8.

1 Introduction
Welcome to the eighth lesson combined loadings. In this lesson, the following topics will be
covered; combined torsion and tension, combined bending and end loading, combined bending
and torsion, eccentric end loading, core of a rectangular section.
8.2 learning outcomes
By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
8.2.1 Analyze problems relating to combined loads on a structural member such as
torsion/tension, bending/tension and bending/torsion
8.2.2 Solve problems relating to eccentric loads
8.2.3 Solve problems relating to the core of a section

COMBINED LOADINGS
(i) Combined torsion and tension/compression

 Consider a shaft, diameter D, polar moment J subjected to a compressive load P and a

torque T.
𝑇 𝜏 𝑇𝐷
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = ; 𝜏=
𝐽 𝑟 𝐽2
𝑃 4𝑃
𝜎 =− =−
𝐴 𝜋𝐷
4𝑃
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒; 𝜎 (= 𝜎 ) = −
𝜋𝐷
𝜎 =0
𝑇𝐷
𝜏 (= 𝜏 )=
2𝐽
𝜎 +𝜎 𝜎 1
𝜎 , = ± 𝜎 −𝜎 + 4𝜏 = ± 𝜎 + 4𝜏
2 2 2
(ii) Thin cylinder subjected to internal pressure P and torque T

1
 𝑃𝑑
𝜎 (= 𝜎 ) =
4𝑡
𝑃𝑑
𝜎 (= 𝜎 ) =
2𝑡
𝑑 𝑑
𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 (𝑇) = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝐴𝑟𝑚 = (𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎) × 𝑎𝑟𝑚 = 𝜏 (𝜋𝑑𝑡) 𝑜𝑟 𝑇 = 𝜏 (𝜋𝑑𝑡)
2 2
𝜎 +𝜎 𝜎 +𝜎
𝜎 , = ± 𝜎 −𝜎 + 4𝜏 = ± (𝜎 − 𝜎 ) + 4𝜏
2 2

3 𝑃𝑑 1 𝑃𝑑 2𝑇 𝑃𝑑 4𝑇 4𝑡
= ± +4 = 3± 1+ ×
8 𝑡 2 4𝑡 𝜋𝑑 𝑡 8𝑡 𝜋𝑑 𝑡 𝑃𝑑

𝑃𝑑 16𝑇
= 3± 1+
8𝑡 𝜋𝑑 𝑃

(i) Combined bending and end loading

 Consider a rectangular cross-section beam subjected to a bending moment M about the

z-axis and an axial load P in the x-direction.
𝑃
𝐼𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑒, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑤𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑏𝑒: 𝜎 =
𝐴

2
 𝑀𝑦
𝐼𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑒, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑤𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑏𝑒: 𝜎 =
𝐼
𝐵𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑀 𝑖𝑠:
𝑃 𝑀𝑦 𝑃 𝑀𝑦
𝜎 = + = + 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐴 𝐼 𝑏𝑑 𝑏𝑑
12
The resultant stress distribution is as shown below.

The Neutral Axis represents all points where the stresses are zero.
Points to note:

 The neutral axis no longer passes through the centroid of the x-section.

 y is measured from the centroidal axis of the cross-section, not from the neutral axis.

 The most distant points from the NA are the most stressed points.

 The neutral axis is very important in design and is not a geometrical property

 One side of the NA is in tension, while the other side is in compression.

COMBINED BENDING AND TORSION

3
  Consider a solid circular cantilever beam subjected to a lateral bending load P and
torque T at the free end.

 At any x-section, we have:

(i) Bending moment M (= Px)
(ii) Shear force V (due to bending)
(iii) Twisting couple T
All these produce stresses on the x-section.

 The critical points are at the top of the bar (A) or at the side of the bar (neutral axis) (B).
Consider element A at top of the bar:
𝑀𝑦 𝑀 𝑑
𝐵𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎 = = (𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑀 = 𝑃𝐿)
𝐼 𝐼 2
𝑇𝑅 𝑇 𝑑
𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜏 = =
𝐽 𝐽2
𝑉𝑄
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝜏 = (= 0)
𝐼𝑏
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜏 = 𝜏 + 𝜏
 Once 𝜎 and 𝜏 are known, we can calculate the principal stresses from equations i.e.

(𝜎 , = ± 𝜎 −𝜎 + 4𝜏 ) or from Mohr’s circle.

 Maximum stresses at top of the bar occur when A is at the fixed end (where BM is a
maximum)
Consider element B on the side of the bar (at the NA)
Element is on the NA wrt bending i.e. 𝜎 (due to bending) = zero
𝑇𝑅 𝑇 𝑑
𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜏 = =
𝐽 𝐽2
𝑉𝑄 4𝑉
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝜏 = = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐼𝑏 3𝐴
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜏 = 𝜏 + 𝜏

COMBINED BENDING AND TORSION (Bending moment M and torque T)

4
  Consider a shaft diameter d subjected to a bending moment M and a twisting moment T
(bending could be due to weight of pulleys, couplings, pull in belts etc.)

