1

Tutorial on Symmetrical Components

Part 2: Answer Key
Ariana Amberg and Alex Rangel, Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc.

Abstract—Symmetrical components and the per-unit system This results in the following equations:
are two of the most fundamental and necessary types of
1
mathematics for relay engineers and technicians. We must I0= ( I A + I B + IC )
practice these techniques in order to fully understand and feel 3
comfortable with them. This white paper provides both 1
theoretical and real-world examples with questions and solutions I1
=
3
(
I A + αI B + α 2 I C ) (2)
that can be used to gain experience with symmetrical
1
components.
I2
=
3
(
I A + α 2 I B + αI C )
I. INTRODUCTION
Likewise, a set of symmetrical components can be
The method of symmetrical components is used to simplify converted into phase quantities as follows:
fault analysis by converting a three-phase unbalanced system
into two sets of balanced phasors and a set of single-phase  IA  1 1 1   I0 
I  =  
phasors, or symmetrical components. These sets of phasors  B 1 α
2
α   I1  (3)
are called the positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence  IC  1 α α 2   I 2 
components. These components allow for the simple analysis 
of power systems under faulted or other unbalanced This results in the following equations:
conditions. Once the system is solved in the symmetrical I A = I0 + I1 + I 2
component domain, the results can be transformed back to the
phase domain. I B= I0 + α 2 I1 + αI 2 (4)
The topic of symmetrical components is very broad and IC= I0 + αI1 + α 2 I 2
can take considerable time to cover in depth. A summary of
These conversions are valid for an A-phase base, which
important points is included in this introduction, although it is
can be used for A-phase-to-ground, B-phase-to-C-phase,
highly recommended that other references be studied for a
B-phase-to-C-phase-to-ground, and three-phase faults. In
more thorough explanation of the mathematics involved. Refer
Section V, Example 4 shows how the base changes for other
to [1], [2], [3], [4], and [5] for more information on
irregular fault types. These conversions are also only valid for
symmetrical components.
an ABC system phase rotation. In Section VI, Example 5
A. Converting Between the Phase and Symmetrical shows how the equations change for an ACB system phase
Component Domains rotation.
Any set of phase quantities can be converted into A calculator was created in Microsoft® Excel® to allow us
symmetrical components, where α is defined as 1∠120, as to convert between the phase and symmetrical component
follows: domains. This calculator is available for download with this
white paper at http://www.selinc.com/.
 I0  1 1 1   IA 
 I=  1 1 α 
α 2   I B  (1) B. Transformer Representations in the Sequence Networks
 1 3 For information on the formation of the sequence networks
1 α 2 α   IC 
 I 2   as well as the representation of power system components in
where I0, I1, and I2 are the zero-, positive-, and negative- the sequence networks, see [1] and [2].
sequence components, respectively. This equation shows the
symmetrical component transformation in terms of currents,
but the same equations are valid for voltages as well.
 2

Transformers are simply represented as their positive- and For a single-phase-to-ground fault, the three networks are
negative-sequence impedances in the positive- and negative- connected in series. Any fault impedance is multiplied by 3
sequence networks, respectively. However, the transformer and included in this connection, as shown in Fig. 3.
representation in the zero-sequence network can be more
complex and is dependent on the type of transformer N1
connection. Fig. 1 shows some common transformer F1
connections and the equivalent zero-sequence representations. I1
For a complete list of transformer connections, see [1]. N2
3ZF
F2
Transformer Connection Zero-Sequence Circuit I2

N0 N0
F0
ZT I0

Fig. 3. Sequence network connections for a single-phase-to-ground fault

N0
For a phase-to-phase fault, the positive- and negative-
ZT
sequence networks are connected in parallel, as shown in
Fig. 4.
N0 ZF
I1 I2
3Zn F1 F2
ZT
Zn N1 N2

N0 Fig. 4. Sequence network connections for a phase-to-phase fault

ZT For a double-line-to-ground fault, all three networks are

connected in parallel, as shown in Fig. 5.

N0 I1 ZF I2 ZF I0 ZF + 3ZG

ZT F1 F2 F0
N1 N2 N0

Fig. 1. Zero-sequence circuits for various transformer types

Fig. 5. Sequence network connections for a double-line-to-ground fault
C. Connecting the Sequence Networks
D. The Per-Unit System
Once the sequence networks for the system are defined, the
way they are connected is dependent on the type of fault. The per-unit system puts all the values of a power system
Sequence network connections for common shunt fault types on a common base so they can be easily compared across the
are shown in the remainder of this subsection. For complete entire system. To use the per-unit system, we normally begin
derivations of these network connections as well as sequence by selecting a three-phase power base and a line-to-line
network connections for series faults, see [2]. In the voltage base. We can then calculate the current and impedance
connections that follow, ZF is defined as the fault impedance bases using the chosen power and voltage bases as shown:
from each phase to the common point, and ZG is defined as Sbase
I base = (5)
the impedance from the common point to ground. The ZG 3 • Vbase
term is only significant when ZF differs per phase or if the
2
line impedance to the fault point is different between phases. ( Vbase )
The typical assumptions are that ZF is the same across all Zbase = (6)
Sbase
phases and the line impedances are equal, and therefore, the
ZG term is neglected. Any power system value can be converted to per unit by
For a three-phase fault, the positive-sequence network is dividing the value by the base of the value, as shown:
used with the fault point connected back to the neutral bus, as Actual quantity
shown in Fig. 2. Quantity in per unit = (7)
Base value of quantity

N1 Likewise, a per-unit value can be converted to an actual

ZF
F1 quantity at any time by multiplying the per-unit value by the
I1 base value of that quantity.
Fig. 2. Sequence network connections for a three-phase fault
 3

To convert impedances from one base to another, use the The positive-sequence current can be solved for by
following equation: dividing the positive-sequence voltage by the positive-
2 sequence impedance of the transformer.
Snew  old
base Vbase

Znew = Zold • old  new  (8) V1
Sbase  Vbase
pu pu
 I1 =
ZT1
For more information on the per-unit system, see [1].
Because IA = I0 + I1 + I2 and I0 and I2 are zero, then:
E. Examples 1
The rest of this paper consists of theoretical and practical I A= I1=
ZT1
examples that can be used to practice and gain experience in
symmetrical component and per-unit techniques. Each II-c Using symmetrical components, solve for the
example consists of questions to guide the reader through the maximum fault current for a phase-to-ground fault at
analysis as well as complete solutions. In the cases with real- Location 1.
world events, the event records from the relays are available
for download with this white paper and the reader should use The following figure shows the sequence networks
ACSELERATOR Analytic Assistant® SEL-5601 Software to connected in series for a single-phase-to-ground fault.
view them (available for free download at
http://www.selinc.com). –
V1 = 1 pu
+
II. EXAMPLE 1: SINGLE-PHASE VERSUS I1 ZT1
THREE-PHASE FAULT CURRENT
This example shows how to calculate fault currents for two
different fault types at two different locations on a distribution I2 3RF
ZT2
system. Fig. 6 shows the radial system with two possible fault
locations.
I0 ZT0
1
2

Line
The positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence currents are
Source Load
equivalent and can be solved for by dividing the positive-
Bus Relay
sequence voltage by the equivalent impedance of the network.
XFMR
V1
Fig. 6. Radial system with two fault locations I1 =
ZT1 + ZT2 + ZT0 + 3R F
II-a On a radial distribution feeder, what type of fault do
we expect to produce the largest fault current? If we assume that ZT1 = ZT2 = ZT0 and there is zero fault
resistance, then:
This depends on the fault location and transformer type, as 1
we see in this example. I=
1 = I=
2 I0
3ZT1
II-b Using symmetrical components, solve for the
1
maximum fault current for a bolted three-phase fault at I A = I0 + I1 + I 2 =
Location 1. ZT1

