing chess, in making decisions, in communicating with peers and in many other
activities that we do. Actually, we may be using the principles and concepts of logic
in our daily tasks which may be unknowing to us sometimes. That is how the study
of logic may be significant to everybody.

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Proposition Defined
A Proposition is a declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not
both. A true proposition has a truth value of “true”, otherwise, its truth value is
“false”. Oftentimes, a small letter is used to denote a proposition. That is, the
proposition
a: It is getting clearer. may be read as a is the proposition “It is getting clearer.”.
Moreover, a sequence of propositions may be denoted by 𝑝1,𝑝2,𝑝3, …
Examples
Determine if each sentence is a proposition or not. If it is, give its truth value.
a: Grounding is beneficial to a person.
b: Forgive and forget.
c: Happy birthday!
d: There is no stronger than the heart of a volunteer.
p: 3! = 6/2
q: Never mind, I am just joking.
𝑝1: If an individual is great, then there is a teacher behind.
𝑝2: Either a person saves before spending, or one spends before saving.
𝑝3: It is not shame to greet the utility worker the same way as with the
school principal.
𝑝4: If a person is disabled, then he/ she is entitled to obtain a PWD ID,
and if a person is entitled to obtain a PWD ID, then he/she is disabled.
Solution
a: It is a declarative sentence that may either be true or false, so it is a
proposition. And, since research says it’s true, then its truth value is true.
b: It is an imperative sentence. Hence, it is not a proposition.
c: It is an exclamatory sentence which makes it not a proposition also.
d: It is a declarative sentence that may either be true or false. It is a
proposition. Most especially in cases of front liners, this is true. Otherwise proven to
be wrong, then it is false in that specific instance.
p: Translated to the verbal statement, this mathematical sentence is “three
factorials is equal to six divided by two”. It is a declarative sentence, so it is a
proposition. Meanwhile, since 3! = 6 and 6/2 = 3, then the proposition is false.

q: It is a declarative sentence,but be cautious. Notice that the statement

cannot be true nor false. If the statement is true, it cannot be because the speaker
is telling a joke. If it is false, it cannot be either because the person is speaking the
truth. Hence, it is not a proposition.

𝑝1: It is a declarative sentence that may either be correct or not. It is therefore

a proposition. Every great person the world has known has a patient teacher or
coach, acknowledged or not, hence the proposition is true.

𝑝2: It is a declarative sentence that may either be true or false which tells us
that it is a proposition. It is especially true if one earns money. It may be false if there
is none to spend or save.

𝑝3: It is a declarative sentence that is absolutely true. Thus, it is a proposition.

𝑝4: It is a declarative sentence which by law is true. It is a proposition.

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Lesson Simple and Compound
6 Propositions
Simple and Compound Propositions Defined
A Simple Proposition is a proposition that cannot be broken down into
more than one proposition. Otherwise, it is a Compound Proposition. The latter is
a proposition that is formed by joining simple propositions using logical
connectors. Given propositions p and/or q, some logical connectors may be
expressed in terms of the following:
not p
p and q
p or q
If p, then q
Example 1
In the previous module, we have understood that the following are propositions.
This time let us identify each of these as simple or compound proposition.
a: Grounding is beneficial to a person.
d: There is no stronger than the heart of a volunteer.
p: 3! = 6/2
𝑝1: If an individual is great, then there is a teacher behind.
𝑝2: Either a person saves before spending, or one spends before saving.
𝑝3: It is not a shame to greet the utility worker the same way as with
the school principal.
𝑝4: If a person is disabled, then he/ she is entitled to obtain a PWD ID,
and if a person is entitled to obtain a PWD ID, then he/ she is
disabled.
Solution:
Notice that among the propositions above, propositions a, d and p are made up of
one declarative sentence each, while propositions 𝑝1, 𝑝2, 𝑝3 and 𝑝4 are composed of
more than one declarative sentence.
This informs us that propositions a, d and p are all simple propositions, while
propositions 𝑝1, 𝑝2, 𝑝3 and 𝑝4 are compound propositions.

Example 2
Identify the simple components of the compound propositions in Example 1 and the
corresponding symbols using the logical connectors used.

