Photodiode

A photodiode is a semiconductor p-n junction device that converts light into an electrical
current.[1] The current is generated when photons are absorbed in the photodiode.
Photodiodes may contain optical filters, built-in lenses, and may have large or small surface
areas. Photodiodes usually have a slower response time as their surface area increases. The
common, traditional solar cell used to generate electric solar power is a large area
photodiode.

Photodiode

One Ge (top) and three Si (bottom) photodiodes

Type Passive

Working principle Converts light into current

Pin configuration anode and cathode

Electronic symbol
Photodiodes are similar to regular semiconductor diodes except that they may be either
exposed (to detect vacuum UV or X-rays) or packaged with a window or optical fiber
connection to allow light to reach the sensitive part of the device. Many diodes designed for
use specially as a photodiode use a PIN junction rather than a p–n junction, to increase the
speed of response. A photodiode is designed to operate in reverse bias.[2]

Principle of operation …

A photodiode is a PIN structure or p–n junction. When a photon of sufficient energy strikes
the diode, it creates an electron–hole pair. This mechanism is also known as the inner
photoelectric effect. If the absorption occurs in the junction's depletion region, or one
diffusion length away from it, these carriers are swept from the junction by the built-in electric
field of the depletion region. Thus holes move toward the anode, and electrons toward the
cathode, and a photocurrent is produced. The total current through the photodiode is the sum
of the dark current (current that is generated in the absence of light) and the photocurrent, so
the dark current must be minimized to maximize the sensitivity of the device.[3]

To first order, for a given spectral distribution, the photocurrent is linearly proportional to the
irradiance.[4]

Photovoltaic mode
…

I-V characteristic of a photodiode. The linear load lines represent the response of the external circuit: I=(Applied bias
voltage-Diode voltage)/Total resistance. The points of intersection with the curves represent the actual current and
voltage for a given bias, resistance and illumination.
In photovoltaic mode (zero bias), photocurrent flows out of the anode through a short circuit
to the cathode. If the circuit is opened or has a load impedance, restricting the photocurrent
out of the device, a voltage builds up in the direction that forward biases the diode, that is,
anode positive with respect to cathode. If the circuit is shorted or the impedance is low, a
forward current will consume all or some of the photocurrent. This mode exploits the
photovoltaic effect, which is the basis for solar cells – a traditional solar cell is just a large
area photodiode. For optimum power output, the photovoltaic cell will be operated at a
voltage that causes only a small forward current compared to the photocurrent.[4]

Photoconductive mode
…
In photoconductive mode the diode is reverse biased, that is, with the cathode driven positive
with respect to the anode. This reduces the response time because the additional reverse
bias increases the width of the depletion layer, which decreases the junction's capacitance
and increases the region with an electric field that will cause electrons to be quickly
collected. The reverse bias also creates dark current without much change in the
photocurrent.

Although this mode is faster, the photoconductive mode can exhibit more electronic noise
due to dark current or avalanche effects.[5] The leakage current of a good PIN diode is so low
(<1 nA) that the Johnson–Nyquist noise of the load resistance in a typical circuit often
dominates.

Related devices …

Avalanche photodiodes are photodiodes with structure optimized for operating with high
reverse bias, approaching the reverse breakdown voltage. This allows each photo-generated
carrier to be multiplied by avalanche breakdown, resulting in internal gain within the
photodiode, which increases the effective responsivity of the device.[6]

Electronic symbol for a phototransistor

A phototransistor is a light-sensitive transistor. A common type of phototransistor, the bipolar
phototransistor, is in essence a bipolar transistor encased in a transparent case so that light
can reach the base–collector junction. It was invented by Dr. John N. Shive (more famous for
his wave machine) at Bell Labs in 1948[7]: 205  but it was not announced until 1950.[8] The
electrons that are generated by photons in the base–collector junction are injected into the
base, and this photodiode current is amplified by the transistor's current gain β (or hfe). If the
base and collector leads are used and the emitter is left unconnected, the phototransistor
becomes a photodiode. While phototransistors have a higher responsivity for light they are
not able to detect low levels of light any better than photodiodes. Phototransistors also have
significantly longer response times. Another type of phototransistor, the field-effect
phototransistor (also known as photoFET), is a light-sensitive field-effect transistor. Unlike
photobipolar transistors, photoFETs control drain-source current by creating a gate voltage.