Because a three-phase fault is balanced, no negative- or II-d Assume a core-type transformer with a zero-sequence
zero-sequence currents are present, and therefore, only the impedance of 85 percent of the positive-sequence
positive-sequence network is used. The following figure impedance. Solve for the fault current for a phase-to-
shows the positive-sequence network with only the positive- ground fault at Location 1, and compare the results
sequence impedance of the transformer, because the fault is with that of a three-phase fault.
just past the secondary windings of the transformer.
A core-type transformer has a lower exciting impedance,
and the zero-sequence impedance can be 85 to 100 percent of
– the positive-sequence impedance [6]. If we assume a core-type
V1 = 1 pu transformer, then ZT0 = 0.85 • ZT1.
+
I1 ZT1 V1 1
I=
1 = = I=
2 I0
ZT1 + ZT2 + 0.85 • ZT1 2.85 • ZT1
3 1.05
I A = I0 + I1 + I 2 = =
2.85 • ZT1 ZT1
 4

Assuming a core-type transformer, a phase-to-ground fault Assume that ZT1 = ZT2 = ZT0 and there is zero fault
can produce more fault current than a three-phase fault when resistance. Also assume that ZL1 = ZL2 and ZL0 = 3 • ZL1.
the fault is at the bus. The event report titled Example 1A.cev 1
shows an evolving fault where the fault current for the line-to- I=
1 = I=
2 I0
3ZT1 + 5ZL1
ground fault is larger than that of the three-phase fault. See [7]
and [8] for a complete analysis of this event. 3 1
I A = I0 + I1 + I 2 = =
II-e Using symmetrical components, solve for the 3ZT1 + 5ZL1 ZT1 + (1.67 • ZL1 )
maximum fault current for a three-phase fault at Comparing the results for the fault at Location 2, we can
Location 2. conclude that for a fault out on the feeder, the fault current
The sequence network for the new fault location is the produced by a three-phase fault is larger than that produced by
same as for the previous fault location, except now we have a single-phase-to-ground fault. This is because, for a fault out
the line impedance included. This is shown in the following on the feeder, the zero-sequence line impedance (which is
figure. typically larger than the positive-sequence line impedance)
begins to dominate and make the line-to-ground fault current
less than that of a three-phase fault. The event report titled
– Example 1B.cev shows an evolving fault where the fault
V1 = 1 pu
+ current for the three-phase fault is larger than that of the line-
I1 ZT1 ZL1 to-ground fault. See [7] and [8] for a complete analysis of this
event.
The positive-sequence current can be solved for as follows:
III. EXAMPLE 2: PER-UNIT SYSTEM AND
V1 FAULT CALCULATIONS
I1 =
ZT1 + ZL1
This example shows how to work in the per-unit system
Because IA = I0 + I1 + I2 and I0 and I2 are zero, then: and calculate fault currents for faults at the high-voltage
1 terminals of the step-up transformer shown in Fig. 7. The
I A= I1= prefault voltage at the fault location is 70 kVLL, and the
ZT1 + ZL1
generator and transformer are not connected to the rest of the
power system. The source impedances shown are the
II-f Using symmetrical components, solve for the
subtransient reactances (Xd'') of the generator [9].
maximum fault current for a phase-to-ground fault at
Location 2. Is this greater than or less than the fault 11.8 kV
current for a three-phase fault? 75 MVA

The following figure shows the sequence networks

connected in series for a single-phase-to-ground fault, with the 11.8 66 kV
Z1 = j17.5%
line impedance included because of the new fault location. Z2 = j13.5% 75 MVA Z= 58 Ω
n
j10.0%

–
V1 = 1 pu
Fig. 7. One-line diagram for fault current calculations
+
I1 ZT1 ZL1
III-a Select power and voltage bases for the per-unit
system, and calculate current and impedance bases
accordingly.
3RF
I2 ZT2 ZL2 To use the per-unit system, first choose a power base and a
voltage base. We choose a three-phase power base of
100 MVA and voltage bases as defined by the transformer:
I0 ZT0 ZL0 Sbase = 100 MVA
Vbase_delta = 11.8 kV
The positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence currents are Vbase_wye = 66 kV
equivalent and can be solved for by dividing the positive- Notice that it is possible to have multiple voltage bases. We
sequence voltage by the equivalent impedance of the network. start by choosing one voltage base and then use the voltage
ratios of the transformers to convert the original voltage base
V1 to all the other parts of the system. This means that at every
I1 =
ZT1 + ZL1 + ZT2 + ZL2 + ZT0 + ZL0 + 3R F transformer, there will be a voltage base conversion.
We then calculate the current and impedance bases using
the power and voltage bases and (5) and (6). Depending on the
 5

voltage base that is active for the area we are working in, we N1
–
will calculate different current and impedance bases. V1 = 1.06 pu
On the delta side of the transformer, using Vbase_delta: +
I1 Z = j0.233 Z = j0.133
Sbase 100 MVA G1 T1

I base _ delta
= = = 4.89 kA
3 • Vbase _ delta 3 •11.8 kV

) (11.8 kV=
( Vbase _ delta=
2
)2 N2
Zbase _ delta
= 1.39 Ω I2
Sbase 100 MVA ZG2 = j0.18 ZT2 = j0.133

On the wye side of the transformer, using Vbase_wye:

Sbase 100 MVA
I base _ wye
= = = 874.77 A N0
3Zn = 3.99
3 • Vbase _ wye 3 • 66 kV
ZG0 I0 ZT0 = j0.133

( Vbase _ wye ) ( 66 kV
2 2
)
Zbase=
_ wye = = 43.56 Ω
Sbase 100 MVA
III-d What are the maximum short-circuit phase currents for
III-b Convert all impedances on the system as well as the
a three-phase fault?
prefault voltage to a common base.
A three-phase fault is balanced and has no negative- or
To convert per-unit impedances from one base to another,
zero-sequence current. Therefore, only the positive-sequence
use (8). The generator and transformer impedances are given
network is connected, as shown in the following figure.
in per unit on a 75 MVA, 11.8 kV base and need to be
converted to a 100 MVA base. N1
–
2 V1 = 1.06 pu
100 MVA  11.8 kV 
ZG1 j0.175
=   j0.233 pu +
75 MVA  11.8 kV  I1 Z = j0.233 Z = j0.133
G1 T1

2
100 MVA  11.8 kV 
ZG 2 j0.135
=   j0.180 pu
75 MVA  11.8 kV 
N2
2
100 MVA  11.8 kV  I2 Z = j0.18
Z=
T1 Z=
T2 Z=
T0 j0.10  = j0.133 pu G2 ZT2 = j0.133
75 MVA  11.8 kV 
The neutral impedance is given in ohms on the wye side of
the transformer, so we need to divide it by the wye-side
N0
impedance base to convert it to per unit. 3Zn = 3.99
ZG0 I0 Z = j0.133
58
T0

Zn
= = 1.332 pu
43.56
Convert the prefault voltage at the fault location to per unit
by dividing by the wye-side voltage base. The positive-sequence current can be solved for by
dividing the positive-sequence voltage by the impedances in
70 kV
Vfpre
= = 1.06 pu the positive-sequence network.
66 kV
1.06
I1 = = − j2.89 pu or 2.89∠ –90 pu
III-c Draw the positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence j0.233 + j0.133
networks for this system up to the fault point.
I A = I0 + I1 + I 2 = 2.89∠ –90 pu
The following figure shows the positive-, negative-, and
Convert the A-phase current from per unit to amperes by
zero-sequence networks for the system up to the fault location.
multiplying by the appropriate current base, Ibase_wye.
The positive- and negative-sequence networks are similar,
while the zero-sequence network has a break in it due to the I A 2.89 • 874.77
= = 2528∠ –90 A
delta connection of the transformer.
 6

Because an ideal three-phase fault is balanced, |IA| = |IB| = N1

–
|IC|, and they are all 120 degrees out of phase, then: V1 = 1.06 pu
+
I B 2528∠150 A
= I1 Z = j0.233 Z = j0.133
G1 T1
IC 2528∠30 A
=

