Matter Changes

Chemistry o Physical change – a

substance changes its
● Chemistry is the field of study
physical appearance but
concerned with the
not is chemical
characteristics, composition, and
composition (ex. Changes
transformations of matter
in physical state)
● Matter includes all things, both
living and non-living. o Chemical change – a
● To understand matter, we will substance undergoes a
look up on its fundamental change in chemical
nature, which includes the composition. It always
physical state, properties, and the involve conversion of the
changes it undergoes. material under
consideration into one or
Physical state
more new substances
o Solid – characterized by a
definite shape and a
definite volume
o Liquid – characterized by
an indefinite shape and a
define volume
o Gas – characterized by an
indefinite shape and an
indefinite volume
Property – distinguishing characteristic
of a substance that is used in its
identification and description
Pure Substances and Mixtures
● Physical property –
Matter can also be classified in terms of
characteristics that can be
its chemical composition as a pure
observed without changing the
substance or as a mixture
basic identity of the substance
(ex. Color, odor, physical state, • Pure substance – a single kind of
melting/boiling point, hardness) matter that cannot be separated
● Chemical property – describes into other kinds of matter by any
the way the substance undergoes physical means (ex. Pure water,
or resists change to form a new pure sugar)
substance
Elements and Compounds
 • Element – pure substance that • Physical combination of
cannot be broken down into substances produces a mixture
simpler pure substances by
• Chemical combination of
chemical means (ex. Gold, silver,
substances produces a
copper, hydrogen)
compound, a substance in which
• Compound – pure substance that combining entities are bound
can broken down into two or together
more simpler pure substances by
• No such binding occurs during
chemical means (ex. Water [H2O]
physical combination
can be broken down into the
elements hydrogen and oxygen)
• Mixture – physical combination
of two or more pure substances
in which each substance retains
its own chemical identity (ex.
Mixture of rock salt and ordinary
sand)
One characteristic of any mixture is
that its components can be •
separated using physical means
Mixtures
Elements
• Mixtures are subclassified as
heterogenous or homogenous • The discovery and isolation of the
117 known elements, the building
• Heterogenous mixture – a blocks for all matter, have taken
mixture that contains visible place over a period of several
different phases (parts), each of centuries. Most of the discoveries
which has different property have occurred since 1700, the
• Homogenous mixture – contains 1800s being the most active
only one visibly distinct phase period.
(part), which has a uniform • Each element has a unique
properties throughout (ex. name; some bear geographical
Sugar-water mixture) names (germanium, francium and
Compounds vs Mixtures polonium), some are named for
the planets (mercury, uranium,
• Remember, substances can be
neptunium), some reflect specific
combined either physically or
chemically
 properties of the element or of Substances containing
the compounds containing it homoatomic molecules are
elements (ex. Hydrogen [H2],
• Chemical symbol - one- or
oxygen [O2], nitrogen [N2], and
two-letter designation for an
chlorine [Cl2])
element derived from the
element’s name • A heteroatomic molecule is a
molecule in which two or more
Atoms and Molecules
kinds of atoms are present.
An atom is the smallest particle of an Substances containing
element that can exist and still have the heteroatomic molecules are
properties of the element compounds (ex. Water [H2O]
• A sample of any element is Compounds vs Molecules
composed of atoms of a single
• Compounds – molecules made of
type, those of that element. In
atoms from different elements
contrast, a compound must have
two or more types of atoms • Molecules – atoms connected by
present, because by definition at chemical bond
least two elements must be
• ALL COMPOUNDS ARE
present
MOLECULES, BUT NOT ALL
• Free atoms are rarely MOLECULES ARE
encountered in nature COMPOUNDS
• Atoms are almost always found • H2 is a molecule, but not a
together in aggregates or clusters compound (only H is present)
A molecule is a group of two or • H2O is both a molecule and a
more atoms that functions a unit compound (H and O are present)
because the atoms are tightly bound
Chemical Formula
together
• A chemical formula is a notation
• A diatomic molecule is a
made up of the chemical symbols
molecule that contains two
of the elements present in a
atoms, a triatomic molecule
compound and numerical
contains three, and so on.
subscripts (located to the right of
• The atoms present may all be of each chemical symbol) that
