Chapter 8

Propagating MHD Waves

The terms “waves” and “oscillations” are often used interchangably, because the gen-
eral wave form is often decomposed #into Fourier components, each one representing
an oscillatory solution, A(x, t) = n An exp (−i[kx − ωn t]). In this book we use
a stricter definition, reserving the term oscillations only for standing waves with fixed
nodes (§ 7), while propagating waves have moving nodes (Fig. 8.1). All the MHD os-
cillation modes we described in chapter 7 have fixed nodes, anchored at both endpoints
of a coronal loop, forced by the photospheric line-tying conditions of the magnetic
field, analogous to the strings of a violin. In principle, clean harmonic oscillations are
only warranted if either the excitation profile along a loop matches the sine function
of a harmonic wave solution, or once an initial arbitrary displacement settles into a
fundamental harmonic oscillation, after the higher harmonic components are damped
out. This time interval can be quite long, for instance it amounts to about 40 oscilla-
tion periods for a clarinet, as measured with a high-speed camera. Since coronal loop
oscillations have been found to be strongly damped within a few oscillation periods,
they probably never have sufficient time to settle into a clean harmonic eigen mode,
besides the unavoidable damping due to finite dissipation. We expect a series of short-
wavelength disturbances to propagate along the loop, especially when the excitation
occurs at one side of a coronal loop on a time scale much shorter than the reflection
time over the entire loop length. Hence, there is a gradual transition from harmonic
oscillations to propagating waves, depending on the time scale and spatial symmetry
of the initial displacement. In this chapter we deal exclusively with propagating waves,
a field that experienced a major breakthrough after the recent SoHO and TRACE ob-
servations, including the discoveries of EIT (or coronal Moreton) waves (Thompson et
al. 1998a; Wills−Davey & Thompson 1999), compressible waves in polar plumes (Of-
man et al. 1997; DeForest & Gurman 1998; Ofman et al. 1999), wave trains in coronal
loops (Berghmans & Clette 1999; Robbrecht et al. 2001; De Moortel et al. 2002a,b,c),
as well as with the first detection of propagating wave trains during a solar eclipse
(Williams et al. 2001, 2002; Pasachoff et al. 2002). Recent reviews on the subject can
be found in Roberts (2000; 2002) and Roberts & Nakariakov (2003).
332 CHAPTER 8. PROPAGATING MHD WAVES

Standing Waves Propagating Waves

A(z,t)=A0 sin(kz)*cos(ωt) A(z,t)=A0 sin(kz-ωt)
A(z,t=t1) A(z,t=t1)

A(z,t=t2) A(z,t=t2)

A(z,t=t3) A(z,t=t3)

Fixed nodes Moving nodes

Figure 8.1: Definition of “standing wave” or “oscillation” (left) and “propagating wave” (right).
A standing wave has fixed nodes, while a propagating wave has moving nodes as a function of
time. Standing waves can also be composed by superposing two oppositely directed propagating
waves.

8.1 Propagating MHD Waves in Coronal Loops

8.1.1 Evolutionary Equation for Slow-Mode MHD Waves
We derived the general dispersion relation for magneto-acoustic waves in cylindrical
fluxtubes in § 7.1.4, which showed two branches of phase speed solutions ω/k: a fast-
mode branch (with Alfvén speeds) and a slow-mode branch (with acoustic speeds),
as shown in Fig.7.4 for coronal conditions. In this section we study the propagating
waves of the slow mode for the special geometry of coronal loops, which involves
gravitational stratification in the vertical direction for fluxtubes curved along closed
magnetic field lines, while the case for open magnetic field lines is considered in the
next section (§ 8.2). Making some simplifying assumptions, such as neglecting the
coupling of the slow magneto-acoustic mode with other wave modes, 2D effects (in-
cluding wave dispersion), loop curvature, whilst assuming wavelengths much shorter
than the gravitational scale height, Nakariakov et al. (2000a) derived the evolutionary
equation, using the following form of the resistive MHD equations (see § 6.1.5):

∂ρ ∂
+ (ρv) = 0 , (8.1.1)
∂t ∂s
 
∂v ∂v ∂p 4 ∂2v
ρ +v =− − gρ + η0 2 , (8.1.2)
∂t ∂s ∂s 3 ∂s
 
1 ∂p 1 γp ∂ρ ∂ ∂T
− = κ , (8.1.3)
(γ − 1) ∂t (γ − 1) ρ ∂t ∂s ∂s

where s is the loop length coordinate, ρ(s) the plasma density, v(s) the longitudinal
speed, p(s) the plasma pressure, T (s) the plasma temperature, γ the adiabatic index,
κ = κT 5/2 the thermal conductivity along the magnetic field, η0 the compressive
8.1. PROPAGATING MHD WAVES IN CORONAL LOOPS 333

Figure 8.2: Evolution of the amplitude of slow magneto-acoustic waves with the initial ampli-
tude v(0) = 0.02 cs for three wave periods: 900 s (solid curves), 600 s (dotted curves), and
300 s (dashed curves). The upper curve of each kind corresponds to the normalized dissipation
coefficient η = 4 × 10−4 , and the lower curve to η = 4 × 10−3 . The amplitude of each wave is
measured in units of the initial amplitude. The loop radius is rcurv = 140 Mm (Nakariakov et
al. 2000a).

viscosity coefficient, and g(s) the gravitational acceleration projected along the loop
coordinate s for a semi-circular geometry (with curvature radius rcurv ),
  −2
s rcurv s
g(s) = g cos 1+ sin . (8.1.4)
rcurv R rcurv

Combining the equations (8.1.1−3) into a wave equation, Nakariakov et al. (2000a)
obtained an evolutionary equation for the density perturbation in the form of a modified
Burgers equation,

∂v 1 γ + 1 ∂v R ρ0 (0)η ∂ 2 v
− v+ v − =0, (8.1.5)
∂s 2λn 2cs ∂ξ 2ρ0 (s) ∂ξ 2

where ξ = s − cs t is the coordinate co-moving with a wave crest with sound speed
cs , λn (s) = c2s (γg)−1 the local density scale height, Rgas = p/ρT = 2kB /µmp the
gas constant, and ρ0 (0) the equilibrium density at the base of the corona (s = 0). The
linearized version of Eq. (8.1.5) can be solved under the assumption of a harmonic
wave, v(s) ∝ cos (kξ) = cos (ks − ωt), propagating with sound speed ω/k = cs with
wave number k,
 s   
1 k 2 ηρ0 (0)R
v(s) = v(0) exp − dx , (8.1.6)
0 2λn (x) 2ρ0 (x)
334 CHAPTER 8. PROPAGATING MHD WAVES