III-e What are the maximum short-circuit phase currents for

a B-phase-to-C-phase fault? N2
I2 Z = j0.18
For a phase-to-phase fault, the positive- and negative- G2 ZT2 = j0.133

sequence networks are connected in parallel at the fault point,

as shown in the following figure.
3Zn = 3.99 N0
N1
– I0 Z = j0.133
V1 = 1.06 pu ZG0 T0
+
I1 Z = j0.233 Z = j0.133
G1 T1

From this diagram, we can observe that I1 = I2 = I0. We can

solve for I1 as follows:
N2
I2 Z = j0.18 1.06
G2 ZT2 = j0.133 I1 =
j0.233 + j0.133 + j0.18 + j0.133 + j0.133 + 3.99
= 0.2603∠ –11.5 pu = I2 = I0

3Zn = 3.99 N0 I A = I0 + I1 + I 2 = 3I1 = 0.7809∠ –11.5 pu

I0
ZG0 ZT0 = j0.133 I B= I0 + α 2 I1 + αI 2= 0
IC= I0 + αI1 + α 2 I 2= 0
Convert the A-phase current from per unit to amperes by
From this diagram, we can observe that I1 = –I2. We can multiplying by the appropriate current base, Ibase_wye.
solve for I1 as follows: I A 0.7809 • 874.77
= = 683.1∠ –11.5 A
1.06
I1
= = 1.56∠ –90 pu
j0.233 + j0.133 + j0.18 + j0.133 IV. EXAMPLE 3: FAULT CALCULATIONS
I 2 1.56∠90 pu
= FOR A NONRADIAL SYSTEM
This example shows how to work in the per-unit system
I A = I0 + I1 + I 2 = 0
and calculate fault currents for a nonradial system, as shown
I B = I0 + α 2 I1 + αI 2 = −2.7 pu in Fig. 8. The prefault voltage at the fault location is 1.05 per
IC= I0 + αI1 + α 2 I 2= 2.7 pu unit, and the load current is negligible. The source impedances
shown are the subtransient reactances (Xd'') of the generators
Convert the phase currents from per unit to amperes by [3].
multiplying by the appropriate current base, Ibase_wye.
13.8 kV 13.8 kV
IB =
−2.7 • 874.77 =
2361.8∠180 A 100 MVA S R 100 MVA
=IC 2.7 • 874.77
= 2361.8∠0 A
ZLine1
= ZLine2
= j20 Ω
Notice that IA is zero and IB is 180 degrees out of phase ZLine0
= j60 Ω
Z1 = j15% Tx Ty ZR1 = j20%
with IC, which is the ideal case for a phase-to-phase fault on Z2 = j17% ZR2 = j21%
the B- and C-phases. Z0 = j5% 13.8 138 kV 138 13.8 kV ZR0 = j10%
100 MVA 100 MVA Zn = j0.05 pu
III-f What are the maximum short-circuit phase currents for j10% j10%
an A-phase-to-ground fault?
Fig. 8. One-line diagram of a nonradial system
For a single-phase-to-ground fault, the three sequence
networks are connected in series at the fault point, as shown in
the following figure.
 7

IV-a Select power and voltage bases for the per-unit IV-c Draw the positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence
system, and calculate the current and impedance bases networks for this system.
accordingly.
The following figure shows the positive-, negative-, and
To use the per-unit system, first choose a power base and a zero-sequence networks for the system. The positive- and
voltage base. We choose a three-phase power base of negative-sequence networks are similar, while the zero-
100 MVA and voltage bases as defined by the transformers: sequence network has two breaks in it due to the delta
Sbase = 100 MVA connections of the transformers.
Vbase_line = 138 kV
N1
Vbase_buses = 13.8 kV
V1 = 1.05 pu V1 = 1.05 pu
Notice that it is possible to have multiple voltage bases. We – –
start by choosing one voltage base and then use the voltage + +
ratios of the transformers to convert the original voltage base I1S ZTx1 = j0.10 ZTy1 = j0.10 I1R
to all the other parts of the system. This means that at every
ZS1 = j0.15 ZLine1 = j0.105 ZR1 = j0.20
transformer, there will be a voltage base conversion.
N2
We then calculate the current and impedance bases using
the power and voltage bases along with (5) and (6).
Depending on the voltage base that is active for the area we I2S ZTx2 = j0.10 ZTy2 = j0.10 I2R
are working in, we will calculate different current and
ZS2 = j0.17 ZLine2 = j0.105 ZR2 = j0.21
impedance bases.
On the line side of the transformers, using Vbase_line: N0

Sbase 100 MVA

I base _ line
= = = 418.37 A I0S I0R 3Zn = j0.15
3 • Vbase _ line 3 •138 kV ZTx0 = j0.10 ZTy0 = j0.10

ZS0 = j0.05 ZLine0 = j0.315 ZR0 = j0.10

( Vbase _=
line )
2
(138 kV )2
Zbase
= _ line = 190.44 Ω
Sbase 100 MVA These networks can be simplified by combining the
On the buses, which are on the delta sides of the impedances on each side of the fault point, as shown in the
transformers, using Vbase_buses: following figure. The positive-sequence network is further
simplified by combining both voltage sources into one
Sbase 100 MVA
I base _ buses
= = = 4183.7 A equivalent source.
3 • Vbase _ buses 3 •13.8 kV
N1
–
( Vbase _ buses=
) (13.8 kV=
2
)2 V1 = 1.05 pu
Zbase _ buses
= 1.90 Ω +
Sbase 100 MVA
I1S Z1 = j0.455 I1R
IV-b Convert all impedances on the system as well as the
prefault voltage to a common base. ZR1 = j0.20

The generator and transformer impedances are already on

N2
the correct bases. The only impedances that need to be I2S I2R
Z2 = j0.475
converted are the line impedances.
To convert the line impedances from ohms to per unit, ZR2 = j0.21
divide them by Zbase_line.
j20 N0
Z=
Line1 Z=
Line2 = j0.105 pu I0R
190.44
ZR0 = j0.25
j60
ZLine0
= = j0.315 pu
190.44
 8

IV-d What are the maximum short-circuit phase currents for N1

a three-phase fault? –
V1 = 1.05 pu N1 N2
A three-phase fault is balanced and has no negative- or +
N2 V1 = 1.05 pu
–
zero-sequence current. Therefore, only the positive-sequence ZR1 = j0.20 ZR2 = j0.21
network is connected, as shown in the following figure. +
Z1 = j0.455 Z2 = j0.475
N1
I1S I1R I2S I2R
– Z1 = j0.1389 Z2 = j0.1456
V1 = 1.05 pu I1 I2
+
I1 I1 I2

I1S Z = j0.455 I1R

1
From this diagram, we can observe that I1 = –I2 and I0 = 0.
ZR1 = j0.20 We can solve for I1 as follows:
1.05
I1
= = 3.69∠ –90 pu
j0.1389 + j0.1456
I1 =I 2 3.69∠90 pu
+
V1 = 1.05 pu Convert from the sequence domain to the phase domain as
–
I1S N1 I1R follows:
I A = I0 + I1 + I 2 = 0
Z1 = j0.455 ZR1 = j0.20
I B= I0 + α 2 I1 + αI 2= 6.39∠180 pu

The positive-sequence current through the fault can be IC= I0 + αI1 + α 2 I 2= 6.39∠0 pu
solved as follows: Convert the phase currents from per unit to amperes by
I=
1 I1S + I1R multiplying by Ibase_buses.
1.05 1.05 IA = 0
I1 = + = 7.557∠ –90 pu
j0.455 j0.20 IB =
6.39∠180 • 4183.7 =
26.73∠180 kA
For a three-phase fault, I0 and I2 are both 0. IC =∠
6.39 0 • 4183.7 =
26.73∠0 kA
Convert from the sequence to the phase domain as follows:
Notice that IA is zero and IB is 180 degrees out of phase
I A = I0 + I1 + I 2 = 7.557∠ –90 pu with IC, which is expected for a phase-to-phase fault on the B-
I B= I0 + α 2 I1 + αI 2= 7.557∠150 pu and C-phases.

