Module - 2 Angle Modulation: Ravi Shankara.M.N

Ravi Shankara.M.N.Associate. Professor ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore ravi_shankar_mn@yahoo.co.
in
Module -2 Angle Modulation

ANGLE MODULATION: Basic definitions, Frequency Modulation: Narrow Band FM, Wide Band FM,
Transmission bandwidth of FM Signals, Generation of FM Signals, Demodulation of FM Signals, FM Stereo
Multiplexing, Phase–Locked Loop: Nonlinear model of PLL, Linear model of PLL, Nonlinear Effects in FM
Systems. The Superheterodyne Receiver
. 2.1 Introduction: In amplitude modulation, most of the power is wasted in the carrier and the power is not constant. This results
in poor efficiency and low SNR at the output. In angle modulation, the angle of the carrier varied in accordance with the
modulating signal, which results in constant power output and improved efficiency and SNR at the output. Even though angle
modulation is non-linear in nature compared to amplitude modulation, improved performance parameter makes angle modulation
popular
2.2 Basic Definitions
2.2.1: Angle Modulation: Angle Modulation is the process in which the angle of the carrier wave c(t) is varied
in accordance with the instantaneous value of the modulating signal m(t), keeping the amplitude of the carrier
constant.
An angle modulated wave can be mathematically expressed as
() () ---------------------------(1)
Where AC is the carrier amplitude; i(t) is the angular argument which is varied in proportion with message
signal m(t). The argument i(t) increases monotonically with time. If i(t) changes by 2 radians, then one
complete oscillation has occurred. The average frequency over the time interval t to (t + t) is given by
( ) ()
() * + ----------------------------(2)
The instantaneous frequency of the angle modulated wave s(t) is given by

( ) ()
() () * +
( ( ))
() ----------(3)
From Equation (3); it can be concluded that the instantaneous frequency is nothing but the basic derivative of
the angle with respect to time t.
For an un-modulated carrier, the angle i(t) is given as
i(t) = ct + c(t) = 2fct + c(t)
The angular frequency of the carrier is c =2fc and c(t) is the value of i(t) at t = 0.
2.2(a) - Phase Modulation (PM)
Phase Modulation is defined as the form of Angle Modulation in which the phase i(t) of the un-modulated
carrier c(t) is varied linearly with the instantaneous value of the modulating signal m(t).
This is a supporting material for the SCE students. Any use for commercial purpose has to be permitted by the author ©Ravi Shankara.M.N. Page 1
Ravi Shankara.M.N.Associate. Professor ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore ravi_shankar_mn@yahoo.co.in
() ( ) ------- (1)
Where represents the Phase of the un-modulated carrier and kp is the Phase Sensitivity of the modulator
in Radians per Volt. The time domain expression of the PM wave is given by
( ) ( ) [ ( )] -------- (2)
The instantaneous frequency is given by
()
() * + [ [ ( )]] ( ())
Hence in PM, the instantaneous frequency fi(t) is varied linearly with the derivative of the message signal.
2.2(b) - Frequency Modulation (FM)
Frequency Modulation is a type of Angle Modulation in which the Carrier frequency fC is varied linearly with
the message signal m(t) and the instantaneous frequency is given by
( ( ))
() ---------------------- (1)
The time domain expression for an angle modulated signal is given by
() () ------------------- (2)
The instantaneous frequency fi(t) varies linearly with the message signal and can be expressed as
( ) ( ) --------------(3)
where fC is the frequency of the un-modulated carrier and kf represents the frequency sensitivity of the
modulator expressed in Hertz per Volt.
Equating equations (1) and (2) 

