3.

1 Introduction
Welcome to the 3rd lesson on deflection of beams. In this lesson, the following topics will be
covered; derivation of the differential equation for beam deflection (double integration);
application of the differential equation to various beam support conditions (such as cantilevers
and simply supported beams) and various types of loads (such as concentrated loads, uniformly
distributed loads, linearly varying loads etc.)
3.2 learning outcomes
By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
1.2.1 Derive the characteristic differential equation for beam deflection (double integration)
1.2.2 Analyze beam slopes and deflection using the differential equation for various types of
loads and support conditions.

DEFLECTION OF BEAMS
Importance of deflection: Design of structural components usually based on strength and
stiffness. Structural elements must be stiff enough not to deflect more than the permissible
limit:

 In buildings, problem is poor appearance and too much flexibility.

 Maintaining clearances e.g. in machine components
 Preventing undesirable vibrations e.g. in aircraft wings
Consider a cantilever beam subjected to a concentrated load ‘P’ at the free end.

1
  The x-y plane is the plane of bending

 ‘v’ is the deflection at ‘m1’ along the beam, a distance ‘x’ from the fixed end (see
magnified figure below)

 ‘θ’ is the angle of rotation at ‘m1’ (angle between the x-axis and the tangent to the
deflection curve).

 ‘m2’ is at distance ‘ds’ along the deflection curve or ‘x + dx’ along the x-axis.

 Deflection at ‘m2’ is ‘v + dv’.

 Angle of rotation at ‘m2’ is ‘θ + dθ’.

 At m1, m2 construct normals to the tangent.

 R is the radius of curvature.

1 𝑑𝜃
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑅. 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑑𝑠 𝑜𝑟 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . … … … … … (𝑎)
𝑅 𝑑𝑠
 A positive curvature is a positive value of dθ/ds i.e. θ increases as we move along the
beam in the positive x-direction.
𝐴𝑡 ′𝑥′, 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑣
𝑑𝑣
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 =
𝑑𝑥
 If ‘dx’ is infinitely small, the
𝑑𝑣
(𝑖) ≅ tan 𝜃
𝑑𝑥
(𝑖𝑖) 𝑑𝑠 ≅ 𝑑𝑥 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (𝑏)

 From equation (a) and (b):

1 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃
= ≅
𝑅 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑥
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝜃, tan 𝜃 ≅ 𝜃 𝑖. 𝑒.
𝑑𝑣
≅ tan 𝜃 = 𝜃 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 … … … … … (𝑐)
𝑑𝑥
 Differentiate equation ‘c’:
𝑑𝜃 𝑑 𝑣
= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (𝑎);
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

2
1 𝑑𝜃 𝑑 𝑣
= = (𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙)
𝑅 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑀
𝐵𝑢𝑡 =− (𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐)
𝑅 𝐸𝐼
𝑑 𝑣 𝑀
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, =− 𝑜𝑟
𝑑𝑥 𝐸𝐼
𝒅𝟐 𝒗
𝑬𝑰 𝟐 = −𝑴 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (𝒅)
𝒅𝒙
This is the differential equation of the deflection curve.
Sign convention
(i) ‘x’ and ‘y’ are considered positive to the right and down, respectively.
(ii) ‘θ’ is positive when measured clockwise from the x-axis.
(iii) Deflection ‘v’ is positive downwards.
(iv) ‘M’ is positive when it produces compression in the upper part of the beam.
(v) Curvature is positive when the beam is bent concave downwards (opposite of
bending moment).

 Differentiate equation (d):

𝑑𝑀 𝑑 𝑣 𝑑𝑀
− = 𝐸𝐼 = −𝑄 (𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒) … … . . 𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 =𝑄
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 Differentiate again:
𝑑𝑄 𝑑 𝑣 𝑑𝑄
− = 𝐸𝐼 = 𝑞 (𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑) … . . 𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 = −𝑞
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Using prime notation:
𝑑𝑣 𝑑 𝑣 𝑑 𝑣 𝑑 𝑣
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑣 = ; 𝑣 = ; 𝑣 = ; 𝑣 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒; 𝑬𝑰𝒗 = −𝑴; 𝑬𝑰𝒗 = −𝑸; 𝑬𝑰𝒗 =𝒒
 Any of the three equations can be used to calculate the deflection. The equations are
based on the following:
 Pure bending was assumed i.e. no shear deformation.
 Linear elastic material i.e. Hooke’s law is obeyed.
 Slopes of the deflection curve are small.