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 Lesson
7
Logical Operators
Just like with integers, fractions, rational expressions, polynomials,
exponential functions and the many other types of functions, there are operations
involved in propositions

Logical Operators Enumerated

Let us consider logical connectors we join with propositions. In this part, we
shall deal with logical operators.
Logical operators include negation, conjunction, disjunction, conditional and
biconditional.

Negation Defined
The Negation of a proposition p is denoted by ~p which is read as “not p”, and
is defined through its truth table

Example 1
State the negation of each of the following propositions.
𝑛1: Quality determines the price.
𝑛2: A learned is one who is educated.
𝑛3: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥2 is a cubic function.
𝑛4: An obtuse angle measures 180𝑜.
𝑛5: A curve is the shortest distance between two points.
Solution:
~𝑛1: It is not true that quality determines the price or ~𝑛1: Quality does not
determine the price.
~𝑛2: A learned is not one who is educated.
~𝑛3: 𝑓(𝑥)= 𝑥2 is not a cubic function or ~𝑛3: It is not true that f(x) = x2 is a cubic
function.
~𝑛4: An obtuse angle does not measure 180𝑜 or ~𝑛4: An obtuse angle measures greater
than 180𝑜 .
~𝑛5: A curve is not the shortest distance between two points

Conjunction Defined
Another logical operator is Conjunction of the propositions p and q which is denoted
by 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 and read as “p and q”, and is defined through its truth table
Proposition p and q are called Conjuncts.
The conjunction 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 is true only when both
conjuncts p and q are true.
Example 2
Let d and e be propositions.
d: Leniency is long-suffering.
e: Those who misunderstand it abuse it.
Express the conjunctions below in verbal sentences or in symbols.
1. 𝑑 ∧ 𝑒
2. ~𝑑 ∧ 𝑒
3. “Leniency is long suffering and it is not true that those who misunderstand it
abuse it.”

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4. “Leniency is not long suffering and those who misunderstand it do not abuse it.”

Answers:
1. Leniency is long-suffering and those who misunderstand it abuse it.
2. Leniency is not long-suffering and those who misunderstand it abuse it.
3. 𝑑 ∧ (~𝑒)
4. ~𝑑 ∧ (~𝑒)

Example 3
Let r, s and t be propositions.
r: There is a profit in physical exercise.
s: It is best to exercise holiness.
t: A person must be holistically fit.
Express the conjunctions below in verbal sentences or in symbols.
1. There is a profit in physical exercise, and it is best to exercise holiness.
2. There is no profit in physical exercise and a person must be holistically fit.
3. 𝑟 ∧~𝑡
4. ~𝑟 ∧ 𝑠

Answers:
1. 𝑟 ∧ 𝑠
2. ~𝑟 ∧ 𝑡
3. There is a profit in physical exercise, and it is not true that a person must be
holistically fit.
4. There is no profit in physical exercise, and it is best to exercise holiness.

Disjunction Defined
Negation and conjunction do not suffice logic. There are logical statements that
connote the disjunction of propositions. The Disjunction of propositions p and q is
denoted by 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 which read as “𝑝 𝑜𝑟 𝑞”, and defined through its truth table

Propositions p and q are each called Disjuncts. The disjunction 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 is false only
when both disjuncts p and q are false.

Example 4
Let t, u and y be propositions.
t: He is an old soul.
u: Old songs soothe his ears.
y: Old fashion is inviting to his eyes.
Express the disjunctions below in verbal sentences or in symbols.
1. 𝑢 ∨ 𝑦
2. (~𝑡 ^ (~𝑢)) ∨ 𝑦
3. “Either he is an old soul or old songs soothe his ears and old fashion is inviting
to his eyes.”

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4. “He is not an old soul and either old fashion is not inviting to his eyes or old
songs soothe his ears.”