( ( )) ( ( ))
( ) [ ( )]
() ∫ ( ) -------------- (4)
Using equation (4) in equation (2) results
() * ∫ ( ) + -------------------(5)
Equation (5) represents the time domain expression of FM wave.
The instantaneous frequency is given by
( ( ))
() * + [ * ∫ ( ) +] ()
Hence in FM, the instantaneous frequency fi(t) is varied linearly with the message signal.
2.3 - Relationship between FM and PM
In both PM and FM, the angle of the carrier signal is varied according to some measure of modulating signal
m(t). In PM it is directly proportional to m(t) and while it is proportional to the integral of m(t) in FM.
Frequency Modulated wave Phase Modulated wave
A FM signal can be generated by first integrating A PM signal can be generated by first differentiating
m(t) and then using the result as input to a phase m(t) and then using the result as input to a frequency
modulator modulator.
() ∫ () () ()
2.3 (a) Square Modulation
Figure shows a modulating signal m(t) as a square wave and the corresponding FM and PM waves. For PM ,
( )
which is a series of impulses are applied as input. At every zero-crossing, there is a phase reversal.
2.3 (b) Properties of Angle Modulated Waves (Features of Angle Modulated waves
1. In Angle Modulation, the amplitude of the carrier is constant. The Transmitted power in Angle modulation is
constant for all values of t and is given by * + * +
2. Angle modulation is Non-linear in nature. If a carrier is modulated by a message signal comprising of two
signals m1(t) and m2(t) such that m(t) = m1(t) + m2(t)
Angle modulated waves are s(t) = AC cos[2fct + kp m(t)] = AC cos[2fct + kp [m1(t) + m2(t)]]
where kp sensitivity of the modulator.
Also s1(t) = AC cos[2fct + kp m1(t)] and s2(t) = AC cos[2fct + kp m2(t)]
Due to non-linearity s(t)  s1(t) + s2(t) (principle of superposition not satisfied)

3. Due to nonlinearity, irregularity in zero crossings in the time scale in the output waveform.
4. Due to the nonlinear nature, there exists a difficulty in visualization of message waveform in angle
modulated waves (FM and PM waveforms looks identical)
5. Trade-off of increased transmission bandwidth for improved noise performance.
2.4 - Frequency Modulation - Single Tone FM
A Frequency Modulated wave in time domain is expressed as

() () ----------(1)
A sinusoidal modulating signal is defined as
() ( ) ---------------(2)
The instantaneous frequency of the FM signal is given as
() () ( ) ( ) ----------(3)
Where is called frequency deviation and is proportional to the amplitude Am of the modulating
signal and independent of the modulating frequency fm.
Also the instantaneous frequency is given as
()
() () ∫ () ∫ ( )
() ∫ ( ) ( )
Hence a frequency modulated wave in equation (1) is expressed as

() () [ ( )] ( ) ( )
Where is called Modulation index of FM
2.4 - Parameters of FM wave
Modulation index () is the ratio of frequency deviation of the FM signal to the modulating signal frequency
( )
Frequency deviation (f): It is the maximum change in instantaneous frequency from the average value
carrier frequency fc and is given as f = |kf m(t)| =
Bandwidth:
Ideally a FM wave has infinite number of sidebands and the bandwidth of the FM signal is infinite. However
only those sidebands with significant power are considered and by Carson’s rule; bandwidth of FM wave is
given as BWFM = 2[f +fm] = 2[ + 1]fm
2.5 - Types of FM or Classification of FM (Properties of FM)
Depending on the value of the modulation index ; FM wave is classified as (i) Narrowband FM (NBFM) and
(ii) Wideband FM (WBFM)
(a) In narrow band FM, the modulation index  is small as compared to one radian and the bandwidth of the
FM wave is small ------- (Property 1)
(b) In Wide band FM, the bandwidth is much larger and value of  is very high. For larger values of , the FM
wave ideally contains carrier and an infinite number of sidebands located symmetrically around the carrier.
Hence the BW approaches to infinity and hence it is called wideband FM. ---------- (Property 2)
(c) The average power of the FM wave is constant and given as -------(Property 3)
2.6 : Narrow-Band Frequency Modulation (NBFM)
The time domain expression of FM wave is () ( ) -----------------(1)
Expanding the expression using the trigonometric identity cos(A+B) = cosA cosB – sinA sinB results
() ( ) ( ) ( )
In Narrowband FM; modulation index  is very small hence the terms
( ) ( ) ( ) and equation (2) is approximated as
() ( ) ( ) ( )
Equation (3) defines the approximate form of a narrow-band FM signal produced by the signal Am cos(2fmt)
Using the trigonometric identity ( ) ( )
() ( ) ( ) ( )
The expression for an Amplitude modulated (AM) wave is given by
() ( ) ( ) ( )
Comparing the equation (A) and (B), the only difference between NBFM wave and AM wave is the sign
reversal of LSB. The phasor diagram with carrier as reference is shown below. Since the resultant phasor
amplitude is almost same as that of the un-modulated carrier. The sideband phasors are almost at right angles to
each other. However, in AM, the resultant amplitude is sum of the carrier amplitude as well as sidebands
amplitude and also, the sidebands are orthogonal to each other. Hence the resultant amplitude differs from that
of the un-modulated carrier.
Hence the NBFM requires the same bandwidth as that of AM and is given as
[BW]NBFM = 2 fm
Taking FT on both sides of equation (3)
() ( ) ( ) [ ( ( )) ( ( ))] [ ( ( )) ( ( ))]
Figure below shows the spectrum of NBFM signal
Figure shows the scheme for generating NBFM wave () ( )
2.7 - Wide-Band FM
The time domain expression of FM wave is () ( ) ------(1)
Considering the real part of equation (1)