3
Example 1
A simply supported beam AB carries a uniformly distributed load ‘q’ over the whole span.

 Determine the equation of the deflection curve

 Determine the maximum deflection

 Determine the angles of rotation θa and θb at the supports

Solution:

The deflection curve and the free body diagram are as shown.
𝑥 𝑞𝐿 𝑞𝐿 𝑞𝑥
𝑨𝒕 𝒙: 𝑀 + 𝑞𝑥 − 𝑥 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑀 = 𝑥−
2 2 2 2
𝑞𝐿𝑥 𝑞𝑥
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆: 𝐸𝐼𝑣 = − + 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔,
2 2
𝑞𝐿𝑥 𝑞𝑥
𝐸𝐼𝑣 = − + +𝐶
4 6
𝐿 𝑑𝑣
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑣 = = 0 𝑖. 𝑒
2 𝑑𝑥
𝑞𝐿 𝐿 𝑞𝐿 𝑞𝐿
𝐸𝐼𝑣 = − + + 𝐶 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝐶 =
4 4 68 24
𝑞𝐿𝑥 𝑞𝑥 𝑞𝐿
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆: 𝐸𝐼𝑣 = − + + 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔,
4 6 24

4
 𝑞𝐿𝑥 𝑞𝑥 𝑞𝐿 𝑥
𝐸𝐼𝑣 = − + + +𝐶
12 24 24
 When x = 0, v = 0 i.e.
𝑞𝐿(0) 𝑞(0) 𝑞𝐿 (0)
0=− + + + 𝐶 𝑜𝑟 𝐶 = 0
12 24 24
𝑞𝑥
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒: 𝑣 = [𝐿 − 2𝐿𝑥 + 𝑥 ] 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒
24𝐸𝐼
 The maximum deflection occurs at 𝑥 = and is given by:

𝑞𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 5𝑞𝐿
𝑣 =𝛿= 𝐿 − 2𝐿 + =
48𝐸𝐼 4 8 384𝐸𝐼

 To determine the angle of rotation θa and θb at the supports:

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑞𝐿
𝜃= 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝜃 = 𝑜𝑟 𝜃 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 24𝐸𝐼
 Similarly,
𝑑𝑣 𝑞𝐿
𝜃 = =−
𝑑𝑥 24𝐸𝐼

Example 2
A cantilever beam AB supports a uniformly distributed load ‘q’ over the whole span as shown.
(a) Determine the deflection at the free end
(b) Determine the angle of rotation θb at the free end.

Solution:

 The deflection curve and free body diagram are as shown.

𝑞 𝑞(𝐿 − 𝑥)
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 (𝑏) : − 𝑀 − (𝐿 − 𝑥) = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑀 = −
2 2

5
 𝑞 𝑞𝐿 𝑞𝑥
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒: 𝐸𝐼𝑣 = (𝐿 − 𝑥) = −𝑞𝑙𝑥 + +
2 2 2
−𝑞𝑙𝑥 𝑞𝐿 𝑥 𝑞𝑥
𝐸𝐼𝑣 = + + +𝐶
2 2 6
When x = 0, v’ = 0 and therefore C1 = 0 i.e.
−𝑞𝑙𝑥 𝑞𝐿 𝑥 𝑞𝑥
𝐸𝐼𝑣 = + +
2 2 6
𝑑𝑣
𝐴𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑑; = 𝜃 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝐿.
𝑑𝑥
1 −𝑞𝐿 𝑞𝐿 𝑞𝐿 𝑞𝐿
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒; 𝜃 = ( + + =
𝐸𝐼 2 2 6 6𝐸𝐼
−𝑞𝑙𝑥 𝑞𝐿 𝑥 𝑞𝑥
𝐸𝐼𝑣 = + + +𝐶
6 4 24
When x = 0, v = 0 and therefore C2 = 0.
1 −𝑞𝐿𝑥 𝑞𝐿 𝑥 𝑞𝑥
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑣 = + + 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒
𝐸𝐼 6 4 24

The maximum deflection occurs at the free end where x = L i.e.