Table 8.1: Observations of slow-mode (acoustic) waves in coronal structures. N is the number
of analyzed events.
Observer N Frequency or Wave speed Instrument
wavelength v [km/s]
DeForest & Gurman (1998) 1 171 Å ≈ 75 − 150 SoHO/EIT
Berghmans & Clette (1999) 3 195 Å ≈ 75 − 200 SoHO/EIT
De Moortel et al. (2000b) 1 171 Å ≈ 70 − 165 TRACE
De Moortel et al. (2002a) 38 171 Å 122 ± 43 TRACE
De Moortel et al. (2002b) 4 195 Å 150 ± 25 TRACE
De Moortel et al. (2002c) 38 171 Å 122 ± 43 TRACE
Robbrecht et al. (2001) 4 171, 195 Å ≈ 65 − 150 EIT, TRACE
Berghmans et al. (2001) 1 171, 195 Å ... EIT, TRACE
Sakurai et al. (2002) 1 5303 Å ≈ 100 Norikura
King et al. (2003) 1 171, 195 Å ... TRACE
Marsh et al. (2003) 1 171, 368 Å ≈ 50 − 195 CDS, TRACE

where the normalized dissipation coefficient η is defined by


1 4η0 κ (γ − 1)2
η= + . (8.1.7)
ρ0 (0)cs R 3 Rgas γ
The linearized solution of the evolutionary equation (8.1.5) yields a proportional per-
turbation in density, pressure, and temperature (according to the continuity equation
and ideal gas equation),
ρ v p v T v
= , =γ , = (γ − 1) . (8.1.8)
ρ0 cs p0 cs T0 cs
The evolution of each normalized quantity (Eq. 8.1.8) as a function of the loop coordi-
nate s is shown in Fig. 8.2. The growth rate of each amplitude (in density, velocity, or
pressure) is determined by the balance between the vertical gravitational stratification
and dissipation (by thermal conduction and viscosity). Waves of shorter wavelengths
(larger wave numbers k) grow slower than long-wavelength waves. Sufficiently short-
wavelength perturbations, with k > 1/ ηλn (0), do not grow at all, but decay with
height. So the evolution of upward propagating slow-mode (acoustic) waves, whether
they grow or decay, depends on the value of the dissipation coefficient η, thermal con-
duction coefficient κ , and base density ρ0 (0), as combined in the normalized dissi-
pation coefficient η (Eq. 8.1.7). Nakariakov et al. (2000a) estimate a lower limit of
η ≈ 4 × 10−4 , using η0 = 0.352 g cm−1 s−1 according to Braginskii’s theory for
n0 = 5 × 108 cm−3 , Te = 1.6 MK, and neglecting thermal conduction (γ = 1).
Evolutions of slow-mode acoustic waves for η = 4 × 10−4 and 10−3 are shown in
Fig. 8.2.

8.1.2 Observations of Acoustic Waves in Coronal Loops

Acoustic waves propagating in coronal loops were probably first noticed in EUV im-
ages of SoHO/EIT observations, when time sequences of flux profiles F (s, t) along
8.1. PROPAGATING MHD WAVES IN CORONAL LOOPS 335

Figure 8.3: TRACE 171 Å observation of a slow-mode (acoustic) wave recorded on 2001 June
13, 06:46 UT. Left: the diverging fan-like loop structures emerge near a sunspot, where the
acoustic waves are launched and propagate upward. Right: a running difference plot is shown
for the loop segment marked in the left frame, with time running upward in the plot. Note the
diagonal pattern which indicates propagating disturbances (De Moortel et al. 2000a).

loops with transient features were plotted with sufficiently high cadence (e.g., with
∆t = 15 s, Berghmans & Clette 1999). In such space-time diagrams, diagonal patterns
were noticed (e.g., Fig. 8.3 right), which exhibited slopes in the range of v = ds/dt ≈
150 km s−1 (Berghmans & Clette 1999), corresponding to a speed slightly below the
sound speed of cs ≈ 180 km s−1 at T ≈ 1.5 MK expected in the used EIT 195 Å
temperature band. A compilation of related observations are given in Table 8.1.
A number of propagating waves were also analyzed from TRACE data, starting in
active regions and propagating upward into diverging, fan-like bundles of loops that
fade out with height (Fig. 8.3, left), while no downward propagating waves were de-
tected (De Moortel et al. 2000b, 2002a,b,c). Typical speeds of v ≈ 122 ± 43 km s−1
(De Moortel et al. 2000b) were measured from TRACE 171 Å data, where the mean
sound is expected to be cs ≈ 147 km s−1 at T ≈ 1.0 MK. Multi-wavelength obser-
vations with both EIT and TRACE confirm that the diverging fan structures consist
of multiple loop threads with different temperatures and corresponding sound speeds
(Robbrecht et al. 2001; King et al. 2003). Time periods of P = 172 ± 32 s were
found for loops rooted near sunspots, which coincide with the 3-minute p-mode os-
cillations detected in sunspots (Brynildsen et al. 2000, 2002; Fludra 2001; Maltby et
al. 2001), while waves that start further away from sunspots (in active region plages)
have periods of P = 321 ± 74 min, which coincide with the global 5-minute p-mode
oscillations. This result clearly proves that subphotospheric acoustic p-mode oscil-
lations penetrate through the chromosphere and transition region and excite coronal
acoustic waves. The energy flux associated with these propagating waves was esti-
mated to dεwave /dt ≈ (3.5 ± 1.2) × 102 erg cm−2 s−1 , far below the requirement for
336 CHAPTER 8. PROPAGATING MHD WAVES