( ) ( )
() [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ⏞( ) ] ( )
( )
where ⏞ ( ) is a periodic waveform with frequency fm and can be expressed using complex
Fourier series as
⏞( ) ∑ ( )
Where Cn is the complex Fourier coefficient and given as
( )
∫ ⏞( ) ∫ ( )
( )
∫
Hence the limits x of are modified into (–  to )
( )
∫ ( ) ( )
( )
Where ( ) ∫
( ) ⏞( ) ∑ ∑ ( ) ( )
( )
( ) () [ ⏞( ) ] [ ∑ ( ) ]
() ∑ ( ) ( ) ( )
Equation (7) is the time domain expression of wide-band FM signal.

Taking the FT of the equation (7) results in
() ∑ ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Figure below shows the spectrum of wide-band FM signal, the modulated signal has a carrier component and an
infinite number of sidebands (fc + fm), (fc + 2fm) ...... ............... (fc + nfm). and the amplitude of sideband
frequency component depends upon the Bessel function.
2.7.1 : Observations from the Spectrum
(i) The spectrum of FM signal consists of carrier component and infinite set of sideband frequency components
located symmetrically on either side of the carrier at frequency separations of fm, 2fm, 3fm,....Hence theoretically
FM requires infinite bandwidth.
(ii) For the special case of  very small compared to 1 radian, only Bessel functions J0() and J1() have
significant values. Hence the FM signal effectively comprises of carrier component at fc and two sideband
frequencies at fC + fm. The spectrum represents that of the Narrowband FM.
(iii) For  > 1, J0(), J1(), ....Jn() where n  have significant values and Jn() for n > 1 have negligible
values.
(iv) Since the envelope of the FM signal is constant, the amplitude of the FM wave remains same as that of the
un-modulated carrier, hence the average power of the FM signal is constant and is equal to that of un-
modulated carrier.
() ∑ ( ) ( )
( )
+ ∑* ∑ ( )
√
(v) From the Bessel function curves, it is seen that, for values of  = 2.44, 5.552, 8.65. 11.2 etc, the carrier
power is zero as JO() is zero and the entire power is carried by the sidebands results in very high efficiency.
For values of  other than specified above, the power is carried by the carrier as well as sidebands. Hence the
efficiency of the FM lies in the range 33% <  < 100%
2.7.2 : Properties of Bessel function Jn()
(a) Jn() is real in nature hence
(i) for n even; ( ) ( ) and (ii) for n odd; ( ) ( )
In general ( ) ( ) ( ) for all values of n
(b) For small modulation index ( < 0.3)  JO() = 1; J1() = 0.5 and Jn() = 0 for n ≥ 2
( ) ∑ ( )
(d) For larger values of modulation index, Jn() = 0 for n > 
2.8 : Transmission Bandwidth of FM signals
The spectrum of FM signal has infinite sidebands and hence theoretically FM requires infinite bandwidth.
However in practice, the FM signal is effectively limited to a finite number of sidebands with significant power.
Transmission bandwidth of an FM wave is defined as the separation between two frequencies beyond which
none of the sideband frequency components is greater than 1% of the carrier amplitude obtained when the
modulation is removed.
Since Jn() = 0 for n > ( + 1); the number of sidebands that contributes bandwidth are limited to n = ( +1)
The frequency deviation between two consecutive sidebands is fm, hence the bandwidth of FM is given as
BW = 2 n fm = 2 ( + 1) fm ------- (1)
[ ] [ ]
[ ] ( )
Equations (1) and (2) are known as Carson’s rule for computing the bandwidth of FM signal.
Universal curve: It is the plot used to calculate the BW of the FM signal graphically. It is graph of bandwidth
normalised wrt frequency deviation verses various values of
modulation index
.
Modulation 0.1 0.3 0.5 1 2 5
index 
Number of 2 4 4 6 8 16
sidebands
Deviation ratio D
Consider any arbitrary signal m(t) with W Hz being the