1 −𝑞𝐿 𝑞𝐿 𝑞𝐿 𝑞𝐿
𝑣 = + + =
𝐸𝐼 6 4 24 8𝐸𝐼

6
Example 3
A cantilever beam carries a concentrated load at the free end as shown. Determine the
maximum deflection and the maximum slope.

Solution:
𝑀 + 𝑃𝑥 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑀 = −𝑃𝑥
∴ 𝐸𝐼𝑣 = −𝑀 = 𝑃𝑥
𝑃𝑥
𝐸𝐼𝑣 = +𝐶
2
𝑃𝐿 𝑃𝑥 𝑃𝐿
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 𝐿, 𝑣’ = 0 ∴ 𝐶 = − 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐸𝐼𝑣 = −
2 2 2
𝑃𝑥 𝑃𝐿 𝑥
𝐸𝐼𝑣 = − +𝐶
6 2
𝑃𝐿 𝑃𝐿 𝑃𝐿
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 𝐿, 𝑣 = 0 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐶 + − = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝐶 =
6 2 3
1 𝑃𝑥 𝑃𝐿 𝑥 𝑃𝐿
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒; 𝑣 = − + = 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒
𝐸𝐼 6 2 3

𝑃𝐿 𝑃𝐿
𝑣 , = ; 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣′ , =−
3𝐸𝐼 2𝐸𝐼

Example 4
A cantilever beam AB supports a load varying linearly in intensity from a value q 0 at the support
to a value zero at the free end as shown. Determine:

 The equation of the deflection curve

 The deflection δb at the free end

 The slope θb at the free end

7
Solution:
In this example, its more convenient to start with the load equation instead of the moment
equation since the load equation can be established more easily. The load equation is:
𝐿−𝑥
𝑞=𝑞
𝐿
𝑞 𝑥
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒: 𝐸𝐼𝑣 =𝑞= (𝐿 − 𝑥) = 𝑞 − 𝑞
𝐿 𝐿
𝑥
𝐸𝐼𝑣 =𝑞 𝑥−𝑞 +𝐶 (= −𝑆𝐹 𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒)
2𝐿
𝐿 −𝑞 𝐿
𝐴𝑡 𝑥 = 𝐿, 𝑆𝐹 = 0 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑞 𝐿 − 𝑞 + 𝐶 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝐶 =
2𝐿 2
𝑥 𝑞 𝐿 −𝑞
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒; 𝐸𝐼𝑣 =𝑞 𝑥−𝑞 − = (𝐿 − 2𝐿𝑥 + 𝑥 )
2𝐿 2 2𝐿
−𝑞 2𝐿𝑥 𝑥
𝐸𝐼𝑣 = 𝐿 𝑥− + +𝐶 (= −𝑀)
2𝐿 2 3

 But M = 0 at the free end (at x = L). Therefore,

−𝑞 𝐿 𝑞 𝐿
𝐿 −𝐿 + + 𝐶 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝐶 = 𝑖. 𝑒.
2𝐿 3 6

−𝑞 𝑥 𝑞 𝐿
𝐸𝐼𝑣 = 𝐿 𝑥 − 𝐿𝑥 + +
2𝐿 3 6

−𝑞 𝐿 𝑥 𝐿𝑥 𝑥 𝑞 𝐿 𝑥
𝐸𝐼𝑣 = − + + +𝐶
2𝐿 2 3 12 6

𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0, 𝑣 = 0 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐶 = 0.

8
 −𝑞 𝐿𝑥 𝐿𝑥 𝑥 𝑞 𝐿𝑥
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒; 𝐸𝐼𝑣 = − + +
2𝐿 2 3 12 6

−𝑞 𝐿𝑥 𝐿𝑥 𝑥 𝑞 𝐿𝑥
𝐸𝐼𝑣 = − + + +𝐶
2𝐿 6 12 60 12

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 0, 𝑣 = 0 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐶 = 0
−𝑞 𝐿 𝑥 𝐿𝑥 𝑥 𝑞 𝐿 𝑥
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒; 𝐸𝐼𝑣 = − + +
2𝐿 6 12 60 12

𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒

 At the free end where x=L,
−𝑞 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝑞 𝐿 𝑞 𝐿
𝐸𝐼𝑣 = − + + =
2𝐿 6 12 60 12 30

𝑞 𝐿
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒; 𝑣 =
30𝐸𝐼
To determine the slope at the free end (where x = L),
−𝑞 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝑞 𝐿 𝑞 𝐿
𝐸𝐼𝑣 = − + + 𝑜𝑟 𝑣 =
2𝐿 2 3 12 6 24𝐸𝐼

Example 5
A simply supported beam carries a concentrated central load ‘P’. Determine the maximum
deflection and the slope at the ends.