A solaristor is a two-terminal gate-less phototransistor. A compact class of two-terminal

phototransistors or solaristors have been demonstrated in 2018 by ICN2 researchers. The
novel concept is a two-in-one power source plus transistor device that runs on solar energy
by exploiting a memresistive effect in the flow of photogenerated carriers.[9]

Materials …

The material used to make a photodiode is critical to defining its properties, because only
photons with sufficient energy to excite electrons across the material's bandgap will produce
significant photocurrents.

Materials commonly used to produce photodiodes are listed in the table below.[10]

Electromagnetic spectrum
Material
wavelength range (nm)

Silicon 190–1100

Germanium 400–1700

Indium gallium arsenide 800–2600

Lead(II) sulfide <1000–3500

Mercury cadmium telluride 400–14000

Because of their greater bandgap, silicon-based photodiodes generate less noise than
germanium-based photodiodes.
Binary materials, such as MoS2, and graphene emerged as new materials for the production
of photodiodes.[11]

Unwanted and wanted photodiode effects …

Any p–n junction, if illuminated, is potentially a photodiode. Semiconductor devices such as

diodes, transistors and ICs contain p–n junctions, and will not function correctly if they are
illuminated by unwanted electromagnetic radiation (light) of wavelength suitable to produce
a photocurrent.[12][13] This is avoided by encapsulating devices in opaque housings. If these
housings are not completely opaque to high-energy radiation (ultraviolet, X-rays, gamma
rays), diodes, transistors and ICs can malfunction[14] due to induced photo-currents.
Background radiation from the packaging is also significant.[15] Radiation hardening
mitigates these effects.

In some cases, the effect is actually wanted, for example to use LEDs as light-sensitive
devices (see LED as light sensor) or even for energy harvesting, then sometimes called light-
emitting and light-absorbing diodes (LEADs).[16]

Features …

Response of a silicon photo diode vs wavelength of the incident light

Critical performance parameters of a photodiode include spectral responsivity, dark current,

response time and noise-equivalent power.

Spectral responsivity
 The spectral responsivity is a ratio of the generated photocurrent to incident light power,
expressed in A/W when used in photoconductive mode. The wavelength-dependence may
also be expressed as a quantum efficiency or the ratio of the number of photogenerated
carriers to incident photons which is a unitless quantity.
Dark current
The dark current is the current through the photodiode in the absence of light, when it is
operated in photoconductive mode. The dark current includes photocurrent generated by
background radiation and the saturation current of the semiconductor junction. Dark
current must be accounted for by calibration if a photodiode is used to make an accurate
optical power measurement, and it is also a source of noise when a photodiode is used in
an optical communication system.
Response time
The response time is the time required for the detector to respond to an optical input. A
photon absorbed by the semiconducting material will generate an electron–hole pair which
will in turn start moving in the material under the effect of the electric field and thus
generate a current. The finite duration of this current is known as the transit-time spread
and can be evaluated by using Ramo's theorem. One can also show with this theorem that
the total charge generated in the external circuit is e and not 2e as one might expect by the
presence of the two carriers. Indeed, the integral of the current due to both electron and
hole over time must be equal to e. The resistance and capacitance of the photodiode and
the external circuitry give rise to another response time known as RC time constant (
). This combination of R and C integrates the photoresponse over time and thus
lengthens the impulse response of the photodiode. When used in an optical
communication system, the response time determines the bandwidth available for signal
modulation and thus data transmission.
Noise-equivalent power
Noise-equivalent power (NEP) is the minimum input optical power to generate
photocurrent, equal to the rms noise current in a 1 hertz bandwidth. NEP is essentially the
minimum detectable power. The related characteristic detectivity ( ) is the inverse of NEP
(1/NEP) and the specific detectivity ( ) is the detectivity multiplied by the square root of
the area ( ) of the photodetector ( ) for a 1 Hz bandwidth. The specific
detectivity allows different systems to be compared independent of sensor area and
system bandwidth; a higher detectivity value indicates a low-noise device or system.[17]
Although it is traditional to give ( ) in many catalogues as a measure of the diode's
quality, in practice, it is hardly ever the key parameter.