Answers:
1. Old songs soothe his ears or old fashion is inviting to his eyes.
2. Either he is not an old soul and old songs do not soothe his ears or old fashion is
inviting to his eyes.
3. 𝑡 ∨ (𝑢 ∧ 𝑦)
4. ~𝑡 ∧ (~𝑦 ∨ 𝑢)

Example 5
Let j, k, l and m be propositions.
j: Laughter is the best medicine.
k: Grief causes illness.
l: Prayer relieves pain.
m: God takes charge of worries.
Express the disjunctions below in verbal sentences or in symbols.
1. It is either God takes charge of worries and laughter is the best medicine or
prayer relieves pain.
2. Laughter is not the best medicine and God takes charge of worries or prayer
relieves pain.
3. 𝑗 ∨ 𝑙
4. (𝑗 ∧ 𝑘)∨(𝑙∧𝑚)
5. (~𝑘 ∧~𝑗)∨(𝑙∧𝑚)

Answers:
1. (𝑚∧𝑗) ∨ 𝑙
2. ~𝑗∧𝑚∨𝑙
3. Laughter is the best medicine or prayer relieves pain.
4. It is either laughter is the best medicine and grief causes illness or prayer
relieves pain and God takes charge of worries.
5. Either grief does not cause illness and laughter is not the best medicine or
prayer relieves pain and God takes charge of worries.

Conditional Defined
Another common kind of logical propositions includes conditional. The Conditional
of propositions p and q is denoted by 𝑝 → 𝑞 which read as “if p, then q” or “p implies
q”, and defined through its truth table

Proposition p is called a Hypothesis, while proposition q is called Conclusion.

Example 6
Let x, y and z be propositions.
x: Dioxins are found almost everywhere.
y: Plastics, bleached paper and most commodities contain the chemical dioxin.
z: Dioxins are culprits to many diseases.
Express the conditionals below in verbal sentences or in symbols, as the case may
be.

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1. 𝑥 → 𝑧
2. (~𝑦) → (~𝑥 ∧ ~𝑧)
3. “If dioxins are culprits to many diseases, then they are found almost everywhere
and plastics, bleached paper and most commodities contain this chemical.”
4. “If dioxins are not found almost everywhere, then it is not true that either plastics,
bleached paper and most commodities containing this chemical, or dioxins are the
culprits to many diseases.”

Answers:
1. If dioxins are found almost everywhere, then they are culprits to many diseases.
2. If plastics, bleached paper and most commodities do not contain the chemical
dioxin, then it is not true that dioxins are found almost everywhere and it is not true
that dioxins are a culprit to many diseases.
3. 𝑧 → (𝑥 ∧ 𝑦)
4. (~𝑥) →~(𝑦 ∨ 𝑧)

Example 7
Let f, g and h be propositions.
f: Parabens are harmful to the body.
g: Parabens are found in many products we use.
h: Parabens can affect health.
Express the conditionals below in verbal sentences or in symbols, as the case may
be.
1. 𝑓 →ℎ
2. (~𝑔∧∼𝑓) → (~ℎ)
3. If parabens are harmful to the body and are found in many products we use,
then they can affect health.
4. If parabens cannot affect health or they are not found in many products we use,
then they are not harmful to the body.

Answers:
1. If parabens are harmful to the body, then they can affect health.
2. If parabens are not found in many products we use and if they are not harmful
to the body, then parabens cannot affect health.
3. (𝑓 ∧𝑔)→ℎ
4. (~ℎ∨∼𝑔) →~𝑓

Biconditional Defined
The last logical proposition that we shall consider is Biconditional. This is denoted
by “𝑝 𝑞” or “p iff q” given propositions or Components p and q and it is read as
“p if and only f q”, and defined through its truth table

Example 8
Let g, h and i be propositions.
g: Only physically handicapped individuals can be
called persons with disabilities.
h: Psychosocially disabled persons like those with chronic illnesses can also avail
PWD ID.
i: There are numerous benefits which come along with owning a PWD ID.
j: Knowledge of the wide extent of who a PWD has yet to be spread.