IC= I0 + αI1 + α 2 I 2= 7.557∠30 pu IV-f What are the maximum short-circuit phase currents for
a B-phase-to-C-phase-to-ground fault?
Convert the phase currents from per unit to amperes by
multiplying by Ibase_buses. For a double-line-to-ground fault, the three sequence
IA =
7.557∠ –90 • 4183.7 =
31.62∠ –90 kA networks are connected in parallel at the fault point, as shown
in the following figure assuming zero fault resistance. On the
I B =∠
7.557 150 • 4183.7 =∠
31.62 150 kA
right side of the figure, the networks are represented by their
IC =
7.557∠30 • 4183.7 =
31.62∠30 kA equivalent impedances for simplification.
N1
IV-e What are the maximum short-circuit phase currents for
a B-phase-to-C-phase fault? – N1 N2 N0
V1 = 1.05 pu
+ V1 = 1.05 pu
For a phase-to-phase fault, the positive- and negative- N2 N0 –
sequence networks are connected in parallel at the fault point, ZR1 = j0.20 ZR2 = j0.21 +
as shown in the following figure. On the right side of the
Z1 = j0.455 Z2 = j0.475 Z2 = j0.1456
figure, the networks are represented by their equivalent ZR0 = j0.25
I1S I1R I2S I2R
impedances for simplification.
ZR0 = j0.25
Z1 = j0.1389
I1 I2 I0
I1 I2 I0
 9

From the diagram, we can solve for I1 as follows: From this diagram, we can see that I1 = I2 = I0. We can
1.05 solve for I1 as follows:
=I1 = 4.547∠ –90 pu 1.05
j0.1389 + ( j0.1456 || j0.25
= ) I1 =
( j0.455 || j0.20 ) ( j0.475 || j0.21) + j0.25
+
We can solve for the negative- and zero-sequence currents
using a current divider and the positive-sequence current. 1.964∠ –90 pu =
I2 =
I0

 ZR 0  Convert from the sequence domain to the phase domain as

I2 =
−I1  = follows:
 Z2 + ZR 0 
I A = I0 + I1 + I 2 = 3I 2 = 5.893∠ –90 pu
 j0.25 
4.547∠90  =2.87∠90 pu I B= I0 + α 2 I1 + αI 2= 0
 j0.1456 + j0.25 
IC= I0 + αI1 + α 2 I 2= 0
 Z2 
I0 = −I1  = Convert the phase currents from per unit to amperes by
 Z2 + ZR 0  multiplying by Ibase_buses.
 j0.1456  =I A 5.893• 4183.7
= 24.656∠ –90 kA
4.547∠90  = 1.67∠90 pu
 j0.1456 + j0.25  IB = 0
Convert from the sequence domain to the phase domain as IC = 0
follows:
IV-h For an A-phase-to-ground fault, find the maximum
I A = I0 + I1 + I 2 = 0
positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence current
I B= I0 + α 2 I1 + αI 2= 6.90∠158.66 pu contributions from Source S and Source R.
IC= I0 + αI1 + α 2 I 2= 6.90∠21.33 pu To find the contributions from Source S and Source R,
Convert the phase currents from per unit to amperes by perform a current divider using the sequence currents.
multiplying by Ibase_buses.  j0.20 
I1S I1 
= =  0.5997∠ –90 pu
IA = 0  j0.20 + j0.455 
IB =
6.90∠158.66 • 4183.7 =
28.85∠158.66 kA  j0.455 
=I1R I1  =  1.364∠ –90 pu
IC =
6.90∠21.33• 4183.7 =
28.85∠21.33 kA  j0.20 + j0.455 
IV-g What are the maximum short-circuit phase currents for  j0.21 
I 2S I 2 
= =  0.602∠ –90 pu
an A-phase-to-ground fault?  j0.21 + j0.475 
For a single-phase-to-ground fault, the three sequence  j0.475 
I 2R I 2 
= =  1.362∠ –90 pu
networks are connected in series at the fault point, as shown in  j0.21 + j0.475 
the following figure. I0S = 0
N1
I0R= I=
0 1.964∠ –90 pu
–
V1 = 1.05 pu
+

I1S Z1 = j0.455 I1R

ZR1 = j0.20

I1

N2
I2S Z2 = j0.475 I2R

ZR2 = j0.21

I2

N0
I0R

ZR0 = j0.25
I0
 10

IV-i Find the phase voltages at the fault location during an of phase with each other, as shown in the following figure.
A-phase-to-ground fault. This is not correct.
First, find the sequence voltages at the fault location by
writing voltage drop equations around each loop, as shown in
the following equations and figure.
= V1 − I1 ( Z1 || ZR1 )
VF1
VF2= 0 − I 2 ( Z2 || ZR 2 )
VF0= 0 − I0 ( ZR 0 )

VF1 =1.05 − (1.964∠ –90 ) • ( j0.1389 ) =0.777 pu

0 − (1.964∠ –90 ) • ( j0.1456 ) =
VF2 = −0.286 pu
0 − (1.964∠ –90 ) • ( j0.25 ) =
VF0 = −0.491 pu
N1
–
–
V1 = 1.05 pu VF1
V-b Derive the symmetrical components for an A-phase-
+ to-ground fault.
I1 Z1 || ZR1 +
Typical textbooks as well as the introduction to this paper
use (1) to derive symmetrical components from phase
N2 quantities. This method assumes an ABC system phase
–
VF2 rotation as well as an A-phase reference or base. An A-phase
I2 Z2 || ZR2 + base means that the A-phase is in the top position of the phase
current matrix followed by B-phase and C-phase for a system
with an ABC phase rotation. An A-phase base is only valid for
N
– 0 A-phase-to-ground, B-phase-to-C-phase, B-phase-to-C-phase-
I0
VF0 to-ground, or three-phase faults.
ZR0 +
Because an A-phase-to-ground fault assumes IB = IC = 0,
then:
1
I0= I1= I 2= IA
Convert from the sequence domain to the phase domain as 3
follows:
This results in the zero-, positive-, and negative-sequence
VFA = VF0 + VF1 + VF2 = 0 currents being equal and in phase with each other, which is
V= VF0 + α 2 VF1 + αV= 1.178∠ –128.66 pu what we expect. Equation (1) works fine when the fault is an
FB F2
A-phase-to-ground fault.
V=
FC VF0 + αVF1 + α 2 V=
F2 1.178∠128.66 pu
V-c Derive the symmetrical components for a B-phase-to-
V. EXAMPLE 4: CHANGING BASES ground fault.
This example shows the importance of using the right base Use (1) to calculate symmetrical components for a
when computing symmetrical components. Typical textbook B-phase-to-ground fault.
examples use an A-phase base, which always assumes an Because a B-phase-to-ground fault assumes IA = IC = 0,
A-phase-to-ground, B-phase-to-C-phase, B-phase-to-C-phase- then:
to-ground, or three-phase fault. For other fault types, the base 1
will need to be changed accordingly in order to compute the I0 = I B
3
correct symmetrical components.
This example shows a B-phase-to-ground fault that 1
I1= αI B
occurred on a transmission line. Open the event record titled 3
Example 4.cev, and view the symmetrical components during 1 2
I 2= α IB
the fault. 3
V-a Are the symmetrical component currents what we The unexpected result is that I0, I1, and I2 are 120 degrees
expect to see for a phase-to-ground fault? out of phase instead of in phase with each other. This matches
the phasors in the figure from the answer to Question V-a and
Because the sequence networks are connected in series for is incorrect, which proves that (1) does not work for a
a phase-to-ground fault, we expect to see I1 = I2 = I0. For this B-phase-to-ground fault.
event, the symmetrical components are each 120 degrees out
 11