When a photodiode is used in an optical communication system, all these parameters

contribute to the sensitivity of the optical receiver which is the minimum input power required
for the receiver to achieve a specified bit error rate.
 Applications …

P–n photodiodes are used in similar applications to other photodetectors, such as

photoconductors, charge-coupled devices (CCD), and photomultiplier tubes. They may be
used to generate an output which is dependent upon the illumination (analog for
measurement), or to change the state of circuitry (digital, either for control and switching or
for digital signal processing).

Photodiodes are used in consumer electronics devices such as compact disc players, smoke
detectors, medical devices[18] and the receivers for infrared remote control devices used to
control equipment from televisions to air conditioners. For many applications either
photodiodes or photoconductors may be used. Either type of photosensor may be used for
light measurement, as in camera light meters, or to respond to light levels, as in switching on
street lighting after dark.

Photosensors of all types may be used to respond to incident light or to a source of light
which is part of the same circuit or system. A photodiode is often combined into a single
component with an emitter of light, usually a light-emitting diode (LED), either to detect the
presence of a mechanical obstruction to the beam (slotted optical switch) or to couple two
digital or analog circuits while maintaining extremely high electrical isolation between them,
often for safety (optocoupler). The combination of LED and photodiode is also used in many
sensor systems to characterize different types of products based on their optical
absorbance.

Photodiodes are often used for accurate measurement of light intensity in science and
industry. They generally have a more linear response than photoconductors.

They are also widely used in various medical applications, such as detectors for computed
tomography (coupled with scintillators), instruments to analyze samples (immunoassay), and
pulse oximeters.

PIN diodes are much faster and more sensitive than p–n junction diodes, and hence are often
used for optical communications and in lighting regulation.

P–n photodiodes are not used to measure extremely low light intensities. Instead, if high
sensitivity is needed, avalanche photodiodes, intensified charge-coupled devices or
photomultiplier tubes are used for applications such as astronomy, spectroscopy, night
vision equipment and laser rangefinding.

Comparison with photomultipliers …

Advantages compared to photomultipliers:[19]

1. Excellent linearity of output current as a function of incident light

2. Spectral response from 190 nm to 1100 nm (silicon), longer wavelengths with other
semiconductor materials

3. Low noise

4. Ruggedized to mechanical stress

5. Low cost

. Compact and light weight

7. Long lifetime

. High quantum efficiency, typically 60–80%[20]

9. No high voltage required

Disadvantages compared to photomultipliers:

1. Small area

2. No internal gain (except avalanche photodiodes, but their gain is typically 102–103
compared to 105-108 for the photomultiplier)

3. Much lower overall sensitivity

4. Photon counting only possible with specially designed, usually cooled photodiodes, with
special electronic circuits

5. Response time for many designs is slower

. Latent effect

Pinned photodiode
…
The pinned photodiode (PPD) has a shallow P+ implant in N type diffusion layer over a P-type
epitaxial substrate layer. It is not to be confused with the PIN photodiode. The PPD is used in
CMOS active-pixel sensors.[21]

