chp3 3

Idealized Modeling Elements

chp3 4

Inductive storage
Electrical inductance

Translational spring

Rotational spring

Fluid inertia
chp3 5

Capacitive Storage

Electrical capacitance

Translational mass

Rotational mass
chp3 6

Energy dissipators
Electrical resistance

Translational damper

Rotational damper
chp3 7

Springs
- Stiffness Element
- Stores potential energy

x
chp3 8

Actual Spring Behavior

chp3 9

Spring Connections
• Spring in series: KEQ=K1K2/(K1+K2)

• Spring in parallel: KEQ=K1+K2

chp3 10

Dampers and Mass

chp3 11

Dampers Connections
• Dampers in series: BEQ=B1B2/(B1+B2)

• Dampers in parallel: BEQ=B1+B2

chp3 12

Modeling Mechanical Systems

chp3 13

Modeling Methods
• State assumptions and their rationales
• Establish inertial coordinate system
• Identify and isolate discrete system elements (springs,
dampers, masses)
• Determine the minimum number of variables needed to
uniquely define the configuration of system (subtract
constraints from number of equations)
• Free body diagram for each element
• Write equations relating loading to deformation in system
elements
• Apply Newton’s 2nd Law:
– F = ma for translation motion
– T = Iα for rotational motion
chp3 14

Example 1: Automobile Shock Absorber

Spring-mass-damper Free-body diagram

d 2 y(t ) dy(t )
M 2
b  ky(t )  r(t )
dt dt
chp3 15

Example 2: Mechanical System

• Draw a free body diagram, showing all

forces and their directions
• Write equation of motion and derive
transfer function of response x to input u
chp3 16

Example 2: Mechanical System

chp3 17

Example 3: Two-Mass System

• Derive the equation of motion for x2 as a

function of Fa. The indicated damping is
viscous.
chp3 18
Example 3: Two-Mass System
chp3 19

Example 4: Three-Mass System

• Draw the free-body-diagram for each

mass and write the differential equations
describing the system
chp3 20

Example 4: Three-Mass System

chp3 21

Example 5: Pair-Share Exercise

• All springs are identical with

constant K
• Spring forces are zero when
x1=x2=x3=0
• Draw FBDs and write equations
of motion
• Determine the constant
elongation of each spring caused
by gravitational forces when the
masses are stationary in a
position of static equilibrium and
when fa(t) = 0.
chp3 22

Example 5: Pair-Share Exercise:

chp3 23

Example 5: Pair-Share Exercise:

chp3 24

Example 6: Pair-Share Exercise

• Assume that the pulley is

ideal
– No mass and no friction
– No slippage between
cable and surface of
cylinder (i.e., both move
with same velocity)
– Cable is in tension but
does not stretch
• Draw FBDs and write
equations of motion
• If pulley is not ideal,
discuss modeling
modifications
chp3 25

Example 6: Pair-Share Exercise

• Pulley is not ideal

– Add rotation mass and friction
– Model the slippage behaviors
– Add spring to model cable
chp3 26

Example 7: Electric Motor

• An electric motor is attached to a load inertia through a

flexible shaft as shown. Develop a model and
associated differential equations (in classical and state
space forms) describing the motion of the two disks J1
and J2.
• Torsional stiffness is given in Appendix B
chp3 27

Example 7: Electric Motor

chp3 28

Example 7: Electric Motor

chp3 29

Example 7: Electric Motor

chp3 30

Example 8: Pair-Share Exercise: Copy Machine

• The device from a copying machine is shown. It moves in a

horizontal plane. Develop the dynamic model, assuming that mass
of bar is negligible compared to attached mass m2 and angular
motions are small. The mass is subjected to a step input F, find an
expression for the displacement of point B after the transient
motions have died out.
chp3 31

Example 8: Pair-Share Exercise: Copy Machine

chp3 32

Example 9: Mass-Pulley System

• A mechanical system with a rotating
wheel of mass mw (uniform mass
distribution). Springs and dampers are
connected to wheel using a flexible cable
without skip on wheel.
• Write all the modeling equations for
translational and rotational motion, and
derive the translational motion of x as a
function of input motion u
• Find expression for natural frequency
and damping ratio
chp3 33

Example 9: Mass-Pulley System

chp3 34

Example 9: Mass-Pulley System

chp3 35

Example 9: Mass-Pulley System

chp3 36

Example 10: Pair-Share Exercise:

Double Pendulum

• The disk shown in the figure

rolls without slipping on a
horizontal plane. Attached to
the disk through a frictionless
hinge is a massless pendulum
of length L that carries another
disk. The disk at the bottom of
the pendulum cannot rotation
relative to the pendulum arm.
• Draw free-body diagrams and
derive equations of motion for
this system.
chp3 37
Example 10: Pair-Share Exercise:
Double Pendulum
chp3 38

Example 10: Pair-Share Exercise:

Double Pendulum
chp3 39

Example 10: Pair-Share Exercise:

Double Pendulum
Appendix W 3

Block Diagram Reduction

W.3 4Mason’s Rule and the Signal-Flow Graph

A compact alternative notation to the block diagram is given by the signal-‡ow graph introduced Signal-‡ow
by S. J. Mason (1953, 1956). As with the block diagram, the signal-‡ow graph o¤ers a visual tool for graph
representing the causal relationships between the components of the system. The method consists of
characterizing the system by a network of directed branches and associated gains (transfer functions)
connected at nodes. Several block diagrams and their corresponding signal-‡ow graphs are shown
in Fig. W.1. The two ways of depicting a system are equivalent, and you can use either diagram to
apply Mason’s rule (to be de…ned shortly).
In a signal-‡ow graph the internal signals in the diagram, such as the common input to several
blocks or the output of a summing junction, are called nodes. The system input point and the
system output point are also nodes; the input node has outgoing branches only, and the output
node has incoming branches only. Mason de…ned a path through a block diagram as a sequence of
connected blocks, the route passing from one node to another in the direction of signal ‡ow of the
blocks without including any block more than once. A forward path is a path from the input to
output such that no node is included more than once. If the nodes are numbered in a convenient
order, then a forward path can be identi…ed by the numbers that are included. Any closed path that
returns to its starting node without passing through any node more than once is a loop, and a path
that leads from a given variable back to the same variable is a loop path. The path gain is the
product of component gains (transfer functions) making up the path. Similarly, the loop gain is
the path gain associated with a loop—that is, the product of gains in a loop. If two paths have a
common component, they are said to touch. Notice particularly in this connection that the input
and the output of a summing junction are not the same and that the summing junction is a one-way
device from its inputs to its output.
Mason’s rule relates the graph to the algebra of the simultaneous equations it represents.1 Con-
sider Fig. W.1(c), where the signal at each node has been given a name and the gains are marked.
Then the block diagram (or the signal-‡ow graph) represents the following system of equations:

X1 (s) = X3 (s) + U (s);

X2 (s) = G1 (s)X1 (s) + G2 (s)X2 (s) + G4 (s)X3 (s);
Y (s) = 1X3 (s):

Mason’s rule states that the input–output transfer function associated with a signal-‡ow graph is
given by Mason’s rule
Y (s) 1 X
G(s) = = Gi i ;
U (s) i

1 The derivation is based on Cramer’s rule for solving linear equations by determinants and is described in Mason’s

papers.

1
2 APPENDIX W. BLOCK DIAGRAM REDUCTION

Figure W.1: Block diagrams and corresponding signal ‡ow graphs

W.3. 4MASON’S RULE AND THE SIGNAL-FLOW GRAPH 3

where

Gi = path gain of the ith forward path,

= the system determinant
P P
1 (all individual loop gains) P
+ (gain products of all possible
= two loops that do not touch) (gain products of all possible
three loops that do not touch) + : : : ,
i = ith forward path determinant
= value of for that part of the block diagram that does not touch
the ith forward path.
We will now illustrate the use of Mason’s rule by several examples.

Example W.1 Mason’s Rule in a Simple System Find the transfer function for the block diagram
in Fig. W.2.
SOLUTION From the block diagram shown in Fig. W.2 we have
Forward Path Path Gain
1236 G1 = 1 1s (b1 )(1)
12346 G2 = 1 1s 1 (b )(1)
s 2

123456 G3 = 1 s1 1 1
s s (b3 )(1)
Loop Path Gain
232 l1 = a1 =s
2342 l2 = a2 =s2
23452 l3 = a3 =s3
and the determinants are
a1 a2 a3
= 1 +0
s s2 s3
1 = 1 0
2 = 1 0
3 = 1 0:

Applying Mason’s rule, we …nd the transfer function to be

Y (s) (b1 =s) + (b2 =s2 ) + (b3 =s3 )

G(s) = =
U (s) 1 + (a1 =s) + (a2 =s2 ) + (a3 =s3 )
2
b1 s + b2 s + b3
= :
s3 + a1 s2 + a2 s + a3

Mason’s rule is particularly useful for more complex systems where there are several loops, some
of which do not sum into the same point.