highest frequency component, if f being the frequency
deviation, then the ratio of (f / W) is known as Deviation ratio (D).
and Carson’s rule gets modified into BW = 2(D + 1)W
Constant Average Power of an FM wave
The envelope of an FM wave is constant, so that the average power dissipated across a standard resistor
(R=1 ) is constant and is given as
The average power of a single tone FM wave s(t) is given as
∑ ( ) ( )
2.10 : Comparison between Narrowband FM and Wideband FM
Parameter Narrowband FM Wideband FM

1 Modulation index Less than 1 Greater than 1
2 Spectrum Contains carrier plus two sidebands Carrier plus infinite sidebands
3 Frequency deviation Very small High
4 Bandwidth BW = 2fm = 2W BW= 2(+1)fm = 2(+1)W
5 Noise suppression Poor Better
6 Transmission quality Low High
7 Applications Used for short range mobile Used in entertainment broadcasting.
communications like police wireless, FM radio
ambulance etc
Numerical Problems
1. Determine the instantaneous frequency in Hz for each of the following signals.

(i) s(t) = 10 cos[2000t + /3]
(ii) s(t) = 10 cos[2000t + t2]
(iii) s(t) = cos[2000t] cos[5sin(2)t] + sin(2000t)sin(5sin2t)
(iv) s(t) = 10 cos[2 + sin(6t)].
Solution:
()
() ()   =  = 1000 Hz
()
( ) ()   =  = (1000 + t ) Hz
(iii) Using the trigonometric identity cos(A – B) = cosA cosB + sinA sinB
s(t) = cos[2000t – 5sin(2)t]

()
()  – ( ) =  ( ) ( ) ( )
()
(iv) () ( ) =  ( ) = ( ) Hz
2. An angle modulated signal is described by x(t) = 10 cos[2106t + 0.1 sin(103)t]. If x(t) is a PM signal
with kp = 10. Find the modulating signal m(t).
Solution: Comparing the given expression with the standard PM wave s(t) = AC cos[Ct + kpm(t)]
kpm(t) = 0.1 sin(103)t  m(t) = [0.1 sin(103)t] = [0.1 sin(103)t] = [0.01 sin(103)t]
3. An angle modulated signal is defined by s(t) = 5 cos[12000t] for (0  t  1). Let the carrier frequency be
10000 rad/sec. (i) If s(t) is an FM signal with kf = 500 rad/sec-volt, determine the modulating signal m(t)
over the defined interval. (ii) Instead if s(t) is a PM signal with kp = 500 rad/volt, determine m(t) over the
defined interval.
Solution: (i) The standard FM signal is ( ) ∫ ()
Comparing with the given signal; ∫ ()
∫ ()  ∫ () ( )
Differentiating both sides  m(t) = 4
(ii) The standard PM signal is ( ) ()
Comparing with the given signal; ()
()  () ( )
4. A 93.2 MHz carrier is frequency modulated by a sine wave. The resultant FM signal has a frequency
deviation of 40 kHz. (i) Find the carrier frequency swing of the FM signal. (ii) Find the highest and
lowest frequencies obtained by the frequency modulated waves (iii) Calculate the modulation index of the
same. [Aug-Sept -2020 – 4 Marks]
Solution: Given f = 40 kHz; fC = 93.2 MHz
(i) Carrier frequency swing CS = 2 f = 2 (40) = 80 kHz
(ii) Highest frequency fmax = fC + f = 93.2 MHz + 40kHz = 93.240 MHz
(iii) Lowest frequency fmin = (fC - f) = (93.2 MHz - 40kHz) = 93.16 MHz
5. A modulating signal ( ) angle modulates a carrier A cosCt. Find the modulation