Early charge-coupled device image sensors suffered from shutter lag. This was largely
resolved with the invention of the pinned photodiode (PPD).[22] It was invented by Nobukazu
Teranishi, Hiromitsu Shiraki and Yasuo Ishihara at NEC in 1980.[22][23] They recognized that
lag can be eliminated if the signal carriers could be transferred from the photodiode to the
CCD. This led to their invention of the pinned photodiode, a photodetector structure with low
lag, low noise, high quantum efficiency and low dark current.[22] It was first publicly reported
by Teranishi and Ishihara with A. Kohono, E. Oda and K. Arai in 1982, with the addition of an
anti-blooming structure.[22][24] The new photodetector structure invented at NEC was given
the name "pinned photodiode" (PPD) by B.C. Burkey at Kodak in 1984. In 1987, the PPD began
to be incorporated into most CCD sensors, becoming a fixture in consumer electronic video
cameras and then digital still cameras.[22]

In 1994, Eric Fossum, while working at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), proposed an
improvement to the CMOS sensor: the integration of the pinned photodiode. A CMOS sensor
with PPD technology was first fabricated in 1995 by a joint JPL and Kodak team that included
Fossum along with P.P.K. Lee, R.C. Gee, R.M. Guidash and T.H. Lee. Since then, the PPD has
been used in nearly all CMOS sensors. The CMOS sensor with PPD technology was further
advanced and refined by R.M. Guidash in 1997, K. Yonemoto and H. Sumi in 2000, and I.
Inoue in 2003. This led to CMOS sensors achieve imaging performance on par with CCD
sensors, and later exceeding CCD sensors.[22]

Photodiode array …

A 2 x 2 cm photodiode array chip with more than 200 diodes

A one-dimensional array of hundreds or thousands of photodiodes can be used as a position

sensor, for example as part of an angle sensor.[25]

In recent years, one advantage of modern photodiode arrays (PDAs) is that they may allow
for high speed parallel readout since the driving electronics may not be built in like a charge-
coupled device (CCD) or CMOS sensor.

Passive-pixel sensor
…
The passive-pixel sensor (PPS) is a type of photodiode array. It was the precursor to the
active-pixel sensor (APS).[22] A passive-pixel sensor consists of passive pixels which are read
out without amplification, with each pixel consisting of a photodiode and a MOSFET
switch.[26] In a photodiode array, pixels contain a p-n junction, integrated capacitor, and
MOSFETs as selection transistors. A photodiode array was proposed by G. Weckler in 1968,
predating the CCD.[27] This was the basis for the PPS.[22]

Early photodiode arrays were complex and impractical, requiring selection transistors to be
fabricated within each pixel, along with on-chip multiplexer circuits. The noise of photodiode
arrays was also a limitation to performance, as the photodiode readout bus capacitance
resulted in increased noise level. Correlated double sampling (CDS) could also not be used
with a photodiode array without external memory. It was not possible to fabricate active pixel
sensors with a practical pixel size in the 1970s, due to limited microlithography technology at
the time.[27]

See also

Electronics

Band gap

Infrared

Optoelectronics

Optical interconnect

Light Peak

Interconnect bottleneck

Optical fiber cable

Optical communication

Parallel optical interface

Opto-isolator

Semiconductor device

Solar cell

Avalanche photodiode

Transducer

LEDs as photodiode light sensors

Light meter
 Image sensor

Transimpedance amplifier

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External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Photodiodes.

Photodiode I–V characteristics (https://naadal.com/photodiode/)

Hamamatsu Application Note (http://www.hamamatsu.com/resources/pdf/ssd/e02_hand

book_si_photodiode.pdf)

Using the Photodiode to convert the PC to a Light Intensity Logger (http://www.emant.co

m/324003.page)
 Design Fundamentals for Phototransistor Circuits (https://web.archive.org/web/20050205
151917/http://www.fairchildsemi.com/an/AN/AN-3005.pdf) (archived on February 5,
2005)

Working principles of photodiodes (http://ece-www.colorado.edu/~bart/book/book/chapte

r4/ch4_7.htm)

Excelitas Application Notes on Pacer Website (https://web.archive.org/web/20160304182

654/http://www.pacer.co.uk/assets/pacer/user/photodiodes.pdf) (archived on March 4,
2016)

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