Table 8.2: Statistical parameters of slow-mode (acoustic) waves observed with TRACE 171 Å
in 38 structures (De Moortel et al. 2002a).
Parameter Average Range
Length of loop segment L 26.4±9.7 Mm 10.2−49.4 Mm
Average footpoint width w 8.1±2.8 Mm 3.9−14.1 Mm
Divergence gradient dw/ds 0.28±0.16 0.07−0.71
Oscillation period P 282±93 s 145−525 s
Propagation speed vwave 122±43 km/s 70−235 km/s
Wave amplitude dI/I 0.041±0.015 0.007−0.146
Brightness change Imax /Imin 7.4±5.8 1−22.7
Detection length Ldet 8.9±4.4 Mm 2.9−23.2 Mm
Detection ratio Ldet /L 0.367±0.188 0.08−0.814
Energy flux dεwave /dt 342±126 erg/(cm2 s) 194−705 erg/(cm2 s)

coronal heating (§ 9.1). The statistical means and ranges of the parameters measured
in De Moortel et al. (2002a) are compiled in Table 8.2. The wave trains were found to
fade out quickly with height, partially an effect of the decreasing flux amplitude due to
the diverging geometry of the loop fans, combined with the damping caused by thermal
conduction (De Moortel et al. 2002b; De Moortel & Hood 2003, 2004). The interpreta-
tion in terms of slow-mode (acoustic) waves is based on: (1) the observed propagation
speed roughly corresponding to the expected sound speed in the used temperature band,
and (2) slow-mode (acoustic) waves being compressional waves, producing a modu-
lation of the density and EUV flux, and thus observed as EUV intensity modulation
(which is not the case for Alfvén waves).
Slow sound waves were possibly also detected in optical wavelengths (in the green
line at 5303 Å) with spectroscopic methods using the Norikura Solar Observatory, with
periods of P ≈ 3 − 5 min and speeds of v ≈ 100 km s−1 (Sakurai et al. 2002),
but the confusion in white light seems to be much larger than in narrow-band EUV
filters. Similarly, searches for waves with CDS data, which have substantially less
spatial resolution than TRACE and EIT data, have only revealed marginal signals of
oscillatory wave activity (Ireland et al. 1999; O’Shea et al. 2001; Harrison et al. 2002;
Marsh et al. 2003), due to the overwhelming confusion with other spatially unresolved
and time-varying loop structures.

8.1.3 Propagating Fast-Mode Waves in Coronal Loops

Fast mode MHD waves have Alfvén phase speeds, which can vary over a considerable
range in coronal conditions, between the minimum Alfvén speed value vA inside of a
loop and the maximum speed vAe outside of the loop (i.e., vA ≤ vph = ω/k ≤ vAe )
(Fig. 7.4). We discussed the standing waves or eigen frequencies of this fast MHD wave
mode in § 7.2 (kink mode) and § 7.3 (sausage mode). Now, what about propagating fast
MHD waves. We quote Roberts et al. (1984): “Propagating waves, rather than standing
modes, will result whenever disturbances are generated impulsively. Such waves may
arise in a coronal loop, if the motions have insufficient time to reflect from the far end of
8.1. PROPAGATING MHD WAVES IN CORONAL LOOPS 337

Figure 8.4: The evolution of a signal produced by a propagating fast-mode MHD wave in a
coronal loop, which originates at height h = 0 and is observed at height h = z. The time
intervals of the three phases depend on the characteristic velocities vA , vAe , and cmin
g (Roberts
et al. 1984).

Figure 8.5: The group speed vg = ∂ω(k)/∂k, normalized by the external Alfvén velocity
vAe , as a function of the dimensionless wave number frequency ke a = ωa/vAe , calculated for
coronal conditions cs vA and ρ0 /ρe = 6. Note the occurrence of a minimum in the group
speed, cmin
g (Roberts et al. 1984).

the loop, or in open field regions. An obvious source of such an impulsive disturbance
is the flare (providing either a single or a multiple source of disturbances), but less en-
ergetic generators should not be ruled out. If the waves are generated impulsively, then
the resulting disturbance may be represented as a Fourier integral over all frequencies
ω and wave numbers k. In general, a wave packet results, its overall structure being
determined by the dispersive nature of the modes.” Roberts et al. (1984) calls this type
of wave an impulsively generated fast wave. Such propagating fast-mode MHD waves
display a bewildering variety of evolutionary scenarios, which have not been explored
much in the solar context, but their hydrodynamic analogs have been widely studied in
338 CHAPTER 8. PROPAGATING MHD WAVES

Figure 8.6: SoHO/EIT 195 Å observations (left) and Solar Eclipse Corona Imaging System
(SECIS) observations of an active region loop during the total solar eclipse on 1999 Aug 11
(Shabla, Bulgaria), which showed propagating waves along the loop with rapid oscillations (P =
6 s). The SECIS image is taken in Fe XIV 5303 Å, is averaged over 50 consecutive frames (1.1
s), and is contrast-enhanced. The loop is enlarged and loop positions A−M are marked in 3 × 3
macropixels with a scale of 4.07

, while the time profiles at positions A−M are shown in Fig. 8.7
(Williams et al. 2002).

oceanography. Here we summarize just some salient features as described in Roberts

et al. (1984).
Let us assume that an impulsive disturbance, in the form of a magnetic field fluctu-
ation B(z, t) = B0 (z) + B1 (z = z0 , t), launches an Alfvén wave near the footpoint of
a coronal loop. As we learned in § 7.1.2, a surface wave at the boundary between the
overdense loop and the less dense coronal environment will then propagate along the
loop (in an upward direction), with a phase speed vph = ω(k)/k that depends on the
wave number k of the disturbance, which could be a broadband spectrum and excite
the whole range of Alfvén velocities vA ≤ vph = ω/k ≤ vAe . Let us watch the re-
sponse of the loop plasma at some height z = h. The first signal that arrives at a height
z = h is that with the fastest phase speed, which is the external Alfvén speed vAe ,
having a frequency of ωc = kc vAe , arriving at time t1 = h/vAe . This is the start time
of local periodic oscillations with frequency ωc . After that, waves with slower phase
speeds arrive, down to a minimum speed vph = vA after time t2 = h/vA . This time
interval (t1 < t < t2 ) is called periodic phase (Fig. 8.4) , during which the oscillation
amplitude steadily grows. However, there is a Fourier spectrum of wave frequencies ω,
but the key for the understanding of the evolution is the group speed, cg = ∂ω(k)/∂k,
8.1. PROPAGATING MHD WAVES IN CORONAL LOOPS 339

Figure 8.7: Time profiles of the intensity (left) at position A−M of the SECIS image shown
in Fig. 8.6. The mean period in each time profile is P ≈ 6 s, but the peaks shift as a function
of position, indicating a propagating wave. The distance traveled by the wave maximum along
the positions A−H is shown in the top right diagram, where the slope indicates a velocity of
v = 2100 km s−1 . The average phase as a function of the distance along the loop is shown in
the bottom right diagram, yielding a wavelength of λ = 12 Mm (Williams et al. 2002).