9
Solution:

 Due to symmetry, we can consider only ½ of the beam.

𝑃𝑥 𝐿
𝑀= 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 <
2 2
𝑑 𝑣 𝑃𝑥
𝐸𝐼 = −𝑀 = −
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑𝑣 𝑃𝑥
𝐸𝐼 =− +𝐶
𝑑𝑥 4
𝑃𝑥
𝐸𝐼𝑣 = − +𝐶 𝑥+𝐶
12
When x = 0, v = 0 i.e. C2 = 0
𝐿 𝑑𝑣 𝑃𝐿 𝑃𝐿
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = ; = 0 𝑖. 𝑒. 0 = − +𝐶 𝑜𝑟 𝐶 =
2 𝑑𝑥 16 16
𝑃𝑥 𝑃𝐿 𝑑𝑣 𝑃𝑥 𝑃𝐿
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒; 𝐸𝐼𝑣 = − + 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝐼 =− +
12 16 𝑑𝑥 4 16
𝑑𝑣 𝑃𝐿
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 0, 𝜃 = =
𝑑𝑥 16𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝐿
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 𝐿 (𝑎𝑡 𝐵), 𝜃 =−
16𝐸𝐼
𝐿 𝑃𝐿
𝑣 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = =
2 48𝐸𝐼

10
4.1 Introduction
Welcome to the 4th lesson on deflection of beams. In this lesson, the following topics will be
covered; Macaulay’s method for discontinuous loading (use of singularity functions), Moment
area method.
4.2 learning outcomes
By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
4.2.1 Apply singularity functions to analyze beam slopes and deflection
4.2.2 Apply the moment area method to analyze beam slopes and deflections

Concentrated load applied at an arbitrary point on the beam

A simply supported beam carries a load ‘P’ at an arbitrary point as shown. Want to determine:

 Equation of the deflection curve

 Slopes θa and θb at the supports

 Maximum deflection

 Deflection at mid-span

 Deflection under the load

Solution:
Due to the discontinuity of loading, we shall consider the left hand side (from A up to load ‘P’)
and the right hand side (from load ‘P’ to end B) separately.

11
0OxOa

𝑃𝑏𝑥
𝑀=
𝐿
𝑑 𝑣 𝑃𝑏𝑥
𝐸𝐼 =−
𝑑𝑥 𝐿
𝑑𝑣 𝑃𝑏𝑥
𝐸𝐼 =− +𝐶
𝑑𝑥 2𝐿
𝑃𝑏𝑥
𝐸𝐼𝑣 = − +𝐶 𝑥+𝐶
6𝐿

aOxOL

𝑃𝑏𝑥
𝑀= − 𝑃(𝑥 − 𝑎)
𝐿
𝑑 𝑣 𝑃𝑏𝑥
𝐸𝐼 =− + 𝑃(𝑥 − 𝑎)
𝑑𝑥 𝐿
𝑑𝑣 𝑃𝑏𝑥 𝑥
𝐸𝐼 =− +𝑃 − 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑑𝑥 2𝐿 2

𝑃𝑏𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝐸𝐼𝑣 = − +𝑃 −𝑎 +𝐶 𝑥+𝐶
6𝐿 6 2

 Since we have 4 constants of integration, we need 4 boundary conditions to solve the

problem.
(1) 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 0, 𝑣 = 0 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐶 = 0
(2) 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑎, 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑖. 𝑒.
𝑃𝑏𝑎 𝑃𝑏𝑎 𝑎 𝑃𝑎
− +𝐶 =− +𝑃 −𝑎 +𝐶 𝑜𝑟 𝐶 = 𝐶 −
2𝐿 2𝐿 2 2

(3) At x = a, deflections ‘v’ for both parts of the beam are equal i.e.
𝑃𝑏𝑎 𝑃𝑏𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑃𝑎
− +𝐶 𝑎+ 𝐶 =− +𝑃 − +𝐶 𝑎+𝐶 𝑜𝑟 𝐶 𝑎 = 𝐶 𝑎 + 𝐶 −
6𝐿 6𝐿 6 2 3

(4) At x = L, v = 0 i.e.