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Express the biconditionals below in verbal sentences or in symbols.
1. (~𝑔 ↔ ℎ) ∧ (𝑗 → 𝑖)
2. (𝑔 ∧ (~ℎ)) ↔ (~𝑗)
3. “Knowledge of the wide extent of who a PWD is has yet to be spread if and only if
not only physically handicapped individuals can be called persons with disability.”
Answers:
1. Not only physically handicapped individuals can be called persons with disability
if and only if psychosocially disabled persons like those with chronic illnesses can
also avail PWD ID, and if knowledge on the wide extent of who a PWD has yet to be
spread, then there are numerous benefits which come along with owning a PWD
ID.
2. Only physically handicapped individuals can be called persons with disabilities
and psychosocially disabled persons like those with chronic illnesses cannot avail
PWD ID if and only if it is not true that knowledge on the wide extent of who a PWD
is has yet to be spread.
3. 𝑗 ↔ (~𝑔)

ACTIVITY SHEET 7

Written Work # 7

A. Consider the following sentences. Write P if it is a proposition, and NP if not.

1. a: The largest continent is Asia.
2. b: Do I need to wash my hands regularly?
3. c: Occipital is the part of our brain responsible for vision so we have

to be sure that it is taken care of.

4. d: Happy Birthday, Inay Baby!
5. e: The longest bone in the body is the femur.

B. Tell whether each of the propositions below is True or False.

6. f: There are 10 years in a decade and 100 years in a century.
7. g: One of the primary colors is yellow.
8. h: Twenty-five is ¼ of a hundred.
9. i: You will get 15 when you subtract 30 from 50.
10. j: Fish is rich in protein and Vitamin D helps the body effectively absorb
Calcium.

C. Write SP, CP, or N if it is a simple proposition, compound proposition or not a

proposition, respectively. Furthermore, identify the logical connector/s used if it is a
compound proposition.
_______________ 1. If bad company ruins good morals, then one should be mindful in
choosing friends.
_______________ 2. Essential oils do not expire.
_______________ 3. Ponder on the sacrifices of your parents.
_______________ 4. If you study hard, then you will have good grades.
_______________ 5. Have you thought of the sick when you are spending too much?
_______________ 6. In tossing a fair coin once you may get a head or a tail.

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_______________ 7. There is wisdom in spending for needs and it makes sense to think
at least twice before giving in for wants.
_______________ 8. Two lines are parallel if and only if they are coplanar and do not
intersect.
_______________ 9. Study hard and rest well.
_______________ 10. Camber is not telling the truth.
Performance Task # 7
A. Let a, b, c and d be propositions.
a: You are what you eat.
b: Your food can describe your health.
c: By nature, human is designed to eat meat.
d: A person should eat healthy food.

Express the following logical symbols into verbal sentences.

1. (~𝑐)∧(𝑏↔𝑎)
2. (𝑎 ∨ 𝑏)→𝑑
3. ~𝑑↔(~𝑎∧~𝑏)

B. Among the topics listed below, choose one and write a discussion about it. Use
propositions with logical operators to surely add emphasis to important details. Write
your answer in a separate sheet of paper.
a. Combining Fractions (Addition and Subtraction of Fractions)
b. Multiplication of Fractions
c. Division of Fractions
d. Combining Integers
e. Multiplication and Division of Integers
f. Factoring
g. Simplifying Rational Expressions
h. Combining Rational Expressions
i. Multiplication of Rational Expressions
j. Division of Rational Expressions
k. Solving an Equation
l. Solving an Inequality

Lesson
8
Truth Values of Propositions
Aside from performing operations on propositions, determining their truth
values is also possible. Given some truth values of its component propositions, the
truth value of a compound proposition may be known. The truth table will
systematically guide you to determine the truth value of a compound proposition.
In the first place, logical operators may be defined by using truth tables. Truth values
of compound propositions will be built on these.

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Truth Value and Truth Table Defined
Every proposition has two possible truth values. That is, the truth value of a
proposition, be it simple or compound, is either true or false. The TRUTH VALUE,
therefore, refers to the truthfulness of a proposition that may either be true or false.
These can be represented in tabular form. The table that shows the complete possible
truth values of a proposition is called TRUTH TABLE.
A proposition p has the following truth table:
It follows
A Suppose we are therefore
proposition given two that if
p has the propositions p and there are
following q. Since there are three
truth table: four possible propositi
combinations of ons p, q
truth values (TT, and r for
TF, FT, FF), then example,
their truth table is: their
truth
table is:

How many possible combinations of truth values do we have if there are three
propositions? Can you name them? Notice that the number of truth-value
combinations increases geometrically as the number of propositions increase. That
is, there are 21 = 2, 22 = 4, 23 = 8 and 24 = 16 such combinations if there are 1, 2, 3
and 4 propositions, respectively. How many truth value combinations shall we expect
if there are n propositions?