the observed speed with which the signal of the disturbance is propagating. This group
speed vg = ∂ω(k)/∂k has a minimum value cmin g at some wave vector k, as shown
in Fig. 8.5, which will arrive at time t3 = h/cmin
g at height z = h. The time interval
t2 < t < t3 is called the quasi-periodic phase (Fig. 8.4). After time t3 the amplitude of
the disturbance will decline, a phase called the decay (or Airy) phase (Fig. 8.4). These
various phases of an impulsively generated fast wave have actually been observed in
oceanography (Pekeris 1948). Numerical simulations of the initial stage confirm this
evolutionary scenario (Murawski & Roberts 1993; 1994; Murawski et al. 1998).
The interpretation of solar observations in terms of this evolutionary scenario of
fast-mode MHD waves is not trivial. Roberts et al. (1983; 1984) emphasize that the
cutoff frequency ωc and the frequency ωmin of the minimum group velocity cmin g are
the most relevant time scales to be observed and associate the periods (P ≈ 0.5 − 3.0
s) observed in radio wavelengths to this mode of (impulsively generated) propagating
fast-mode MHD waves. Propagating fast-mode MHD waves imply that a magnetic
field disturbance travels at Alfvén speeds. If it modulates gyrosynchrotron emission,
the corresponding radio emission should show a frequency-time drift of some ripple
in the gyrosynchrotron spectrum, which perhaps has been observed in the form of a
340 CHAPTER 8. PROPAGATING MHD WAVES

Figure 8.8: Numerical simulation of an impulsively generated fast-mode MHD wave train
propagating along a corona loop with a density contrast of ρ0 /ρe = 14. Top: the time series is
recorded at location z = 70w (with w the semi-width of the loop). Bottom: wavelet transform
analysis of the signal, exhibiting a “tadpole” wavelet signature similar to the observations shown
in Fig. 8.9 (Nakariakov et al. 2003b).

quasi-periodic fine structure called fiber bursts (Rosenberg 1972; Bernold 1980; Slottje
1981). Most of the fast oscillation events, however, have been observed in metric
and decimetric frequencies, where plasma emission dominates, but since Alfvén MHD
waves are non-compressional (in contrast to the slow-mode acoustic waves), is not
clear how they would modulate the plasma emission, which is only a function of the
local electron density. Another problem is, even if fast-mode MHD waves modulate
plasma emission, that the average density, and thus the total flux, integrated over a loop
oscillating in the sausage mode would be conserved, and could not be perceived as an
intensity modulation by non-imaging radio instruments, as long as they do not spatially
resolve a sausage node (with spatial scale λ = 2π/k).
The first imaging observations that have been interpreted in terms of propagating
fast-mode MHD waves (Nakariakov et al. 2003b) are the SECIS eclipse observations
of Williams et al. (2001, 2002). During this eclipse, a loop has been observed with
propagating wave trains in intensity, with a period of P ≈ 6 s and a propagation
speed of v ≈ 2100 km s−1 (Figs. 8.6 and 8.7). The evolution of the propagating fast-
mode MHD oscillation has been modeled with a numeric MHD code by Nakariakov
et al. (2003b), which confirmed the formation of quasi-periodic wave trains predicted
by Roberts et al. (1983, 1984) and Nakariakov & Roberts (1995). The evolution of the
loop density as a function of time and oscillation periods, ρ(t, P ) is displayed in the
8.2. PROPAGATING MHD WAVES IN THE OPEN CORONA 341

Figure 8.9: Observed wavelet transform of a coronal loop with propagating waves during the
eclipse on 1999-Aug-11 observed with SECIS. Note the “tadpole” signature at P = 1/0.16
Hz=6 s (Katsiyannis et al. 2003).

form of a wavelet transform in Fig. 8.8, which exhibits at the dominant period P ≈ 6 s
a “tadpole” feature that is also observed by SECIS (Fig. 8.9). The SECIS observations
were made with 4

pixels (≈ 8

resolution) and averaged over 1.1 s (Katsiyannis et
al. 2003). There are no detections of fast-mode MHD waves in coronal loops reported
from SoHO/EIT or TRACE, probably because they are rarely operated at their highest
possible cadence of seconds. We expect that more detections of fast-mode MHD waves
will be accomplished with instruments of comparable spatial resolution and cadence in
the future.

8.2 Propagating MHD Waves in the Open Corona

8.2.1 Evolutionary Equation of MHD Waves in Radial Geometry
While closed coronal structures have two boundaries, which control the energy balance
and provide fixed nodes for standing waves, open field structures have only a single
boundary where waves propagate in one direction without ever being reflected. An-
342 CHAPTER 8. PROPAGATING MHD WAVES
6

Alfven speed v_A/v_A(r=rSun)

5 T=1.3 MK

4 T=1.4 MK
T=1.5 MK
3

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Distance from Sun center r/RSun

Figure 8.10: Alfvén speed as a function of radial distance from Sun center, computed for
isothermal (Te = 1.3, 1.4, 1.5 MK) open-field structures with radial geometry and in hydrostatic
equilibrium. Note that the Alfvén speed peaks at a few solar radii.

other significant difference is the radial divergence of the open magnetic field (Fig. 1.14),
2
R
B0 (r) = B0 (R ) , (8.2.1)
r2
which can often be neglected in closed field structures. In an isothermal [T (r) =
const] plasma in hydrostatic equilibrium, the density follows the same radial depen-
dence as the pressure (i.e., p(r) = 2ne (r)kB T , Eq. 3.1.9), and thus has the radial
dependence (using Eq. 3.1.15 and r = R + h),
 
R R
ρ(r) = ρ0 (R ) exp − 1− , (8.2.2)
λp r

with λp the pressure scale height for a given temperature (Eq. 3.1.16). Note that the ra-
dial divergence has no effect on the pressure scale height (see also hydrostatic analogy
of water vessels in Fig. 3.12). Combining Eqs. (8.2.1) and (8.2.2) yields the variation
of the Alfvén speed vA (r) as a function of the radial distance r from the Sun (shown
in Fig. 8.10),
2  
B0 (R ) R R R
vA (r) = exp 1 − . (8.2.3)
[4πρ0 (R )]1/2 r2 2λp r