12
 𝑃𝑏𝐿 𝐿 𝑎𝐿
− +𝑃 − +𝐶 𝐿+𝐶 =0
6𝐿 6 2

 These equations are very laborious to solve

 In this example, we note that for a beam with discontinuous loading, we need to write
separate BM expressions for each part of the beam. This gives rise to 4 constants of
integration.
For the beam ABCD carrying a udl over part of the beam (see figure below), we need 3 bending
moment equations, hence 6 constants of integration with boundary conditions as follows:

(1) v = 0 at x = 0 and at x = L

(2) 𝐴𝑡 𝐵, = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 =𝑣

(3) 𝐴𝑡 𝐶, = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 =𝑣

The 6 boundary conditions enable the 6 integration constants to be found – VERY TEDIOUS!!!
Problem – In the beam with a concentrated load, the problem is the discontinuity in the form of
function defining the BM distribution at the concentrated load.
Solution – We need to device a way of defining the BM distribution with a single function (one
BM expression to be written up to a point close to the right hand end) which is valid for the
whole beam. That way, we shall have only 2 constants of integration.
USE MACAULAY’S METHOD (STEP FUNCTIONS OR SINGULARITY FUNCTIONS)

𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) = [𝑥 − 𝑎] : a is a constant

n is either ‘0’ or a +ve number

Use special brackets e.g. []

Properties of the function
(1) If x < a, then f(x) = 0 i.e. if f(x) is substituted and the quantity in square brackets is –ve, it
is omitted in further analysis.
(2) 𝐼𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 𝑎, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓(𝑥) = [𝑥 − 𝑎] :
The function must be integrated in special way as follows:

13
 [𝑥 − 𝑎]
[𝑥 − 𝑎] 𝑑𝑥 = + (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝑁𝐷 𝑁𝑂𝑇
𝑛+1
𝑥
[𝑥 − 𝑎] 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑎𝑥 + (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)
2

(3) For mathematical continuity, distributed loading which does not extend to the right
hand end e.g.(a) must be extended to x = L, both above and below the beam (so as to
cancel out) (see (b)).
(4) Applied couple (M0) must be expressed as a step function i.e. 𝑀 [𝑥 − 𝑎]
(5) X is selected to cover all the loads on the beam, except any load on the right hand end
of the beam (or reaction).
Examples of the use of step functions

Example:
A simply supported beam is subjected to various loadings as shown below. Calculate the
deflection at a section 1.8 m from the left hand end. Assume E = 70 GPa and I = 832x10 -8 m4.

14
Solution:

 Take ‘x’ to cover all the loads applied (up to a point near the right hand end), except the
support reaction at the RH end (or any other load at the RH end)
 Determine the reactions:
Moments about A:
(𝑅 × 3) − (20 × 2.4) − (16 × 0.9 × 1.95) + 3 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑅 = 24.36 𝑘𝑁
Moments about B:
(−𝑅 × 3) + (16 × 0.9 × 1.05) + (20 × 0.6) + 3 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑅 = 10 𝑘𝑁

 At x:
16 16
𝑀 = 𝑅 𝑥 − 3[𝑥 − 1.5] − [𝑥 − 1.5] − 20[𝑥 − 2.4] + [𝑥 − 2.4]
2 2
𝑑 𝑣 16 16
𝐸𝐼 = −𝑀 = −10𝑥 + 3[𝑥 − 1.5] + [𝑥 − 1.5] + 20[𝑥 − 2.4] − [𝑥 − 2.4]
𝑑𝑥 2 2
𝑑𝑣 10 3 16 20 16
𝐸𝐼 = − 𝑥 + [𝑥 − 1.5] + [𝑥 − 1.5] + [𝑥 − 2.4] − [𝑥 − 2.4] + 𝐶
𝑑𝑥 2 1 6 2 6