 We then have direct stress due to bending and shear stress due to torsion (assume no
shear stress due to bending).

𝜋𝑑
𝑀𝑦 𝜎 𝐼 𝜎 64 𝜎 𝜋𝑑
𝐵𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎 = ; 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑀= = =
𝐼 𝑦 𝑑 32
2
𝜋𝑑
𝑇𝑅 𝜏𝐽 𝜏 32 𝜏𝜋𝑑
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜏 = ; 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑇 = = =
𝐽 𝑅 𝑑 16
2
2𝜏 2𝜏
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦: tan 2𝜃 = =
𝜎 −𝜎 𝜎

 Bending and torsion is most predominant at L and N.

32𝑀 𝑇𝑅 16𝑇
𝜎 , = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜏 = =
𝜋𝑑 𝐽 𝜋𝑑
32𝑇
2𝜏 𝜋𝑑 𝑇
𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑠: tan 2𝜃 = = 32𝑀 =
𝜎 𝑀
𝜋𝑑

𝜎 𝜎 16
𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠: 𝜎 = + +𝜏 = 𝑀+ 𝑀 +𝑇
2 4 𝜋𝑑

𝜎 𝜎 16
𝜎 = − +𝜏 = 𝑀− 𝑀 +𝑇
2 4 𝜋𝑑

𝜎 −𝜎 16
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜏 = = 𝑀 +𝑇
2 𝜋𝑑

5
Example:
A thin cylinder 500 mm internal diameter and 20 mm wall thickness with closed ends is
subjected simultaneously to an internal pressure of 0.6 MPa, a bending moment of 64,000 Nm
and a torque of 16,000 Nm. Determine the maximum tensile and shearing stress in the walls of
the cylinder.
Solution:
𝑑 = 0.5 𝑚; 𝑡 = 0.02 𝑚; 𝑃 = 0.6 𝑀𝑃𝑎; 𝑀 = 0.064 𝑀𝑁𝑚; 𝑇 = 0.016 𝑀𝑁𝑚
 For a thin cylinder:
𝑃𝑑 0.6 × 0.5 𝑃𝑑
𝜎 =𝜎 = = = 7.5 𝑀𝑃𝑎; 𝜎 (= 𝜎 )= = 3.75 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2𝑡 2 × 0.02 4𝑡
 Due to combined bending and torque:
16 16
𝜎 = 𝑀+ 𝑀 +𝑇 = 0.064 + 0.064 + 0.016 = 5.29 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜋𝑑 𝜋(0.5)
16 16
𝜎 = 𝑀− 𝑀 +𝑇 = 0.064 − 0.064 + 0.016 = −0.08 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜋𝑑 𝜋(0.5)
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎 = 𝜎 + 𝜎 = 7.5 + 5.29 = 12.79 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜎 = 𝜎 + 𝜎 = 3.75 − 0.08 = 3.67 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜎 −𝜎 12.79 − 3.67
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜏 = = = 4.56 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2 2

ECCENTRIC END LOADING

6
Recall 𝜎 = only if P passes through the centroid of the section.

 Consider a cantilever beam carrying an eccentric load P.

 P is eccentric about the z- and y-axis by amounts 𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒 respectively.

𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑃 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑖𝑑

+ 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑃𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑦 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠, 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦
𝑃
(𝑖) 𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑃 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑒; 𝜎 =
𝐴
𝑀𝑦 𝑃𝑒 . 𝑧
(𝑖𝑖) 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑦 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠: 𝜎 = =
𝐼 𝐼
𝑃𝑒 . 𝑦
(𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑧 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠: 𝜎 =
𝐼
 By superposition, resultant longitudinal stress:
𝑃 𝑃𝑒 . 𝑧 𝑃𝑒 . 𝑦 𝑃 𝐴𝑒 . 𝑧 𝐴𝑒 . 𝑦
𝜎 =𝜎 + 𝜎 +𝜎 = + + = 1+ +
𝐴 𝐼 𝐼 𝐴 𝐼 𝐼

 For a rectangular section:

𝑑𝑏 𝑏𝑑
𝐼 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼 =
12 12

𝑃 𝑏𝑑𝑒 . 𝑧 𝑏𝑑𝑒 . 𝑦
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝜎 = 1+ +
𝑏𝑑 𝑑𝑏 𝑏𝑑
12 12
𝑃 12𝑒 . 𝑧 12𝑒 . 𝑦 𝑏 𝑑
= 1+ + 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑧 ⇛ ± 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ⇛ ±
𝑏𝑑 𝑏 𝑑 2 2
Example:
A beam of rectangular cross-section 3 m x 2 m is subjected to a compressive load of 1000 kN,
the line of action of the resultant being 1.80 m from one of the shorter sides, and 0.85 m from
one of the longer sides.
(i) Find the maximum tensile and compressive stresses.
(ii) What additional load should be placed at the center so that there is no tension
anywhere on the x-section?
(iii) Solution