In this approximation of the open magnetic field with a radial unipolar geometry, the
Alfvén speed reaches a maximum at a distance of a few solar radii, while a semi-
circular dipolar geometry yields a minimum in the lower corona (Fig. 5.10).
To study the propagation of magneto-acoustic waves in an open field structure with
radial geometry, it is useful to transform the ideal MHD equations (§ 6.1.3) into spher-
ical coordinates (r, θ, ϕ) and to choose the direction θ = 0. For purely radial propa-
gation, the ideal MHD equation in spherical coordinates can then be simplified to two
uncoupled (linearized) wave equations, of which one describes Alfvén waves, charac-
terized by magnetic perturbations Bϕ and vϕ (e.g. Nakariakov et al. 2000b; Ofman et
8.2. PROPAGATING MHD WAVES IN THE OPEN CORONA 343

al. 2000b; Ofman & Davila 1998; Roberts & Nakariakov 2003),
∂ 2 vϕ B0 (r) ∂ 2
2
− [rB0 (r)vϕ ] = 0 , (8.2.4)
∂t 4πρ0 (r)r ∂r2
and the other describes slow-mode (acoustic) waves, characterized with density pertur-
bations ρ and vr ,  
∂ 2 ρ c2s ∂ 2 ∂ρ ∂ρ
2
− 2 r − g(r) =0. (8.2.5)
∂t r ∂r ∂r ∂r
The right-hand side of these two equations is zero here because all dissipative effects
(such as viscosity) are neglected. It is convenient to solve these two wave equations in
the Wentzel−Kramers−Brillouin (WKB) approximation [i.e., assuming that the wave-
length is much smaller than the scale of density variation of the medium (λ  λp )], as
well as using the approximation λp  R .
In the reference frame of an upward moving Alfvén wave with local speed vA (r),
the transformed time variable is,

dr
τ =t− . (8.2.6)
vA (r)
The wave equation for Alfvén waves can then be written in the WKB approximation
with the variable R = r(λ/λp )  r,
2
dvϕ R
− vϕ = 0 , (8.2.7)
dR 4λp R2
which is the linearized evolutionary equation for an Alfvén wave with solution (Nakari-
akov et al. 2000b),

R R
vϕ (r) = vϕ (R ) exp (1 − ) , (8.2.8)
4λp r
which indicates an Alfvén wave amplitude that is growing with height. This has the
implication that Alfvén waves can propagate large distances and deposit energy and
momentum several radii away from the Sun. The growth of Alfvén waves with height
has also the consequence that nonlinear effects come into play, for instance wave en-
ergy transfer of higher harmonics to shorter wavelengths, where dissipation by viscos-
ity matters (Hollweg 1971). When the wave amplitude grows, compressional waves
will be driven by Alfvén waves (Ofman & Davila 1997, 1998). Such dissipative ef-
fects, which have been neglected in the simplified wave equations [i.e., the right-hand
side of Eqs. (8.2.4) and (8.2.5) are set to zero], have been included for weak nonlinear-
ity and viscosity νvisc by Nakariakov et al. (2000b), leading to a more general wave
equation that is the spherical scalar form of the Cohen−Kulsrud−Burgers equation,
2 3
∂vϕ R 1 ∂vϕ νvisc ∂ 2 vϕ
− v ϕ − 2 − c2 ) ∂τ − 3 ∂τ 2 = 0. (8.2.9)
∂R 4λp R2 4vA (vA s 2vA
An example of a typical evolution of an initially harmonic Alfvén wave during its
propagation in an open radial magnetic field is shown in Fig. 8.11, showing three phases
344 CHAPTER 8. PROPAGATING MHD WAVES

Figure 8.11: Left: evolution of weakly nonlinear Alfvén waves propagating in a radial magnetic
field away from the Sun. The Alfvén waves have an initial speed of vA (R = 1000 km s−1 ), an
initial wave period of 50 s, an amplitude of vϕ = 25 km s−1 , and the corona has an isothermal
temperature of T = 1.4 MK. The evolution is shown near the Sun (solid line), at r = 2R
(dotted line), at r = 5R (dashed line), and at r = 9R dotted-dashed line. Right: dependence
of the nonlinear spherical Alfvén wave amplitude on the distance from the Sun, for 3 different
initial amplitudes: vϕ = 25, 20, and 15 km s−1 (solid, dotted-dashed, dashed) (Nakariakov et
al. 2000b).

of nonlinear evolution: (1) linear wave growth, (2) saturation and overturn, and (3)
nonlinear dissipation. The theoretically predicted growth rate of Alfvén waves can be
tested with observations of the evolution of line broadening as a function of height
above coronal holes, assuming that the line broadening is associated with transverse
motions caused by Alfvén waves.

8.2.2 Observations of Acoustic Waves in Open Corona

Probably the first detection of propagating MHD waves in (open) coronal structures
was made with SoHO/EIT in 1996. Plotting the EUV brightness of polar plumes
(Fig. 8.12 top) as a function of time (Fig. 8.12, bottom), using the EIT 171 Å wave-
length, propagating features were noticed which had an outward speed of v ≈ 75 − 150
km s−1 and occurred quasi-periodically with periods of P ≈ 10 − 15 min (DeForest
& Gurman 1998). Based on the speed, which is close to the sound speed expected in
this temperature band (T ≈ 1.0 MK, cs = 147 km s−1 ), and the density modulation
inferred from the EUV brightness variation, it was concluded that these wave trains
in plumes correspond to propagating slow-mode magneto-acoustic waves, which are
compressive waves. The energy flux associated with these wave trains was estimated
to dεwave /dt = (1.5 − 4.0) × 105 erg cm−2 s−1 , which is comparable to the heat-
ing requirement of coronal holes. The evolution of these slow-mode magneto-acoustic
waves can be modeled with the theoretical wave equation (8.2.5), derived (with neglect
of dissipative effects) for a radially diverging geometry, as appropriate for the these
observed wave trains in polar plumes. Ofman et al. (1999) performed a numerical 2D
MHD simulation of the evolution of slow-mode magneto-acoustic waves in plumes,
found that the waves experience nonlinear dissipation, and concluded that they signif-
8.2. PROPAGATING MHD WAVES IN THE OPEN CORONA 345