V-d How do we obtain the correct symmetrical component

values for a B-phase-to-ground fault?
To correctly calculate the symmetrical components for
something other than the typical A-phase base faults, we must
change the base in (1). This is done by rotating the terms in
the phase current matrix so that the top position is the
reference, the middle term lags the reference by 120 degrees,
and the bottom term leads the reference by 120 degrees.
For a B-phase base on a system with an ABC system phase
rotation, the new equation is as follows:
 I0  1 1 1   IB 
 I=  1 1 α 
α 2   IC 
 1 3
1 α 2 α   I A 
 I 2   When viewing symmetrical components in ACSELERATOR
Using this new transformation equation and assuming that Analytic Assistant, it is very important to always select the
IA = IC = 0 for a B-phase-to-ground fault, we obtain: correct base. For a single-phase-to-ground fault, the correct
base is the faulted phase. For a phase-to-phase or double-line-
1 to-ground fault, the correct base is the unfaulted phase. For a
I0= I1= I 2= IB
3 three-phase fault, the base selection does not matter.
Notice that I0, I1, and I2 are all in phase with each other,
which is what we expect to see for a phase-to-ground fault. VI. EXAMPLE 5: PHASE ROTATION
This example shows the importance of phase rotation when
V-e Why did the symmetrical components in calculating sequence quantities. The event titled
ACSELERATOR Analytic Assistant not calculate
Example 5.cev is a simulated load condition on an SEL-351S
correctly?
Protection System. The trip equation in the relay is:
The event viewer needs to know what base to use when TR =51P1T + 51G1T + 67P1 + 50Q1 + OC
calculating symmetrical components. If the correct base is not where 50Q1 is a negative-sequence instantaneous
selected, the symmetrical components will calculate overcurrent element.
incorrectly, as we demonstrated in this example. The
following figures show that selecting B Phase as the base in VI-a What is the pickup setting for 50Q1 in the relay?
ACSELERATOR Analytic Assistant will make the sequence Based on the negative-sequence current seen in the
phasors come in line with each other. event, should the relay have tripped?
From the relay settings, we can see that 50Q1P = 3 A
secondary. The following figure is from the SEL-351S
Instruction Manual and shows that the 50Q1 element asserts
when 3 • I2 becomes greater than the 50Q1P setting.
Relay
Word
Setting Bits
50Q1P –
50Q1
3I2 +
67Q1
67Q1D
Directional Control
67Q1T
(asserted to logical 1
0
continuously if E32 = N)
SELOGIC®
Control
Equation SELOGIC Control
Setting Equation
Torque Control
67Q1TC
 12

The phasors in the event show that I2 is about 600 A This matches the negative-sequence current shown in the
primary, as shown in the following figure. second figure in the answer to Question VI-a.

VI-c Is it normal to see this much negative-sequence current

during unfaulted conditions?
No. A large amount of negative-sequence current or
voltage that appears in normal load metering along with a very
small amount of positive-sequence current or voltage is cause
for suspicion.

VI-d What is the phase rotation of the system? Does this

match the phase rotation setting in the relay?
A large amount of negative-sequence current with a small
amount of positive-sequence current seen during normal
With a current transformer (CT) ratio of 120, the measured
conditions is normally a system phase rotation issue. The
3 • I2 comes out to 15 A secondary.
following figure shows the phasors during the event. As the
=3I 2 3=
• 599.4 1798 A primary phasors rotate in a counterclockwise direction, the order in
1798 A primary which they pass a reference point is A-phase, then C-phase,
≅ 15 A secondary and then B-phase. This means the system has an ACB phase
120
rotation.
This is greater than the pickup value of 3 A secondary, so it
looks as if the relay should have tripped for this condition.
The following event report shows that although the
negative-sequence current magnitude is significantly above
the pickup, the 50Q1 element did not assert and the relay did
not issue a trip.

The settings in the relay also show that the global setting
PHROT is set to ACB, which is correct and matches the event
phasors.
VI-b Using the phase currents from the event, calculate the
negative-sequence current I2.
To convert phase currents to symmetrical components, use
(1). Using the phase currents from the previous figure,
calculate the negative-sequence component.
1
I2
=
3
(
I A + α 2 I B + αI C )
1
=I2 ( 599.1∠330 ) + α 2 ( 599.2∠90 ) + α ( 599.9∠210.1) 
3 
= 599.4∠ –30 A
 13

VI-e Why is ACSELERATOR Analytic Assistant calculating VI-f Calculate the negative-sequence current by hand using
high negative-sequence quantities? ACB phase rotation.
When viewing events in ACSELERATOR Analytic Assistant, For ACB phase rotation, (1) needs to be modified by
the symmetrical components of the voltages and currents that putting the currents in the phase matrix in ACB order, as
are displayed are calculated based on the phase quantities. follows:
Because of this, we must tell the software the phase rotation of
 I0  1 1 1   IA 
the system, which can be done under the Options menu, as  I=  1 1 α 
shown in the following figure.  1 3 α 2   IC 
 α   I B 
 I 2 
2
1 α
1
I2
=
3
(
I A + α 2 I C + αI B )
1
=I2 ( 599.1∠330 ) + α 2 ( 599.9∠210.1) + α ( 599.2∠90 ) 
3 
= 0.45∠147 A
Notice that this does not exactly match the results for I2 in
the second figure in the answer to Question VI-e. This is due
to a rounding error that comes into play because I2 has such a
small magnitude (0.6 A primary). The accuracy of the phase
currents (IA, IB, and IC) we are using in our hand calculations
is limited to the number of significant digits displayed by the
software. The difference between the hand-calculated results
and the ACSELERATOR Analytic Assistant results is due to the
The following figure shows the symmetrical components fact that ACSELERATOR Analytic Assistant is actually using
after changing the phase rotation in ACSELERATOR Analytic more significant digits for the phase currents. The important
Assistant to ACB. Notice the negative-sequence current is thing to note is that when the correct phase rotation is used,
now very small and the positive-sequence current is very high. the traditional method matches ACSELERATOR Analytic
This is the opposite of the results we saw when we assumed Assistant and results in extremely small (and negligible)
an ABC system phase rotation. values of negative-sequence current.
VI-g Why did the relay not trip?
The relay did not trip because there was very little
negative-sequence current present. The relay was calculating
the negative sequence correctly because it knew the phase
rotation was ACB (setting PHROT = ACB). ACSELERATOR
Analytic Assistant, however, needs to be told the correct phase
rotation in order to calculate the symmetrical components
correctly.
 14

VII. EXAMPLE 6: FAULT LOCATOR negative-sequence line impedance (from the relay settings) are
This example shows how to use symmetrical components known. This results in two equations and two unknowns (V2F
to determine a fault location using event reports from two ends and m).
of a transmission line. An internal single-line-to-ground fault Because both equations are equal to V2F, we can eliminate
was detected on a transmission line by the relays at both ends, this unknown variable by setting the equations equal to each
as shown in Fig. 9. The event reports from each relay are other.
provided in the event records titled Example 6 - Side S.eve V2S − I 2S • m • Z2L =V2R − I 2R • (1 − m ) • Z2L
and Example 6 - Side R.eve.
Then rearrange to solve for m.
S R
• Z2L m ( I 2S • Z2L + I 2R • Z2L )
V2S − V2R + I 2R=
m
V2S − V2R + I 2R • Z2L
m=
Z2L ( I 2S + I 2R )
S R
VII-c Use the event reports to obtain voltage and current
Fig. 9. Fault location on a two-source power system
values during the fault as well as the negative-
VII-a Draw the sequence networks for this fault. sequence line impedance. Solve for m.