Example 1
Suppose p and q are both false propositions and r is a true proposition. Determine
the truth value of (𝑝 ∧ (~𝑞))∧(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞). Show its truth table.
Solution:
Since p is false, then its conjunction with another conjunct is false. The conjunct p
^ (~q) being false makes the whole conjunction (𝑝 ∧ (~𝑞)) ∧ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) false.
The truth table of (p ^ (~q)) ^ (p ^ q) is as follows:

Moreover, notice that the proposition (𝑝 ∧ (~𝑞)) ∧ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) is always false. Such a

proposition is called CONTRADICTION. Other resources call it a FALLACY. It is
denoted by ∅.

Example 2
Given the statement “A diabetic either takes conventional drugs, natural
medicine or both”, determine the truth value of 𝑝 ∨ (~𝑞 ∧ 𝑟) in each scenario. Let p: A
diabetic takes conventional drugs. Let q: A diabetic takes natural medicine. And, r:
A diabetic takes both conventional and natural medicines.
Scenario A: Patient A only eats leaves of her insulin plant to control his sugar level.

22 | P a g e
Scenario B: Patient B consults his conventional doctor and buys diligently the
prescribed conventional drugs.
Scenario C: Patient C supplements conventional drugs with natural medicine he
reads is effective as well for diabetics.
Solution:
Scenario A: ~q states that a diabetic does not take natural medicine which is false in
Scenario A. Its conjunction with proposition r which is also false is false as we’ve
learned. On the other hand, p is false since Patient A takes natural medicine only.
The disjunction of a false proposition and another false disjunction is false. Its truth
table is illustrated as follows:

Scenario B: Since ~q is true in this scenario and r is false, then their conjunction is
false. And, since p is true and (~𝑞 ∧ 𝑟) is false as we have said, then their disjunction
is true. Simply put, since the proposition involves disjunction and one disjunction p
is true, without further analysis we may conclude that the disjunction is true. That
is because disjunction can only be false if both disjunction is false. Its truth table is
illustrated as follows:

Scenario C: Both ~q and r, are true because Patient C is not taking conventional
drugs only, but instead he takes both, conventional and natural. Thus, the
conjunction of these two propositions is true. Then, although p is false, but since one
of the disjuncts is true, then the disjunction 𝑝 ∨ (~𝑞 ∧ 𝑟) is true. Its truth table is
illustrated as follows:

Example 3
Let p and q be propositions. Determine the truth value of (𝑝 → 𝑞)→((~𝑝) ∨ 𝑞). Construct
its truth table.
Solution:
Since there are two propositions p and q. Thus, the truth table will contain four rows,
the first two columns of which are

Using the truth table for the definition of the conditional, negation and disjunction
statements 𝑝 → 𝑞,~𝑝 and ~𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 respectively. You need to add three more columns to
indicate the truth values for each statement.

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Lastly, you need to consider the truth value of the proposition (𝑝 → 𝑞)→ ((~𝑝)∨ 𝑞).
The truth table of (𝑝 → 𝑞) → ((~𝑝) ∨ 𝑞) is as follows:

Notice that the proposition (𝑝 → 𝑞) → ((~𝑝) ∨ 𝑞) is always TRUE. Such is called

TAUTOLOGY and is denoted by . It is the opposite of contradiction.

Example 4
Let p and q be propositions. Determine the truth values of (𝑝 ∧(~ 𝑞))∧(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞). Construct
its truth table.
Solution:
Since there are two propositions p and q. Thus, the truth table will contain four rows,
the first two columns of which are

Using the truth table for the definition of the negation and conjunction statements
~𝑞, 𝑝∧(∼𝑞) and 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 respectively. You need to add three more columns to indicate
the truth values for each statement.