Figure 8.12: Top: polar plumes observed over the South Pole of the Sun with SoHO/EIT on
1996 Mar 7 at a wavelength of 171 Å, after subtraction of the radial background model. Bottom:
running time difference images of plumes #1 and #5, with strips averaged over 360 s. Diagonal
features have velocities of v ≈ 100 km s−1 (DeForest & Gurman 1998).

icantly contribute to the heating of the lower corona by compressive viscosity. This
dissipation mechanism leads to damping of the waves within the first solar radii above
the surface (Ofman et al. 2000b). Cuntz & Suess (2001) modeled slow-mode magneto-
acoustic waves in plumes with a “basal-spreading” geometry and found that shocks
form as a consequence at low coronal heights (r <∼ 1.3R ), in contrast to models that
assume weak nonlinearity.
Further away from the Sun, a search for slow-mode compressional MHD waves
was carried out with the SoHO/UVCS white-light channel (Ofman et al. 1997, 2000a).
Within a heliocentric distance of r = 1.9−2.45 R , Fourier power spectra of polarized
brightness time series revealed significant power at a period of P ≈ 6 min (Ofman et
al. 1997). A wavelet analysis of the same and additional UVCS data confirmed periods
in the range of P ≈ 6 − 10 min, with coherence times of the fluctuations over ∆t ≈ 30
min. Banerjee et al. (2001) found long-period oscillations in inter-plume regions with
periods of P ≈ 20 − 50 min up to a height h < ∼ 20 Mm above the limb, and interprets
346 CHAPTER 8. PROPAGATING MHD WAVES

them also as slow-mode (acoustic) waves. These observations corroborate the presence
of compressional waves high above the limb, which are probably the continuation of
the slow-mode magneto-acoustic waves detected in plumes with EIT.

8.2.3 Spectral Observations of Alfvén Waves in the Open Corona

After we have discovered slow-mode MHD waves in the open-field corona (e.g., in
plumes, § 8.2.2), the question arises whether there also exist fast-mode MHD waves,
which could provide an interesting probe for high-frequency-driven heating and ac-
celeration of the solar wind. So far there is no direct report from imaging observa-
tions, probably because of the high time cadence and high-density contrast needed.
Vertical Alfvén waves with a speed of vA = 1000 − 10, 000 km s−1 would cross a
vertical scale height λn ≈ 50 Mm of the T ≈ 1.0 MK plasma in coronal holes in
∆t = λn /vA = 5 − 50 s. Moreover, Alfvén waves are non-compressional and do not
modulate the plasma density, in contrast to slow-mode (acoustic) waves, while fast-
mode MHD waves behave somewhere inbetween, but generally modulate the plasma
density to a lesser degree than acoustic waves. On the other hand, both compressive
magneto-acoustic (slow mode) and incompressive (fast-mode) Alfvén waves perturb
the plasma velocity (v1 ), which causes positive and negative Doppler shifts that can
be detected as line broadening. If the distribution of plasma velocity perturbations is
random, it broadens the natural line width in quadrature, so that the broadened line can
be fitted by an effective temperature Tef f ,
mi
Tef f = Ti + < ∆v2 > , (8.2.10)
2kB

where Ti is the temperature of line formation for an ion i, and < ∆v2 > is the aver-
age line-of-sight component of the unresolved perturbation velocities (e.g., caused by
Alfvén waves).
If the line broadening ∆v is caused by Alfvén waves, the theory predicts a cor-
relation between the Alfvén velocity disturbance ∆v(r) = vϕ (r) (Eq. 8.2.8) and the
mean density ρ(r) = mn ≈ mi ni (r) (Eq. 8.2.2), which according to the evolutinary
equation in radial geometry derived in § 8.2.1 is
−1/4
∆v(r) = vϕ (r) ∝ ρ0 (r) ∝ n−1/4
e (r) . (8.2.11)

Nonthermal broadening of UV and EUV coronal lines have been measured with
Skylab, where nonthermal velocities of ∆v ≈ 20 km s−1 were reported in coro-
nal holes and quiet Sun regions (Doschek & Feldman 1977). More recent measure-
ments with SoHO/SUMER (for a review see, e.g., Spadaro 1999) reveal that the non-
thermal velocity increases systematically with the altitude above the limb (e.g., from
∆v = 24 km s−1 at the limb to ∆v = 28 km s−1 at a height of h = 25 Mm; Doyle et
al. 1998), corresponding to a velocity increase that is consistent with the theoretical pre-
diction of undamped radially propagating Alfvén waves (i.e., [ne (h2 )/ne (h1 )]−1/4 ≈
[exp(−h/λT )]−1/4 = exp(+h/4λT ) ≈ exp(1/8) = 1.13, [(∆v(h2 )/∆v(h1 )] =
28/24 = 1.17). Erdélyi et al. (1998b) detected a similar Alfvén scaling in the center-
to-limb variation of the line broadening in transition region lines. Banerjee et al. (1998)
8.2. PROPAGATING MHD WAVES IN THE OPEN CORONA 347

Figure 8.13: Top: electron density profile ne (h) above a coronal hole measured with
SoHO/SUMER, UVCS, and LASCO. Middle: nonthermal line widths ∆v measured with
SUMER and UVCS. Bottom: comparison of measured nonthermal velocities ∆v and predicted
line widths from the density model ne (h) and the relation for Alfvén waves in radially diverging
−1/4
magnetic fields, ∆v(h) ∝ ne (r) (Eq. 8.2.11) (Doyle et al. 1999).
348 CHAPTER 8. PROPAGATING MHD WAVES

confirmed the results from Doyle et al. (1998) over a larger height range, finding an in-
crease of the nonthermal velocity of the Si VIII line from ∆v(h1 ) = 27 km s−1 at
h1 = 20 Mm to ∆v(h2 ) = 46 km s−1 at h2 = 180 Mm, over which range the den-
sity decreased from ne (h1 ) = 1.1 × 108 cm−3 to ne (h2 ) = 1.6 × 107 cm−3 ; so the
observed velocity increase ∆v(h2 )/∆v(h1 ) = 46/27 = 1.70 agrees well with the
theoretical prediction [ne (h2 )/ne (h1 )]−1/4 = (0.16/1.1)−1/4 = 1.62. Similar non-
thermal velocities were also measured by Chae et al. (1998a) with SoHO/SUMER, by
Esser et al. (1999) with SoHO/UVCS (nonthermal velocity widths of 20 − 23 km s−1
at r = 1.35 − 2.1R ), and Doschek et al. (2001) with SoHO/SUMER. Combining
the Si VIII with O VI line width measurements, Doyle et al. (1999) found that the
Alfvén scaling (Eq. 8.2.11) agrees well only in the height range of h = 30 − 150 Mm
(r = 1.04 − 1.2R), suggesting nonlinear evolution of the Alfvén waves at r > ∼ 1.2R
(see Fig. 8.13, bottom). Taking all these spectroscopic measurements together, there
seems to be strong support for the presence of fast-mode or shear (Alfvén) MHD waves
in the open field structures of the solar corona. We will discuss the relevance for coro-
nal heating in § 9.