7
Bending moments:
𝑃𝑒 = 1000(0.3) = 300 𝑘𝑁𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑒 = 1000(0.15) = 150 𝑘𝑁𝑚

3×2 2×3
𝐼 = =2𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼 = = 4.5 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴 = 3 × 2 = 6 𝑚
12 12
𝑃 𝐴𝑒 . 𝑧 𝐴𝑒 . 𝑦 1000 × 10 6(0.3)𝑧 6(0.15)𝑦
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝜎 = − 1+ + =− 1+ +
𝐴 𝐼 𝐼 6 4.5 2

1000 × 10 𝑧 9𝑦
=− 1+ +
6 2.5 20
 The maximum compressive stress occurs at “C” where z = 1.5 m and y = 1 m.
10 3 9
𝜎 =− 1+ + = −0.342 𝑀𝑃𝑎
6 5 20
 The maximum tensile stress occurs at “A” where z = -1.5 m and y = -1 m.
10 3 9
𝜎 =− 1− − = 0.008 𝑀𝑃𝑎
6 5 20
Additional load at the center:

 Let additional load be P’.

𝑃′ 𝑃′ 𝑘𝑁
𝜎 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑃 = = 𝑚
𝐴 6
 For no tension on the cross-section, compressive stress due to load P’ must be equal to
the tensile stress at A.
𝑃′
= 0.008 × 10 𝑘𝑁 𝑚
6
P’ = 48 kN

8
CORE OF A RECTANGULAR SECTION
From the last example, we note as follows:
A compressive offset load can induce a resultant tensile stress in parts of the x-section if the
tensile stress due to bending in those regions is greater than the compressive stress produced by
the axial load.

 Brittle materials such as concrete beams or cast iron are strong in compression and
weak in tension.

 When using such materials there is need to limit eccentricities 𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒 to avoid any
tension on the cross-section.

 Consider a rectangular x-section subjected to eccentric compressive load P, applied

parallel to the longitudinal x-axis in the positive zy quadrant.

𝑃 𝑃𝑒 . 𝑧 𝑃𝑒 . 𝑦
𝜎 =− − − (−𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛)
𝐴 𝐼 𝐼

In the region of the x-section where z and y are negative, tension will develop if:
𝑃𝑒 . 𝑧 𝑃𝑒 . 𝑦 𝑃
+ >
𝐼 𝐼 𝐴

The limiting case is when the direct stress is zero at corner where 𝑧 = − 𝑏 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = − 𝑑 2
i.e. at Q.
𝑃 𝑃𝑒 −𝑏 𝑃𝑒 −𝑑
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒; 0 = − − −
𝐴 𝐼 2 𝐼 2

𝑏𝑑 𝑑𝑏
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐴 = 𝑏𝑑; 𝐼 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
12 12

9
 1 𝑒 −𝑏 𝑒 −𝑑 1 6𝑒 6𝑒
0=− − − = − + + (𝑏 𝑑 )
𝑏𝑑 𝑑𝑏 2 𝑏𝑑 2 𝑏𝑑 𝑑𝑏 𝑏𝑑
12 12
= −𝑏𝑑 + 6𝑒 𝑑 + 6𝑒 𝑏
1 𝑏𝑑 1
(𝑒 𝑏 + 𝑒 𝑑) =
𝑏 6 𝑏
𝑑 𝑑
𝑒 =− 𝑒 + (𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒)
𝑏 6
𝑑
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑒 = 0; 𝑒 = (𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝐴) 𝑎𝑛𝑑
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𝑏
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑒 = 0; 𝑒 = (𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝐵)
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 Therefore, P can be applied anywhere in the region GAB with no tension developing
anywhere on the x-section.

 Since the x-section is doubly symmetric, the argument also applies to regions GBC, GCD
and GDA.

Rhombus ABCD is the core of a rectangular section with diagonals 𝐵𝐷 = 𝑏 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝐶 = 𝑑 3

The concept is also referred to as the middle third rule.

CORE OF A CIRCULAR SECTION

 Consider a circular section subjected to an eccentric compressive load P applied parallel

to the longitudinal x axis.

 The coordinate axis is selected as radius on which P acts and its .

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 𝑃 𝑃𝑒 . 𝑧 𝑃𝑒 . 𝑦
𝜎 =− − −
𝐴 𝐼 𝐼
𝑃 𝑃𝑒 . 𝑧
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑒 = 0 𝑖. 𝑒. ; 𝜎 = − −
𝐴 𝐼
𝑃𝑒 . 𝑧 𝑃
𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑧 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑓 >
𝐼 𝐴

 The limiting case is when 𝜎 = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = −𝑅

𝑃 𝑃𝑒 (−𝑅)
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜎 = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = −𝑅 𝑖. 𝑒. 0 = − −
𝐴 𝐼

𝜋𝑅 1 𝑒 (𝑅) 𝑅
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼 = ; 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 0 = − + 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑒 =
4 𝜋𝑅 𝜋𝑅 4
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The core of a circular section is a circle of radius 𝑅 4 (𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑒 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑒)

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