Lastly, you need to consider the truth value of the proposition (𝑝 ∧(~ 𝑞))∧(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞). The
truth table of (𝑝 ∧(~ 𝑞))∧(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) is as follows:

Notice that the proposition (𝑝 ∧(~ 𝑞))∧(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) is always FALSE. Such is called
CONTRADICTION or FALLACY and is denoted by ∅.

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 Lesson Logical Equivalence and
8 Conditional Propositions
Two propositions p and q are said to be logically equivalent if they have the
same values in the truth table and if the biconditional 𝑝⟷𝑞 is a tautology. It is
denoted by 𝑝⟺𝑞 or 𝑝≡𝑞.
The above activity shows that (𝑝→𝑞)⟺[(~𝑝)∨𝑞]. This logical equation is called
Switcheroo Law.
Aside from this, below is a table of various logical equations.
Table of Logical Equivalences
Let p, q, and r be proposition

Example 1: Using logical equivalences, verify that ~(𝑝→𝑞)⟺[𝑝∧(~𝑞)].

Moreover, the conditional proposition 𝑝→𝑞 can be illustrated in three other

conditional statements. They are the following:
1. Converse: 𝑞→𝑝
2. Contrapositive: (~𝑞)→(~𝑝)
3. Inverse: (~𝑝)→(~𝑞)
A conditional and its contrapositive are logically equivalent. In the same manner,
based on a given conditional proposition, its converse and inverse are logically
equivalent.
Example 2: Given the following conditional, “If you want lesser traffic, then pass
through the Eco-Tourism Road”; state its converse, contrapositive and inverse.
1. Converse 𝑞→𝑝: If you pass through the Eco-Tourism Road, then you want lesser
traffic.
2. Contrapositive (~𝑞)→(~𝑝):

If you do not pass through the Eco-Tourism Road, then you do not want lesser
traffic.
3. Inverse (~𝑝)→(~𝑞): If you do not want lesser traffic, then do not pass through the
Eco-Tourism Road.

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 Lesson
9
Tautologies and Fallacies
A tautology is a compound statement that is true for every value of the
individual statements. The word tautology is derived from a Greek word where ‘tauto’
means ‘same’ and ‘logy’ means ‘logic’.
The simple examples of tautology are:
• Either Mari will buy apples or Mari will not buy apples.
• My pet Yummy is healthy or he is not healthy
• A function is a polynomial function or it is not a polynomial function.
Some important tautologies are presented below:

To determine whether a given statements is a tautology, you can use the table of
truth values.
Example:
If I follow the school’s rules and regulations, then I am a disciplined person,
but I follow the school’s rules and regulations, therefore I am a disciplined person.
Show that the given statement is a tautology.
Solution:
Step 1: Translate the given statement into symbols.
Let 𝑝: I follow school’s rules and regulation.
𝑞: I am a discipline person.
The statement can be written in symbols as [(𝑝→𝑞)∧𝑝]→𝑞.
Step 2: Construct the truth table of the given statements.

Step 3: Make a conclusion.

Since the result is all true, it shows that the given statement is a tautology.
Observe also, that the statement illustrates Modus Ponens.

Fallacy is a statement that is always false. (in previous modules it is also a

contradiction)
Examples:
1. Twelve is an odd number.
2. Cats can fly.
3. A triangle has four sides.
4. 𝑎𝑏=𝑏2
5. Today is Monday and Tuesday

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 Sometimes fallacy is also described as a mistaken idea based on unsound
arguments. Some commonly used fallacies are as follows:
1. Affirming the conclusion – a fallacy of affirming the conclusion is incorrect
reasoning in proving 𝑝→𝑞 by starting by assuming 𝑞 and proving 𝑝.
Example: Assuming that I smile to you, then I am happy to see you.
If you answer all the assignments, then you will learn Math.
2. Denying the hypothesis – a fallacy of denying the hypothesis is incorrect
reasoning in proving 𝑝→𝑞 by starting with assuming ~𝑝 and proving ~𝑞.
Example: Assuming that I will not eat sweet foods, then I will not be a diabetic.
Since I am not hungry, then I will not eat.
3. Circular reasoning – a fallacy in which the reasoner begins with what they are trying
to end with.
Example: A chicken must come from an egg.
But, an egg cannot exist without a chicken laying it.
But, a chicken must come from an egg…
Like tautology, truth table can be also used to show that a statement is a fallacy.
Example: Denise loves both singing and dancing, but she loves neither dancing nor
acting.
Solution:
Step 1: Translate the given statement into symbols.
Let 𝑝: Denise loves singing.
𝑞: Denise loves dancing.
𝑟: Denise loves acting.
The statement can be written in symbols as (𝒑∧𝒒)∧(∼𝒒∧∼𝒓).