Because the fault is a line-to-ground fault, the sequence V2S and I2S (magnitude and angle) can be found from the
networks are connected in series at the fault point, as shown in Example 6 – Side S.eve event during the time of the fault. It
the following figure. The distance to the fault in per unit of is best to select values that are stable and unchanging. In this
total line length is m. The flags mark the relay positions. event, stable data are found between 4.75 and 6.75 cycles, as
shown between the two dashed blue vertical lines in the
N1 following figure.
E1S E1R

I1S I1R
Z1S m • Z1L (1 – m) • Z1L Z1R

N2
– –
V2S V2R
I2S + V2F + I2R
Z2S m • Z2L (1 – m) • Z2L Z2R 3RF

N0
– –
V0S V0R
I0S + V0F + I0R
Z0S m • Z0L (1 – m) • Z0L Z0R

VII-b Using the sequence networks, write an equation to

solve for the fault location m.
Any of the sequence networks can be used to solve for the
fault location, but the negative-sequence network is preferred
because it is not affected by load flow or zero-sequence
mutual coupling.
To solve for m, write two voltage drop equations at the V2F
fault location—one between node V2F and the S relay and one
between node V2F and the R relay. These equations are as Because this is a C-phase-to-ground fault, we must select
follows: values on a C-phase base.
From this event, we gather the following:
V2S − I 2S • m • Z2L =
V2F
I 2S 368.7∠96.9 A
=
V2R − I 2R • (1 − m ) • Z2L =
V2F
V2S
= 8.2∠355.6 kV
Because we have event reports from both ends of the line,
the negative-sequence voltages and currents as well as the
 15

V2R and I2R (magnitude and angle) can be found in a similar VIII. EXAMPLE 7: TRANSFORMER LINE-TO-GROUND FAULT
way from the Example 6 – Side R.eve event during the time This example shows how to derive the phase shift,
of the fault. symmetrical components, and fault currents across a delta-wye
transformer. The event report titled Example 7.cev was
generated after a current differential relay protecting a Dy1
transformer tripped, as shown in Fig. 10. Although the
misoperation of the relay is not the focus of this exercise, it
was caused by incorrect winding current compensation
settings in the relay.

115 13.2 kV
10.5 MVA

From this event, we gather the following:

W1 W2
I 2R 805.3∠93.5 A
= 87

V=
2R 16.0∠356.5 kV Fig. 10. Transformer current differential relay protecting a Dy1 transformer
From the event report relay settings, we can find that
VIII-a What type of fault is this? Assuming a radial system,
R1 = R2 = 16.77 and X1 = X2 = 65.21 (note that if these
is the fault internal or external to the zone of
settings are in ohms secondary, they must be converted to protection?
ohms primary). Converting from the rectangular form of
16.77 + j65.21 to the polar form, we obtain the following: It is a C-phase-to-ground fault on the wye side of the
Z2L = 67.33∠75.58 Ω transformer. The fault is external because both relay CTs see
fault current. The following figure shows the waveform for an
We can then plug these data into the following equation to external C-phase-to-ground fault.
solve for the fault location m.
V2S − V2R + I 2R • Z2L
m=
Z2L ( I 2S + I 2R )
m=
( 8200∠355.6 ) − (16000∠356.5) + ( 805.3∠93.5) • ( 67.33∠75.58)
67.33∠75.58 ( 368.7∠96.9 + 805.3∠93.5 )
= 0.78 pu
From the LL setting in the relay, we see that the line length
is 82 miles. 0.78 • 82 miles gives us a fault location of
63.96 miles from Side S.
Now that the fault location m is known, it is possible to use
the same sequence networks to solve for the fault resistance, if
desired. The figure in the answer to Question VII-a will now VIII-b Do we expect the prefault currents on the delta side to
have all known impedances, with the exception of the fault lead or lag the currents on the wye side?
resistance, 3RF. For more information on fault location
algorithms and symmetrical components, see [10], [11], and The example states that it is a Dy1 transformer. This
[12]. standard means that the delta side leads the wye side by
(1 • 30) = 30 degrees for the prefault balanced phasors.
 16

c
VIII-c The transformer is connected to the system as shown
in Fig. 11. Does this change the current lead/lag IC ic ic a

relationship we expect to see across the transformer? If C

H1 X1 b
c
so, how? ib ib
H2 X2
C B b

A H3 X3
A a
B
H1 X1
C c X0

H2 X2
B b
ICW1 ICW2
H3 X3
A a

X0 IBW1 IBW2

IAW1 IAW2
ICW1 ICW2

IBW1 IBW2
–ib
ic – ib
IAW1 IAW2 IC + ib = ic ic (IC)
IC = ic – ib ia

ib
Fig. 11. Transformer phase-to-bushing connections
The result shows that the high-side (delta) currents are 3
The standard assumption that a Dy1 transformer delta side
larger and lag the low-side (wye) currents by 30 degrees. The
leads the wye side by 30 degrees is only valid when three
positive-sequence currents reflect the same behavior.
conditions are true:
1. The system has an ABC phase rotation. VIII-d Draw the phasors for the prefault currents we expect to
2. The A-phase on the system goes to H1 and X1 on the see on the system as well as the currents coming into
transformer, the B-phase on the system goes to H2 and the relay. Do these match the prefault phasors in the
X2 on the transformer, and the C-phase on the system event?
goes to H3 and X3 on the transformer.
3. The A-phase on the system goes to the A-phase on the The prefault current phasors are shown in the following
relay, the B-phase on the system goes to the B-phase figure, with Winding 1 being the delta side and Winding 2
on the relay, and the C-phase on the system goes to being the wye side. The left diagram shows the prefault
the C-phase on the relay. currents seen on the system, and the right diagram shows the
In this case, Condition 2 is not true. This means that the prefault currents seen by the relay. Note that the Winding 1
standard of delta leading wye by 30 degrees is not necessarily currents are 180 degrees out of phase from the Winding 2
true. currents when seen by the relay because the CT polarity of
We can easily trace through any transformer connection to Winding 1 is opposite that of Winding 2.
derive the lead/lag relationship between currents on either ICW1 IAW1 ICW2 IBW1
side. First, assume current flow through the transformer from
the delta side to the wye side. Knowing that the individual ICW2
IAW2
phase windings of the delta side are magnetically coupled to
the individual windings of the wye side and assuming a IAW2
IBW2
transformer ratio of 1:1, we can conclude that the currents
through them are the same. We can then write KCL equations
IBW1 IBW2 IAW1 ICW1
to derive the currents on the phases coming into the delta
winding. The derivation of this KCL equation for the delta-
side C-phase current is shown in the following figure.
 17

The phasors seen by the relay match the event, as shown in The phasors in the event, shown in the following figure,
the following figure. match what we expect to see. IAW1 and ICW1 are equal in
magnitude and 180 degrees out of phase. ICW1 and ICW2 are
also 180 degrees out of phase.

VIII-e Draw the phasors that we expect to see on the system

as well as the phasors coming into the relay during the VIII-f Look at the symmetrical components in the event.
fault. Does this match what the event shows? Derive these phasors by drawing the sequence network
of the fault.
Working from right to left, we can trace the fault through
the transformer in a way similar to what we did with the The sequence current phasors during the fault are shown in
prefault currents. This is shown in the following figure, the following figure. Note that we must select a C-phase base
assuming load is negligible on the unfaulted phases and the when viewing the sequence phasors because this is a C-phase-
transformer ratio is 1:1. to-ground fault.
c
a
IF IF b IF
H1 X1
C c
0 0 0
H2 X2
B b
IF 0 0
H3 X3
A a

X0

IF ICW1 ICW2 IF

IBW1 IBW2

IF IAW1 IAW2
 18

The following figure shows the sequence network diagram This solves for the sequence currents on the wye side of the
for this fault, with the flags marking the CT locations. transformer. In the first figure in this answer, we can see that
Because this is a phase-to-ground fault, all three sequence all three sequence phasors on the wye side (Winding 2) are
networks are connected in series. From this diagram, we equal in magnitude and phase, which is expected from the
notice that there is no zero-sequence current flowing through equations we derived. We can also see that the magnitude of
the CT on the delta side. This is why there is no zero-sequence the sequence phasors is about 1/3 that of the C-phase current
current phasor for Winding 1 in the previous figure. on Winding 2.
N1 Earlier, we derived that the currents on the delta side of the
–
transformer are going to be 3 greater in magnitude and
lagging the wye-side currents by 30 degrees in the positive
+
I1Y
sequence (leading by 30 degrees in the negative sequence).
ZT1 This is represented in the following figure by taking the
currents through the networks and transforming them through
a CT that applies the appropriate magnitude increase and
N2 angle shift. The sequence currents seen on the delta side are
after the CT transformation.
I2Y N1
ZT2
–