index and bandwidth for the FM system. Determine the change in the bandwidth and modulation index
if fm is reduced to 5 kHz. What is the conclusion of the two results ? [Aug-Sept 2020 - 5 Marks]
Solution: Given Am = 5V; fm = 15 kHz ;
Let kf = 15 kHz/V (assumed as it value is not given)
f = kf Am = 15×5 = 75 kHz and Modulation index
BW1 = 2(+1)fm = 2(5+1)×15kHz = 180 kHz ------------ (A)
When fm is reduced to 5 kHz
Modulation index
BW2 = 2(+1)fm = 2(15+1)×5kHz = 160 kHz ------------ (B)
Conclusion: On comparing the results from (A) and (B), the BW change is insignificant for change in fm.
6. An angle modulated signal is given by s(t) = 10 cos[2106t + 0.2 sin(2000t)] volts. Find the following
(i) Power in the modulated signal (ii) Frequency deviation (iii) phase deviation (iv) Approximate
transmission bandwidth.
Solution: Comparing with the standard FM signal s(t) = AC cos[2fct +  sin(2fmt)]
Carrier amplitude AC = 10 V; Carrier frequency fC = 106t = 1 MHz;
Modulating signal frequency fm = 1000 Hz = 1 kHz; Modulation index  = 0.2
(i) Power in the modulated signal across a standard resistor (R = 1 ) ( )
(ii) Frequency deviation f =  fm = 0.2(1000) = 200 Hz
(iii)  = |i(t) - c(t)|max =|2106t + 0.2 sin(2000t) - 2106t|max =|0.2 sin(2000t)|max = 0.2 rad
(iv) Bandwidth BW = 2(1 + ) fm = 2(1+0.2) 1000 = 2.4 kHz
7 An angle modulated signal is given by s(t) = 10 cos[2106t + 5sin(2000t)+10sin(3000t)] volts. Find

the following (i) Power in the modulated signal (ii) Frequency deviation (iii) The deviation ratio
(iv) Phase deviation (v) Approximate transmission bandwidth.
Solution:
Carrier amplitude AC = 10 V; Carrier frequency fC = 106 = 1 MHz; fm1 = 1 kHz ; fm2 = 1.5 kHz
(i) Power in the modulated signal across a standard resistor (R = 1 ) ( )
(ii) Comparing the given equation with the time domain expression of angle modulated signal
s(t) = AC cos[i(t)]  [i(t)] = [2106t + 5sin(2000t)+10sin(3000t)]

()
Instantaneous frequency ()  ( ) ( )
()  ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
() ( ) ( )
Frequency deviation () () ( ) ( )
(iii) Deviation ratio (while calculating deviation ratio, use highest frequency of the modulating signal)
(iv) Phase deviation  = |i(t) - C(t)|max =|2106t + 5sin(2000t)+10sin(3000t) – 2106t|max
 =|5sin(2000t)+10sin(3000t)| t = 0.5 = [5 + 10] = 15 radians
(v) Bandwidth BW = 2(1 + D) fm2 = 2(1+13.33) 1500 = 43 kHz
9. An un-modulated carrier has amplitude 10V and frequency 100MHz. A sinusoidal waveform of
frequency 1 kHz, frequency modulates this carrier such that the frequency deviation is 75 kHz. The
modulated waveform passes through zero and increasing at time t = 0. Write the time domain expression
for the modulated carrier waveform.
Solution: It is given that the modulated waveform passes through zero and increasing at time t = 0; hence the
FM signal is a sine wave and is of the form () * ∫ ( ) +
If m(t) = Am cos(2fmt)
( )
() [ ∫ ( ) ] * ( )+
() [ ( )] ( )
Given AC =10V; fC = 100 MHz; fm = 1 kHz Modulation index
() ( ) ( )
10. A carrier is frequency modulated by a sinusoidal modulating signal of frequency 2 kHz, resulting in a
frequency deviation of 5 kHz. (a) What is the bandwidth occupied by the modulated waveform (b) If the
amplitude of the modulated signal is increased by a factor of 2 and its frequency lowered to 1 kHz, what
is the new bandwidth?
Solution: Given fm = 2 kHz; f = 5 kHz; 
(a) From Carson’s rule BT = 2( + 1) fm = 2[2.5 + 1] 2 103 = 14 kHz
(b) If the amplitude of m(t) is increased by a factor 2 and fm = 1 kHz
then f1 = 2(Am kf) = 2f = 2(5) = 10 kHz
From Carson’s rule * + * +