Step 2: Construct the truth table of the given statements.

Step 3: Make a conclusion.

Since the result is all false, it shows that the given statement is a fallacy.

Lesson Validity of Categorical

10 Syllogisms
Deductive and inductive arguments are among the best-known types of
arguments. A categorical syllogism is a deductive argument consisting of exactly
three categorical propositions (two premises and a conclusion). It is said to be valid
if and only if the conjunction of the premises implies the conclusion. There are four
ways to determine the validity of categorical syllogisms: Check the form against the
list of valid arguments; use Venn diagrams; draw a picture of the premises using
Euler’s diagrams and lastly, use a set of rules.

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 The theory of categorical propositions was originated by Aristotle. It remains
important even today since many of the statements used in ordinary language can
be translated into standard categorical propositions. The method used in logic
provides an approach and framework for some kinds of linguistic usage. In this
lesson, you will learn the methods of determining the validity of categorical
syllogisms. It includes using Euler’s and Venn diagram, use of set of rules and
looking for a table of valid categorical syllogisms.

Before you begin examining the validity of categorical syllogisms, you must
know first the nature of categorical propositions and syllogisms.

A categorical proposition is a proposition that relates two classes or categories. It

is composed of a quantifier, a subject term, a copula and a predicate term.
Quantifiers like ‘‘all,’’ ‘‘no,’’ and ‘‘some’’ specify how much of the subject class is
included in or excluded from the predicate class. Copula like ‘‘are’’ and ‘‘are not’’ link
(or ‘‘couple’’) the subject term with the predicate term.
Example 1. Identify the quantifier, subject, copula and predicate in the categorical
proposition: All cookery students are TVL students.
Answer. The following is an illustration of the quantifier, subject, copula and
predicate of a categorical proposition.

The quantity of a categorical proposition is either universal or particular.

Universal like ‘‘All S are P’’ and ‘‘No S are P’’ assert something about every member
of the S class. Particular like ‘‘Some S are P’’ and ‘‘Some S are not P’’ assert something
about one or more members of the S class.
Example 2. The following are the quantities of the given propositions.

The quality of a categorical proposition is either affirmative or negative.

Affirmative quality like ‘‘All S are P’’ and ‘‘Some S are P’’ affirms class membership.
Negative quality like ‘‘No S are P’’ and ‘‘Some S are not P’’ denies class membership.
Example 3. The following are the qualities of the given propositions.

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Four Basic Types of Categorical Propositions:
The four kinds of categorical propositions have commonly been designated by letter
names corresponding to the first four vowels of the Roman alphabet: A, E, I, O. It
may be presented as follows:

A standard form categorical proposition occurs in one of the following four forms:
All S are P. No S are P. Some S are P. Some S are not P.
Example 4. Express the following into standard categorical propositions.
1. Every TVL student is a SHS student.
2. Most Quezonians are God-fearing.
3. The teacher needs an internet connection.
4. None TVL students are academic student.
5. All great leaders are not arrogant.

Answers.
1. All TVL students are SHS students.
2. Some Quezonians are God-fearing people.
3. All teachers are the person who needs internet connection.
4. No TVL students are academic students.
5. No great leaders are arrogant people.

Remember: Subject and predicate terms need to be expressed as classes of things

(nouns or noun phrases).

A syllogism is a deductive argument in which a conclusion is inferred from two

premises.
A categorical syllogism is an argument consisting of exactly three categorical
propositions (two premises and a conclusion) in which there appear a total of exactly
three categorical terms, each of which is used exactly twice.
Terms of the Categorical Syllogism
1. Major term is the predicate of the conclusion.
2. Minor term is the subject term of the conclusion.
3. Middle term is the term that appears in both premises but not in the conclusion.