+
3∠–30°
N0 I1Y
ZT1

I0Y
ZT0
N2

3∠30°
I2Y
The phase currents used by the 87 elements in the relay are ZT2

a combination of positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence

currents. If the relay has wye CTs, we must remove the zero-
sequence current from Winding 2 inside the relay because the N0

zero-sequence current is removed from Winding 1 due to the

delta connection of the transformer. If we use a delta CT on I0Y
ZT0
the Winding 2 side, this would have the same effect. A
restricted earth fault (REF) element or ground relay on the X0
bushing can be used in order to detect sensitive ground faults
on the wye side of the transformer. The sequence phasors that we expect to see on the system
It is important to note that this network represents a phase- are shown in the following figure. Notice that I1Δ is 3
to-ground fault on the wye side of the transformer. This means greater in magnitude and lags I1Y by 30 degrees, while I2Δ is
we need to solve for the sequence currents going through the 3 greater in magnitude and leads I2Y by 30 degrees. Due to
wye side first and then apply a delta transformation to solve the CT polarity, we rotate the delta currents on the system by
for the currents going through the delta side. 180 degrees to see what the relay sees.
Because this is a C-phase-to-ground fault, we need to use a I1∆ Relay I2∆ System
C-phase base, so our transformation equation becomes (with
an ABC system phase rotation): I1Y
I2Y
 I0Y  1 1 1   ICY  I0Y
I =  1 1 α 
α 2   I AY 
 1Y  3  I2∆ Relay I1∆ System
 α   I BY 
 I 2Y 
2
1 α This matches the sequence phasors from the event, as
1 shown in the first figure in this answer. Note that in the event,
I0Y= ( ICY + I AY + I BY ) the delta currents are not 3 greater in magnitude than the
3
I= I= 0 wye currents, as we expect. This is because the 3 difference
AY BY
is based on an assumed transformer turns ratio of 1:1. The
1
I0Y = ICY transformer turns ratio is calculated as:
3
13.2 kV
I0Y
= I1Y = I 2Y
=n = 3 0.0662
115 kV
 19

We can now expect the delta currents to be n 3 greater We then apply the transformations, as shown in the
than the wye currents, or 0.1147 times greater. It is also following figure.
important to note that this relationship is true for amperes
0 0 0
primary, so we need to convert the amperes secondary given IC∆ = I0 ∆ + I1∆ + I2∆ IA= I0 ∆ + α 2I1∆ + αI2∆ IB= I0 ∆ + αI1∆ + α 2I2= 0
∆ ∆
in the event to amperes primary.
∆

For example, we expect I1Δ to be 0.1147 multiplied by I1Y I2∆ I1∆

α 2I1∆
αI2∆
αI1∆ α 2I2∆
in amperes primary. The event report shows I1Δ = 1.3 A
IC∆ IA∆
secondary and I1Y = 2.0 A secondary during the fault.
Multiplying each winding current by its CT ratio (40:1 for the Combining the results of the phase currents on the delta
delta winding and 240:1 for the wye winding), we obtain side and wye side, we get the phasors shown in the following
I1Δ = 52 A primary and I1Y = 480 A primary. I1Y (480 A) figure. This matches the phase currents during the event, as
multiplied by 0.1147 gives approximately I1Δ (52 A). shown in the last figure in the answer to Question VIII-e.
VIII-g Using the sequence components, work backwards to IC∆
IA∆

derive the phase fault currents on the delta and wye ICY

sides of the transformer.

IX. EXAMPLE 8: TRANSFORMER PHASE-TO-PHASE FAULT
Because we are using the C-phase as a base, our
This example shows how to derive the phase shift,
transformation equation is as follows:
symmetrical components, and fault currents across a delta-wye
 IC  1 1 1   I0  transformer. The event report titled Example 8.txt was
I  =  
 A 1 α
2
α   I1  generated after a current differential relay protecting a delta-
1 α wye transformer tripped, as shown in Fig. 12. The
 I B 
 α 2   I 2  misoperation of the relay is not the focus of this exercise.
IC = I0 + I1 + I 2
I A= I0 + α 2 I1 + αI 2
I B= I0 + αI1 + α 2 I 2
These computations can be done mathematically or
graphically. The graphical method is shown here. For the wye W2 W1
87
currents, we first draw the sequence phasors shifted by α and
α2 that we will need, as shown in the following figure. Fig. 12. Transformer current differential relay protecting a delta-wye
transformer
αI1Y αI2Y
IX-a What type of fault is this? Assuming a radial system,
I1Y
is the fault internal or external to the zone of
I2Y protection?
I0Y
It is a B-phase-to-C-phase fault on the wye side of the
α 2I2Y α 2I1Y transformer. The fault is external because both relay CTs see
fault current.
We then apply the transformations, as shown in the
following figure.
ICY = I0Y + I1Y + I2Y IAY= I0Y + α 2I1Y + αI2Y= 0 IBY= I0Y + αI1Y + α 2I2Y= 0
ICY I0Y α 2I2Y αI1Y
I0Y I1Y I2Y
αI2Y α 2I1Y
I0Y

For the delta currents, we first draw the sequence phasors

shifted by α and α2 that we will need, as shown in the
following figure.
α 2I2∆

I1∆ α 2I1∆

I2∆ αI2∆

αI1∆
 20

IX-b The transformer is connected to the system as shown The result shows that the Winding 2 (delta) currents lag the
in Fig. 13. Do we expect the currents on the delta side Winding 1 (wye) currents by 30 degrees.
to lead or lag the currents on the wye side?
IX-c Draw the phasors for the prefault currents expected on
C the system as well as the phasors coming into the
A relay.
B
A
H1 X1
a
The prefault current phasors are shown in the following
figure, with Winding 1 being the wye side and Winding 2
H3 X3 being the delta side. The left diagram shows the prefault
C c
current seen on the system, and the right diagram shows the
H2 X2
B b prefault currents seen by the relay. Note that the Winding 2
X0 currents are 180 degrees out of phase from the Winding 1
currents when seen by the relay because the CT polarity of
Winding 2 is opposite that of Winding 1.
IAW2 IAW1
ICW2 IAW2 ICW1 IBW2

ICW2 ICW1
ICW1
IAW1
IBW2 IBW1
IAW1
IBW1

IBW2 IBW1 IAW2 ICW2

Fig. 13. Transformer phase-to-bushing connections

We can easily trace through any transformer connection to IX-d Draw the phasors expected on the system as well as
derive the lead/lag relationship between currents on either coming into the relay during the fault. Does this match
what the event shows?
side. First, assume current flow through the transformer from
the delta to the wye side. Knowing that the individual phase Working from right to left, we can trace the fault through
windings of the delta side are magnetically coupled to the the transformer in a way similar to what we did with the
individual windings of the wye side and assuming a prefault currents. This is shown in the following figure,
transformer ratio of 1:1, we can conclude that the currents assuming load is negligible on the unfaulted phases and the
through them are the same. We can then write KCL equations transformer ratio is 1:1.
to derive the currents on the phases coming into the delta
c
winding. The derivation of this KCL equation for the delta-
a
side C-phase current is shown in the following figure. 0
IF b 0
C H1 X1
A a
A 2IF IF IF
IA ia ia H3 X3
B C c
H1 X1 IF
A a IF IF
H2 X2
ic ic B b
H3 X3
C c X0

H2 X2
B b
IF IAW2 IAW1
X0

2IF ICW2 ICW1 IF

IAW2 IAW1
IF IBW2 IBW1 IF
ICW2 ICW1

IBW2 IBW1

ic
IA + ic = ia ia
IA = ia – ic –ic
ia – ic
ib (IA)
 21

The phasors in the event, shown in the following figure, N1

match what we expect to see. IBW1 is 180 degrees out of –

phase with ICW1, and IAW2 and IBW2 are in phase. ICW2 is +
180 degrees out of phase with and twice the magnitude of I1
3∠–30° ZT1
IAW2 and IBW2.