8.3 Global Waves

So far we have considered MHD waves that propagated inside waveguides, either in
coronal loops (§ 8.1) or along vertically open structures with radial divergence (§ 8.2).
However, waves have also been discovered that propagate spherically over the entire
solar surface, very much like the spherical water waves you produce when you throw
a stone in a pond. Obviously, the origin of these spherical waves is very localized,
caused by a flare or a coronal mass ejection (CME) at the center of the circular waves.
These global waves were first discovered in chromospheric Hα emission (called More-
ton waves) and were recently in coronal EUV images from SoHO/EIT (called EIT
waves). The big challenge is the physical understanding of the 3D propagation of these
global waves in the complex topology of our corona, which is structured by vertical
stratification, horizontal inhomogeneities, and magnetic instabilities during CMEs.

8.3.1 Moreton Waves, EIT Waves, and CME Dimming

The discovery of global waves goes back to Moreton & Ramsey (1960), who reported
the finding of 7 flare events (out of 4068 flares photographed in Hα during 1959/1960)
with disturbances that propagated through the solar atmosphere over distances of the
order of 500,000 km at speeds of v ≈ 1000 km s−1 . More such reports noted expanding
arc features originating in flares and traveling distances of 200,000 km or more with
lateral velocities of v ≈ 500 − 2500 km s−1 (Moreton 1961; Athay & Moreton 1961;
Moreton 1964; Harvey et al. 1974), or v ≈ 330 − 4200 km s−1 (Smith & Harvey
1971). Reviews on early Hα observations of this type of flare waves can be found in
Svestka (1976, § 4.3) and Zirin (1988; § 11). Recent observations of a Moreton wave in
Hα and Hβ even revealed a velocity increase from v = 2500 km s−1 to 4000 km s−1
(Zhang 2001). Today it is believed, based on the high propagation speeds which are in
8.3. GLOBAL WAVES 349

Figure 8.14: Two global wave events observed with SoHO/EIT 195 Å, on 1997 Apr 7 (left)
and 1997 May 12 (right). The intensity images (top) were recorded before the eruption, while
the difference images (middle and bottom) show differences between the subsequent images,
enhancing emission measure increases (white areas) and dimming (black areas) (Wang 2000).

the range of coronal Alfvén speeds, that the phenomenon of Moreton waves represent
a tracer of a coronal disturbance, rather than a chromospheric origin (Thompson 2001).
Recent observations by SoHO/EIT (Fig. 8.14) have provided unambiguous evi-
350 CHAPTER 8. PROPAGATING MHD WAVES

Figure 8.15: Left: propagation model of a Moreton wave (Uchida 1968); Right: iso-Alfvén
speed contours calculated for a coronal portion through which a Moreton wave propagates
(Uchida et al. 1973).

dence for global waves, initiated by flares and CMEs. One of the first events was ob-
served during the Earth-directed CME of 1997-May-12, which was characterized as a
bright wavefront propagating quasi-radially from the source region, leaving a dimmed
region behind, and having a radial speed of v = 245 ± 40 km s−1 (Thompson et
al. 1998a). More observations of such global waves followed from SoHO/EIT (Thomp-
son et al. 1999; 2000a; Klassen et al. 2000; Biesecker et al. 2002). The catalog of 19
EIT wave events compiled by Klassen et al. (2000) investigated the correlation of ra-
dio type II events with EIT waves. Radio type II bursts are believed to trace coronal
shock waves and were found to have speeds of vII ≈ 300 − 1200 km s−1 , much faster
than the EIT waves which were found to have speeds of vEIT ≈ 170 − 350 km s−1 .
Biesecker et al. (2002) investigated correlations between 175 EIT wave events and as-
sociated phenomena (CMEs, flares, and radio type II bursts). Wills−Davey & Thomp-
son (1999) observed a global wave with a high spatial resolution using TRACE 195 Å
and traced the detailed trajectories of the propagating wave fronts, finding anisotropic
deviations from radial propagation and speed variations from v ≈ 200 km s−1 to 800
km s−1 , clearly illustrating the inhomogeneity of the coronal medium. Two cases of
global waves have been analyzed where the wave front of Moreton waves in Hα and
8.3. GLOBAL WAVES 351

Figure 8.16: Simulation of the EIT wave event of 1997 April 7 (Fig. 8.14) by a ray-tracing
method of fast-mode MHD waves. The color range indicates wave speeds v > 500 km s−1
(black) and lower speeds (white). Gaps appear in the wave fronts after t > 45 min when waves
become reflected back into the chromosphere (Wang 2000).

EIT waves were found to be co-spatial, both experiencing a subsequent deceleration,

which was interpreted in terms of a fast-mode shock (“blast wave”) scenario (Warmuth
et al. 2001), rather than in terms of CME-associated magnetic field adjustment.

An intriguing feature of global waves seen with EIT is the dimming region (e.g.,
Thompson et al. 2000b), which the wave front leaves behind (see, e.g., Fig. 8.14).
If the global wave would be just a compressional wave front, a density enhancement
would occur at the front and a rarefaction slightly behind, while the density would be
restored in the trail of the wake. The fact that a long-term dimming occurs behind the
global waves indicates that material has been permanently removed behind the wave
front, probably due to the vertical expulsion of the accompanying CME. This scenario
is strongly supported by recent Doppler shift measurements in O V and He I, indicating
vertical velocities of v = 100 km s−1 in the dimming region that was feeding the CME
(Harra & Sterling 2001, 2003).
352 CHAPTER 8. PROPAGATING MHD WAVES

Figure 8.17: MHD simulation of a CME where a piston-driven shock forms at the envelope of
the expanding CME, according to the model of Chen & Shibata 2000). The simulated case has
β0 = 0.25 and vrope = 100 km s−1 . Top: global evolution of the density (greyscale), magnetic
field (solid lines), and velocity (arrows). Lower panel: local evolution in the lower corona and
chromosphere, where the initial magnetic field is shown with solid lines (Chen et al. 2002).