Example W.2 Mason’s Rule in a Complex System Find the transfer function for the system shown
in Fig. W.3.
SOLUTION From the block diagram, we …nd that
Forward Path Path Gain
12456 G 1 = H 1 H2 H3
1236 G2 = H4
Loop Path Gain
242 l1 = H1 H5 (does not touch l3 )
4 APPENDIX W. BLOCK DIAGRAM REDUCTION

Figure W.2: Block diagram for Example W.1

Figure W.3: Block diagram for Example W.2

454 l 2 = H2 H 6
565 l3 = H3 H7 (does not touch l1 )
236542 l 4 = H4 H 7 H 6 H 5
and the determinants are

= 1 (H1 H5 + H2 H6 + H3 H7 + H4 H7 H6 H5 ) + (H1 H5 H3 H7 )
1 = 1 0
2 = 1 H2 H6 :

Therefore,

Y (s) H 1 H2 H3 + H4 H 4 H 2 H6
G(s) = = :
U (s) 1 H1 H 5 H 2 H 6 H3 H 7 H 4 H 7 H 6 H 5 + H 1 H 5 H 3 H 7

Mason’s rule is useful for solving relatively complicated block diagrams by hand. It yields the
solution in the sense that it provides an explicit input–output relationship for the system represented
by the diagram. The advantage compared with path-by-path block-diagram reduction is that it is
systematic and algorithmic rather than problem dependent. MATLAB and other control systems
computer-aided software allow you to specify a system in terms of individual blocks in an overall
W.3. 4MASON’S RULE AND THE SIGNAL-FLOW GRAPH 5

Figure W.4: Block diagram for Problem 2

system, and the software algorithms perform the required block-diagram reduction; therefore, Ma-
son’s rule is less important today than in the past. However, there are some derivations that rely on
the concepts embodied by the rule, so it still has a role in the control designer’s toolbox.

Problems: Mason’s Rule and the Signal-Flow Graph

1. 4 Find the transfer functions for the block diagrams in Fig. 3.53, using Mason’s rule.
2. 4 Use block-diagram algebra or Mason’s rule to determine the transfer function between R(s)
and Y(s) in Fig. W.4.
 Block Diagram Reduction

Figure 1: Single block diagram representation

Figure 2: Components of Linear Time Invariant Systems (LTIS)

 Figure 3: Block diagram components

Figure 4: Block diagram of a closed-loop system with a feedback element

BLOCK DIAGRAM SIMPLIFICATIONS

Figure 5: Cascade (Series) Connections

Figure 6: Parallel Connections

Block Diagram Algebra for Summing Junctions

Figure 7: Summing Junctions

Block Diagram Algebra for Branch Point

Figure 8: Branch Points

Block Diagram Reduction Rules
Table 1: Block Diagram Reduction Rules

Table 2: Basic rules with block diagram transformation

Example 1:
Example 2:

Example 3:
Example 4:
Example5:
 / /

C o e ti g C as aded N l
okDiag a i to
a2 ig alFlo G aph:

C o e ti g P a al
lel2 ste Nl
okDiag a i toa2 ig al
Flo G aph:
 / /

C o e ti g Feed a k2 ste N l
okDiag a i toa
2 ig alFl
o G aph:

E a pl
e-:
C o e t the l
okdiag a i toasig alfl
o g aph:
 / /

e )fd esqred ,
sqm plqfy the sqgnal-
flow graph to the one show n qn Fqgu re c by
elqm qnatqng sqgnals that have a sqngle flow qn and a sqngle flow ou t,
su c h asV s ,
V s, V s, and V s .

E a pl e-: C o side the sig alfl

o g aph el
o ad
ide tif the fol
lo i g;

a )npu t nod e
b C u tpu t nod e
c Forw ard paths
d Feed bac k paths
e Selfloop
f D eterm qne the loop gaqnsofthe feed bac k loops
g D eterm qne the path gaqnsofthe forw ard paths
 / /

E a pl
e-:
A s es

E a pl
e-:C o side the sig alfl
o g aph el
o a d ide tif the fol
lo i g;

e There are fou rloop gaqns;

e There are tw o forw ard path gaqns; e N ontou c hqng loop gaqns;

e N ontou c hqng loops;

.
 / /

M aso ’
s Rul
e:
e The transferfu nc tqon,T =C s /
R s ,ofa system represented by a sqgnal-
flow graph
qs;

W here

E a ple-: C o st ut the sig alfl

o g aphofthe lokdiag a ofthe
a o i alfeed a k o t ols ste a d fi d the o t olatioC /
R.

The c harac terqstqc fu nc tqon

Sqnc e the loop tou c h the forw ard path

 / /

E a pl
e-: Dete i e the o t ol atioC /R a d the a o i al
lokdiag a ofthe feed a k o t ols ste .

E a pl
e-:
C o ti ue.fi di g the o t ol atioC /
R
 / /

E a pl
e-:
C o ti ue.fi di g the a o i al l
okdiag a

E a pl e-:Dete i e the t a sfe fu tio C /

Rfo the l
okdiag a el
o
sig alfl
o g aphte h i ues.

e The sqgnalflow graph ofthe above bloc k d qagram qs show n below .

e There are tw o forw ard paths.The path gaqns are

e The three feed bac k loop gaqns are

e N o loops are non-

tou c hqng,henc e

e B ec au se the loops tou c h the nod es of P , e ( enc e the c ontrolratqo T =C/

R qs
henc e

e Sqnc e no loops tou c h the nod es ofP ,

therefore