15
 10 3 16 20 16
𝐸𝐼𝑣 = − 𝑥 + [𝑥 − 1.5] + [𝑥 − 1.5] + [𝑥 − 2.4] − [𝑥 − 2.4] + 𝐶 𝑥 + 𝐶
6 2 24 6 24
When x = 0, v = 0 (omit all –ve brackets) i.e. C2 = 0
When x = 3, v = 0 i.e.
10 3 16 20 16
0=− 3 + [1.5] + [1.5] + [0.6] − [0.6] + 3𝐶 𝑜𝑟 𝐶 = 12.54
6 2 24 6 24
When x = 1.8 m, substitute and omit –ve brackets;

10 3 16
− 1.8 + [0.3] + [0.3] + (12.54 × 1.8) × 10
6 2 24
𝑣= = 22.3 𝑚𝑚
70 × 10 × 832 × 10

MOMENT AREA METHOD

 Consider a section AB of the deflection curve of a beam (see Figure below).

 θa is the angle between the tangent AB’ at A and the x-axis (+ve)
 θb is the angle between the tangent C’B at B and the x-axis.
 Angle between the tangents θba = θb - θa = relative angle of rotation of the tangent at B
wrt the tangent at A.
 Consider two points m1 and m2 on the axis of the beam, a small distance ds apart.
 m1P1  tangent at m1; and m2P2 is the tangent at m2.
 The normal to the tangents intersect at the center of curvature at angle dθ, where:

16
 𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝜃 = (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑅. 𝑑𝜃)
𝑅
 Therefore, angle between the tangents is also dθ.
𝑑𝜃 𝑑 𝑣 𝑀
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 = =− 𝑖. 𝑒.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝐸𝐼
𝑀. 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝜃 = − 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑀 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝐼 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑥𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦.
𝐸𝐼
 Draw the diagram below the beam – same shape as the M diagram if EI is constant.

𝑀. 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝
𝐸𝐼
𝑀. 𝑑𝑥
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑑𝜃 = −
𝐸𝐼
𝑀 𝑀. 𝑑𝑥
𝜃 = 𝜃 − 𝜃 = − 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = −
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
1st moment area theorem:
The angle θba between the tangents to the deflection curve at two points A and B is equal to the
negative of the area of the diagram between those points.

Sign convention
(1) 𝜃 is positive when 𝜃 is algebraically larger than 𝜃 ; B must be further away along
the beam axis in the positive x – direction.
(2) Bending moment M same sign convention as before.

(3) is +ve or –ve or partly +ve and partly –ve.

 𝛥 = vertical offset between point B on the deflection curve and point B’ on the
tangent at A.

17
  In practice, θa and θb are usually very small i.e. the tangents at A and B are almost
horizontal. m1 and m2 are almost coincident. Therefore,

𝑑∆
tan 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑑∆= 𝑥 tan 𝑑𝜃 ≅ 𝑥 . 𝑑𝜃 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑑∆= 𝑥 . 𝑑𝜃
𝑥
𝑀. 𝑑𝑥 𝑀. 𝑑𝑥
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝜃 = − ; 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑑∆= 𝑥 . 𝑑𝜃 = −𝑥
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
.
where 𝑥 = first moment of area of the shaded portion about a vertical line through B.

Therefore,
𝑀. 𝑑𝑥
𝑑∆= − 𝑥 𝑜𝑟
𝐸𝐼
𝑀. 𝑑𝑥
∆ =− 𝑥
𝐸𝐼
𝑀
= [1 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵, 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑤𝑟𝑡 𝐵.
𝐸𝐼
2nd moment area theorem
The offset ∆ of a point B from the tangent at A is equal to the negative of the 1 st moment of
area of the diagram between A and B, taken wrt B.

 ∆ is +ve in the +ve y direction.

Example:
A cantiver beam of span L has a udl extending over half of the length as shown. Using the
moment area method, calculate the slope θb and the deflection δb at the free end.