8.3.2 Modeling and Simulations of Global Waves

Global waves in the solar corona were modeled early on in terms of a spherically ex-
panding fast-mode MHD shock wave, from which the shock front is detected as an
EIT wave, while the upward propagating shock is manifested in radio type II bursts
(Uchida 1974), whereas the Moreton waves seen in Hα represent the chromospheric
ground tracks of the dome-shaped coronal shock front (Uchida et al. 1973). Uchida
(1974) derived the wave equations for such a spherically propagating fast-mode MHD
wave in a radially diverging magnetic field (similar to § 8.2.1) and calculated the wave
propagation in the WKB approximation (an example of a calculation of propagating
wave fronts is shown in Fig. 8.15 left). Furthermore, observed electron density distribu-
tions and magnetograms were used to constrain models of the global wave propagation
(Fig. 8.15 right) and the trajectories of the accompanying radio type II bursts and More-
ton waves (Uchida et al. 1973; Uchida 1974). The scenario of a flare-produced initial
8.3. GLOBAL WAVES 353

Figure 8.18: Evolution of the horizontal density ρ(x) distribution obtained in the MHD simu-
lation shown in Fig. 8.17, with an increment in time. Note the two wave features: a fast coronal
Moreton wave and a slower broader EIT wave front (Chen et al. 2002).

pressure pulse that triggers a fast-mode shock propagating through the corona, the so-
called blast-wave scenario, was further simulated with a full numerical MHD code by
Steinolfson et al. (1978), the ignition of the resulting shock was modeled by Vrsnak &
Lulic (2000a,b), and the formation of the expelled blobs in the coronal streamer belt
were further modeled with LASCO observations by Wu et al. (2000).
A realistic numeric simulation of the EIT signature of global fast-mode MHD
waves was realized by Wang (2000). Fig. 8.16 shows the result for a specific event
(1997 April 7), where the global magnetic field was constrained by a photospheric
magnetogram and the EUV emission by EIT 195 Å images (Fig. 8.14, left). The fast-
mode MHD wave speed is defined by the dispersion relation given in Eq. (7.1.32),
which has the quadratic solution (see Eq. 7.1.35 for the special case of θ = 0),
 
1 2
vph = vA + c2s + (vA 2 + c2 )2 − 4v2 c2 cos2 θ .
s A s (8.3.1)
2
Wang (2000) used the distribution of phase speeds vph [B(r, θ, ϕ)] constrained by the
photospheric magnetic field B(r, θ, ϕ) as a lower boundary condition and calculated
the propagation of fast-mode wave fronts using a ray-tracing method (Fig. 8.16), which
closely ressembles the observations (Fig. 8.14, left). These simulations reproduce the
initial horizontal speeds of v ≈ 300 km s−1 of observed EIT waves, which are then
found to decelerate to v = 50 − 200 km s−1 in weak-field regions. The speeds simu-
lated by Wang (2000) are consistent with the observed EIT waves, but are about 2 − 3
times lower than those simulated by Uchida (1974) for Moreton waves. This discrep-
ancy was reconciled by a numeric MHD simulation which mimics a CME by an initial
strong upward-directed external force on a fluxrope, which drives the evacuation of
the fluxrope with subsequent magnetic reconnection underneath (Fig. 8.17; Chen et
354 CHAPTER 8. PROPAGATING MHD WAVES

al. 2002; see model of Chen & Shibata 2000). A piston-driven shock appears strad-
dling over the fluxrope, which moves upward with a super-Alfvén speed of v ≈ 360
km s−1 , while near the solar surface, the piston-driven shock degenerates to a finite am-
plitude MHD fast wave. The evolution of the horizontal density distribution is shown in
Fig. 8.18, where two wave-like features are seen: (1) a piston-driven shock wave with
a speed of v ≈ 400 km s−1 , which corresponds to the coronal Moreton wave, and (2)
a second wave with an initial speed of v = 115 km s−1 , which becomes increasingly
blurred with time and corresponds to the EIT wave. This simulation explains the fast
Moreton wave in terms of a shock wave that comes from the expanding CME, not from
the flare itself, while the EIT wave front is explained in terms of an adjustment to the
successive opening of CME field lines (Délannée & Aulanier 1999; Délannée 2000).
Other numerical simulations of global waves explore the stability of active regions
under the impact of global waves (Ofman & Thompson 2002) or the global distribution
of the coronal magnetic field (at the height of propagating EIT waves) and the coronal
viscosity (Ballai & Erdélyi 2003), a new discipline that might be called “global coronal
seismology”.

8.4 Summary
Propagating MHD waves have moving nodes, in contrast to standing modes with
fixed nodes. Propagating MHD waves result mainly when disturbances are gen-
erated impulsively, on time scales faster than the Alfvén or acoustic travel time
across a structure.
Propagating slow-mode MHD waves (with acoustic speed) have been recently
detected in coronal loops using TRACE and EIT, usually being launched with
3-minute periods near sunspots, or with 5-minute periods away from sunspots.
These acoustic waves propagate upward from a loop footpoint and are quickly
damped, never being detected in downward direction at the opposite loop side.
Propagating fast-mode MHD waves (with Alfvén speeds) have recently been dis-
covered in a loop in optical (SECIS eclipse) data, as well as in radio images (from
Nobeyama data).
Besides coronal loops, slow-mode MHD waves have also been detected in plumes
in open field regions in coronal holes, while fast-mode MHD waves have not yet
been detected in open field structures. However, spectroscopic observations of line
broadening in coronal holes provide strong support for the detection of Alfvén
waves, based on the agreement with the theoretically predicted scaling between
line broadening and density, ∆v(h) ∝ ne (h)−1/4 .
The largest manifestation of propagating MHD waves in the solar corona are
global waves that spherically propagate after a flare and/or CME over the entire
solar surface. These global waves were discovered earlier in Hα, called Moreton
waves, and recently in EUV, called EIT waves, usually accompanied with a coronal
dimming behind the wave front, suggesting evacuation of coronal plasma by the
CME. The speed of Moreton waves is about three times faster than that of EIT
waves, which still challenges dynamic MHD models of CMEs.