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Ravi Shankara.M.N.Associate. Professor ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore ravi_shankar_mn@yahoo.co.

Module -2 Angle Modulation

2.2 Basic Definitions

An angle modulated wave can be mathematically expressed as

The instantaneous frequency of the angle modulated wave s(t) is given by

For an un-modulated carrier, the angle i(t) is given as

i(t) = ct + c(t) = 2fct + c(t)

2.2(a) - Phase Modulation (PM)

The instantaneous frequency is given by

2.2(b) - Frequency Modulation (FM)

The time domain expression for an angle modulated signal is given by

Equating equations (1) and (2) 

Using equation (4) in equation (2) results

Equation (5) represents the time domain expression of FM wave.

The instantaneous frequency is given by

2.3 - Relationship between FM and PM

Frequency Modulated wave Phase Modulated wave

2.3 (a) Square Modulation

Also s1(t) = AC cos[2fct + kp m1(t)] and s2(t) = AC cos[2fct + kp m2(t)]

Due to non-linearity s(t)  s1(t) + s2(t) (principle of superposition not satisfied)

2.4 - Frequency Modulation - Single Tone FM

A Frequency Modulated wave in time domain is expressed as

Hence a frequency modulated wave in equation (1) is expressed as

Where is called Modulation index of FM

2.4 - Parameters of FM wave

2.5 - Types of FM or Classification of FM (Properties of FM)

2.6 : Narrow-Band Frequency Modulation (NBFM)

The time domain expression of FM wave is () ( ) -----------------(1)

In Narrowband FM; modulation index  is very small hence the terms

( ) ( ) ( ) and equation (2) is approximated as

Using the trigonometric identity ( ) ( )

The expression for an Amplitude modulated (AM) wave is given by

Taking FT on both sides of equation (3)

Figure below shows the spectrum of NBFM signal

Figure shows the scheme for generating NBFM wave () ( )

The time domain expression of FM wave is () ( ) ------(1)

Considering the real part of equation (1)

Where Cn is the complex Fourier coefficient and given as

Hence the limits x of are modified into (–  to )

Equation (7) is the time domain expression of wide-band FM signal.

2.7.1 : Observations from the Spectrum

2.7.2 : Properties of Bessel function Jn()

(a) Jn() is real in nature hence

(i) for n even; ( ) ( ) and (ii) for n odd; ( ) ( )

In general ( ) ( ) ( ) for all values of n

(d) For larger values of modulation index, Jn() = 0 for n > 

2.8 : Transmission Bandwidth of FM signals

Consider any arbitrary signal m(t) with W Hz being the

and Carson’s rule gets modified into BW = 2(D + 1)W

Constant Average Power of an FM wave

The average power of a single tone FM wave s(t) is given as

2.10 : Comparison between Narrowband FM and Wideband FM

Parameter Narrowband FM Wideband FM

1. Determine the instantaneous frequency in Hz for each of the following signals.

s(t) = cos[2000t – 5sin(2)t]

Solution: (i) The standard FM signal is ( ) ∫ ()

Comparing with the given signal; ∫ ()

Differentiating both sides  m(t) = 4

(ii) The standard PM signal is ( ) ()