N2

I2
3∠30° ZT2

It is important to note that this network represents a phase-

to-phase fault on the wye side of the transformer. This means
we need to solve for the sequence currents going through the
wye side first and then apply a delta transformation to solve
for the currents going through the delta side.
Because this is a B-phase-to-C-phase fault, we need to use
an A-phase base, so our transformation equation becomes:
 I0Y  1 1 1   I AY 
IX-e Look at the sequence phasors in the event. Derive  1 1 α 
these phasors by drawing the sequence network of the
I =
 1Y  3  α 2   I BY 
fault.  I 2Y  1 α 2 α   ICY 

The sequence current phasors during the fault are shown in I AY = 0, I BY = −ICY
the following figure. Note that we must select an A-phase base I0Y = 0
when viewing the sequence phasors because this is a B-phase-
to-C-phase fault. 1 1
I1Y =
3
( )
αI BY + α 2 ICY = αI BY − α 2 I BY =
3
( )
1 1
3
(
α − α=2
I BY
3
) 3I BY ∠90 ( )
1 1
( )
I 2Y = α 2 I BY + αICY = α 2 I BY − αI BY =
3 3
( )
1 2 1
3
α −=( α I BY
3
)
3I BY ∠ –90 ( )
I1Y = −I 2Y
This solves for the sequence currents on the wye side of the
transformer. In the first figure in this answer, we can see that
the positive- and negative-sequence phasors on the wye side
(Winding 1) are equal in magnitude and 180 degrees out of
phase, which is expected from the equations we derived. We
The following figure shows the sequence network diagram
can also see that the positive-sequence phasor is about 3 3
for this fault, with the flags marking the locations of the CTs
on either side of the transformer. Because this is a phase-to- times higher than the B-phase current on the wye side and
phase fault, the positive- and negative-sequence networks are leading by 90 degrees. Likewise, the negative-sequence
connected in parallel. phasor is about 3 3 times higher than the B-phase current
on the wye side and lagging by 90 degrees.
 22

Earlier, we derived that the currents on the delta side of the We then apply the transformations, as shown in the
transformer are going to be 3 greater in magnitude and following figure.
lagging the wye-side currents by 30 degrees in the positive 0 0 0
sequence (leading by 30 degrees in the negative sequence). IAY = I0Y + I1Y + I2Y = 0 IBY= I0Y + α 2I1Y + αI2Y ICY= I0Y + αI1Y + α 2I2Y
We represented this in the previous figure by taking the I1Y α 2I1Y α 2I2Y
currents through the networks and transforming them through
IBY ICY
a CT that applies the appropriate magnitude increase and I2Y
αI2Y αI1Y
angle shift. The sequence currents seen on the delta side are
after the CT transformation. For the delta currents, we first draw the sequence phasors
We can then draw the sequence phasors that we expect to shifted by α and α2 that we will need, as shown in the
see on the system, as shown in the following figure. Notice following figure.
that I1Δ is 3 greater in magnitude and lags I1Y by 30 degrees, I1∆ I2∆
while I2Δ is 3 greater in magnitude and leads I2Y by αI2∆ α 2I1∆

30 degrees. Due to CT polarity, we rotate the delta currents on

the system by 180 degrees to see what the relay sees.
I1∆ Relay I2∆ Relay
αI1∆
α 2I2∆
I2Y I1Y
We then apply the transformations, as shown in the
following figure.
I2∆ System I1∆ System
0 0 0
This matches the sequence phasors from the event, as IA∆ = I0 ∆ + I1∆ + I2∆ IB=
∆ I0 ∆ + α 2I1∆ + αI2∆ IC=
∆ I0 ∆ + αI1∆ + α 2I2∆

shown in the first figure in this answer. Note that in the event, I2∆ αI2∆ αI1∆
IB∆ IC∆
the delta currents are not 3 greater in magnitude than the IA∆ α 2I2∆
I1∆ α 2I1∆
wye currents, as we expect. This is because the 3 difference
is based on an assumed transformer turns ratio of 1:1. See Combining the results of the phase currents on the delta
Example 7 for an explanation of how the transformer turns and wye sides, we get the phasors shown in the following
ratio affects the current magnitude relationship between the figure. This matches the phase currents during the event, as
wye and delta sides. shown in the second figure in the answer to Question IX-d.
IX-f Using the sequence components, work backwards to ICY

derive the phase fault currents on the delta and wye

IA∆
sides of the transformer. IB∆

Because we are using the A-phase as a base, our

transformation equation is as follows:
IBY
 IA  1 1 1   I0  IC∆
I  =  
 B 1 α
2
α   I1 
1 α X. REFERENCES
 IC 
 α 2   I 2 
[1] J. L. Blackburn and T. J. Domin, Protective Relaying Principles and
I A = I0 + I1 + I 2 Applications. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2007.
[2] P. M. Anderson, Analysis of Faulted Power Systems. Iowa State
I B= I0 + α 2 I1 + αI 2 University Press, Ames, IA, 1973.
IC= I0 + αI1 + α 2 I 2 [3] J. D. Glover, M. S. Sarma, and T. J. Overbye, Power System Analysis
and Design (4th Edition). Thomson Learning, Toronto, ON, 2008.
These computations can be done mathematically or [4] E. O. Schweitzer, III and Stanley E. Zocholl, “Introduction to
graphically. The graphical method is shown here. For the wye Symmetrical Components,” proceedings of the 58th Annual Georgia
Tech Protective Relaying Conference, Atlanta, GA, April 2004.
currents, we first draw the sequence phasors shifted by α and
[5] Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Relay-Instrument Division, Applied
α2 that we will need, as shown in the following figure. Protective Relaying. Newark, NJ, 1976.
αI1Y α 2I2Y [6] C. F. Wagner and R. D. Evans, Symmetrical Components. McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1933.
[7] D. Costello, “Event Analysis Tutorial, Part 1: Problem Statements,”
January 2012. Available: http://www.selinc.com.
I2Y I1Y
[8] D. Costello, “Event Analysis Tutorial, Part 2: Answer Key,”
January 2012. Available: http://www.selinc.com.

α 2I1Y αI2Y
 23

[9] The Electricity Training Association, eds., Power System Protection

Volume 1: Principles and Components. The Institution of Electrical
Engineers, London, UK, 1995.
[10] P. K. Maezono, E. Altman, K. Brito, V. Alves dos Santos Mello Maria,
and F. Magrin, “Very High-Resistance Fault on a 525 kV Transmission
Line – Case Study,” proceedings of the 35th Annual Western Protective
Relay Conference, Spokane, WA, October 2008.
[11] D. A. Tziouvaras, J. Roberts, and G. Benmouyal, “New Multi-Ended
Fault Location Design for Two- or Three-Terminal Lines,” proceedings
of the 7th International Conference on Developments in Power System
Protection, Amsterdam, Netherlands, April 2001.
[12] A. Amberg, A. Rangel, and G. Smelich, “Validating Transmission Line
Impedances Using Known Event Data,” proceedings of the 65th Annual
Conference for Protective Relay Engineers, College Station, TX,
April 2012.

XI. BIOGRAPHIES
Ariana Amberg earned her BSEE, magna cum laude, from St. Mary’s
University in 2007. She graduated with a Masters of Engineering in Electrical
Engineering from Texas A&M University in 2009, specializing in power
systems. Ariana joined Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc. in 2009 as
an associate field application engineer. She has been an IEEE member for
9 years.

Alex Rangel received a BSEE and an MSE from The University of Texas at
Austin in 2009 and 2011, respectively. In January 2011, Alex joined
Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc., where he works as an associate
field application engineer. Alex is currently an IEEE member.

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