Parts of the Categorical Syllogism

1. Major premise contains the major term. 2. Minor premise contains the minor
term.
A standard form categorical syllogism fulfills all of the following criteria:
1. All three statements are standard-form categorical propositions.
2. The two occurrences of each term are identical.
3. Each term is used in the same sense throughout the argument.
4. The major premise is listed first, the minor premise second, and the conclusion,
last.

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Example 5. Express the categorical syllogism below in the standard form.
All cookery students are HE students and all HE students are TVL students.
So, all cookery students are TVL students.
Solution.

The mood of a categorical syllogism refers to the arrangement of the premises

according to quantity (universal or particular) and quality (affirmative or negative).
It consists of the letter names of the propositions that make it up.
Four Basic Types of Categorical Propositions:
Proposition Letter name Quantity Quality
All S are P. A universal affirmative
No S are P. E universal negative
Some S are P. I particular affirmative
Some S are not P. O particular negative

Euler’s Diagram can also be used to determine the validity of categorical syllogism.
Consider the Euler’s Circles and representation of the four propositions.

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 ACTIVITY SHEET 8
Written Work # 8
Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a separate sheet of
paper.
1. What is a proposition that is always false?
a. negation b. tautology
c. contradiction d. absolute
For numbers 2 to 4, refer to the following problem:
p and q are both true propositions and r is a false proposition.
2. What is the truth value of ~ 𝑟?
a. true b. false
c. neither true nor false d. information is insufficient
3. What is the truth value of 𝑞 ∧ (~ 𝑟)?
a. true b. false
c. neither true nor false d. information is insufficient
4. What is the truth value of 𝑝 ∨ (𝑞 ∧ (~ 𝑟))?
a. true b. false
c. neither true nor false d. information is insufficient
For numbers 5 to 7, refer to the following problem: p and q are false and r is true.
5. What is the truth value of ~ 𝑝?
a. true b. false
c. neither true nor false d. information is insufficient

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6. What is the truth value of 𝑞↔𝑟?
a. true b. false
c. neither true nor false d. information is insufficient
7. What is the truth value of (~ 𝑝)∧(𝑞↔𝑟)?
a. true b. false
c. neither true nor false d. information is insufficient
For numbers 8 to 10, determine the truth values of the propositions p, q and r that
will make the following statements false.
8. 𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∨ 𝑟)
a. p, q and r, are all true or all false.
b. p and r, are false, while q is true.
c. If p is true, q and r, are both false. If p is false, each of q and r may either
be true or false.
d. If p is true, q and r, are both true. If p is false, each of q and r may either
be true or false.
9. (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ 𝑟
a. q should be false. p and r may either be both true or both false.
b. p should be false. Either q is true and r is false, or vice versa, or both are
true.
c. p and q should be false. r may be true or false.
d. r should be false. p and q may take any truth value except for both are
true.

10. ~(𝑝 ∧ (~𝑞))

a. p and r should be false, while q should be true.
b. p and q should be false, while r should be true.
c. q should be false, while p and r should be true.
d. q and r should be false, while p should be true.
Performance Task # 8
A. Using the conditional proposition “If you want to meet some of the indigent people,
then you may go to Brgy. Balanoy”, state the following:
1. Converse : _________________________________________________________
2. Contrapositive: ____________________________________________________
3. Inverse : ___________________________________________________________

B. Determine whether the statement is a tautology or fallacy.

4. If today is Saturday, then tomorrow is Monday
5. Assuming that I am a college degree, then I am a teacher.
6. Either Joshua will buy books or Joshua will not buy books.
7. If I will study hard, then I will pass the examination, but I study hard, therefore I
passed the examination
8. Aldrin loves both Math and Science, but he loves neither Science nor English

C. Write the following categorical proposition in standard form

1. Filipinos are Asians.
2. A reptile is cold-blooded.
3. Many SHS students are with honors.
4. Most introverts aren’t optimistic.
5. All successful people are not cheaters.

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