18
 The free body diagrams are as shown in (a), (b) and (c).

 Referring to (a) and taking moments about A:

𝑞𝐿 3𝐿 3𝑞𝐿
𝑀 − = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑀 =
2 4 8
𝑞𝐿
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑢𝑚; 𝑅 =
2

𝑳
𝟎≤𝒙≤
𝟐
 Refering to (b) and taking moments about the cut edge:
𝑞𝐿 𝑞𝐿𝑥 3𝑞𝐿
𝑀+𝑀 − 𝑥 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑀 = −
2 2 8
3𝑞𝐿 𝐿 𝑞𝐿
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 0, 𝑀 = − 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑀 = −
8 2 8
𝑳
≤𝒙≤𝑳
𝟐

19
  Refering to (c) and taking moments about the cut edge:
𝑞 𝑞
−𝑀 − (𝐿 − 𝑥) = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑀 = − (𝐿 − 𝑥)
2 2
𝐿 𝑞𝐿
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = ,𝑀 = − 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 𝐿 𝑀 = 0
2 8
 The diagram is as shown in Figure 1.15. Referring to the figure:

1 𝐿 −𝑞𝐿 𝑞𝐿
𝐴 = =−
3 2 8𝐸𝐼 48𝐸𝐼

𝐿 −𝑞𝐿 𝑞𝐿
𝐴 = =−
2 8𝐸𝐼 16𝐸𝐼

1 𝐿 −𝑞𝐿 𝑞𝐿
𝐴 = =−
2 2 4𝐸𝐼 16𝐸𝐼

 Since θa = 0 and applying the first moment area theorem:

7𝑞𝐿
𝜃 = 𝜃 = −(𝐴 + 𝐴 + 𝐴 ) =
48𝐸𝐼
 Applying the 2nd moment area theorem (and since a = 0):
∆ = 𝛿 = −(𝐴 𝑥̅ + 𝐴 𝑥̅ + 𝐴 𝑥̅ )
𝑞𝐿 3 𝐿 𝑞𝐿 3 𝑞𝐿 5 41𝑞𝐿
= + 𝐿 + 𝐿 =
48𝐸𝐼 4 2 16𝐸𝐼 4 16𝐸𝐼 6 384𝐸𝐼

Example:

20
A cantilever beam ACB supports two concentrated loads P1 and P2 as shown. Using the moment
are method, calculate:

 The deflection δb at B.

 The deflection δc at C.

 The angle of rotation θb at B.

 The angle of rotation θc at C.

𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑃 = 8 𝑘𝑁, 𝑃 = 6 𝑘𝑁, 𝐿 = 2.5 𝑚, 𝐸 = 200 𝐺𝑃𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼 = 18.5 × 10 𝑚𝑚

The free body diagrams are as shown in (a) and (b) with x measured from end B.
𝑳
𝟎≤𝒙≤𝟐

 Referring to (a):
𝑀 + 6𝑥 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑀 = −6𝑥
When x = 0, M = 0 and when x = 1.25, M = -7.5 kNm.
𝑳
≤𝒙≤𝑳
𝟐
 Referring to (b):

𝑀 + 6𝑥 + 8 𝑥 − = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑀 = −14𝑥 + 4𝐿

21
 When x =1.25, M = -7.5 kNm and when x = 2.5, M = -25 kNm.

 The diagram is as shown.

 Referring to the Figure:

1 −7.5 −4.6875
𝐴 = × 1.25 × =
2 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
−7.5 −9.375
𝐴 = 1.25 × =
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
1 −17.5 −10.9375
𝐴 = × 1.25 × =
2 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼

 To determine the slopes at B and C (1st moment area theorem):

𝑀
𝜃 = − 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵
𝐸𝐼
(4.6875 + 9.375 + 10.9375) × 10
= = 6.757 × 10 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
200 × 10 × 18.5 × 10
𝑀
𝜃 = − 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶
𝐸𝐼
(9.375 + 10.9375) × 10
= = 5.49 × 10 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
200 × 10 × 18.5 × 10
To determine the deflections at B and C (2nd moment area theorem)
𝑀
𝛿 = − 1 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝑤𝑟𝑡 𝐵
𝐸𝐼

22
 2 3 2
− (−4.6875) (1.25) + (−9.375) (2.5) + (−10.9375) 1.25 + (1.25) 10
3 4 3
=
200 × 10 × 18.5 × 10
= 0.011965 m = 11.97 mm.
𝑀
𝛿 = − 1 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝑤𝑟𝑡 𝐶
𝐸𝐼
1.25 2
− (−9.375) + (−10.9375) (1.25) 10
= 2 3
200 × 10 × 18.5 × 10
= 4.05 mm.

23