the same kind, or two or more indicate the number of atoms of
kinds may be present each element present in a
molecule of the compound.
• A homoatomic molecule is a
molecule in which all atoms • The chemical formula for the
present are of the same kind. compound aspirin is C9H8O4. This
 chemical formula conveys the • The liter (L) is the base unit of
information that an aspirin volume in the metric system (1 L
molecule contains three different is equivalent to 1.06 quarts)
elements— carbon (C), hydrogen
(H), and oxygen (O)—and 21
atoms—9 carbon atoms, 8
hydrogen atoms, and 4 oxygen
atoms.
Measurement
• Measurement – determination of
the dimensions, capacity,
quantity, or extent of something
• There are two systems of Measurements will always have a
measurement that is used degree of uncertainty or error
commonly: The English system of Significant Figures
units and the metric system of
units • Uncertainty is indicated by the
number of significant figures
• Examples of units in the English recorded
system are: inch, foot, pound,
quart, and gallon • Significant figures are digits in a
measurement that are known
• Examples of units in the metric with certainty plus one digit that is
system are: gram, meter, and liter estimated
Metric System Units Number of significant figures = all
• In the metric system, there is one certain digits + one estimated digit
base unit for each type of • Guidelines for Determining
measurement Significant Figures
• Prefixes are then added to the 1. All nonzero digits are
base unit significant
• The meter (m) is the base unit of 2. Zeros may or may not be
length in the metric system (1 m significant
is equivalent to 1.09 yards)
• Zeros at the
• The gram (g) is the base unit of beginning of a
mass in the metric system (28 g = number are never
1 ounce, 454 g = 1 pound) significant
Ex. 0.0141 has three significant figures
 • Zeros between • 2. In addition and subtraction, the
nonzero digits are answer is given with as many
always significant significant figures as the
measurement with the least
Ex. 3.063 has four significant figures
number of decimal places
0.001004 has four significant figures
• Zeros at the end of
a number are
SIGNIFICANT if a
decimal point is
PRESENT in the
number
•
Ex. 56.00 has four significant figures
• Scientific Notation
0.05050 has four significant figures
• Scientific notation is a
• Zeros at the end of numerical system in which
a number are NOT numbers are expressed in the
SIGNIFICANT in form A X 10n, where A is a
the number LACKS number with a single nonzero
an explicitly shown digit to the left of the decimal
decimal point place and n is a whole number
Ex. 59,000,000 has two significant • To convert from decimal
figures notation to scientific notation:
6010 has three significant figures • 1. The decimal point in the
Significant Figures and Mathematical decimal number is moved to the
Operations position behind the first nonzero
digit
• 1. In multiplication and division,
the number of significant figures • 2. The exponent for the
in the answer is the same as the exponential term is equal to the
number of significant figures in number of places the decimal
the measurement that contains point has been moved. (positive
the fewest significant figures exponent = if the original digit is
10 or greater, negative exponent
= if the original digit is less than
1)
Multiplication and Division of
Scientific Notation
•
 • The coefficients are combined in
the usual way (multiplied or
divided)
• The rules for exponential terms
are:
• 1. To multiply exponential terms,
add the exponents
• 2. To divide the exponential
terms, subtract the exponents
Ex. (2.33 x 103) x (1.55 x 104)
2.33 x 1.55 = 3.61
103 x 104 = 103+4 = 107
Final answer is 3.61 x 107
Conversion Factors
• A conversion factor is a ratio
that specifies how one unit of
measurement is related to
another unit of measurement
• It is derived from equalities that
relate units Density

Ex. 1 minute = 60 seconds • Density is the ratio of the mass

of an object to the volume
• A pair of conversion factor can be occupied by that object
derived from this equality
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
1 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒 60 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 • 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =   𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
60 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
and 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒
• Generally expressed in grams
per cubic centimeter (g/cm3) for
solids, grams per milliliters (g/mL)
for liquids

Temperature Scales
• Heat is a form of energy.
Temperature is an indicator of the
tendency of heat energy to be
 transferred. Heat energy flows 🞤 Hazard Communication
from objects of higher Standard
temperature to objects of lower
🞤 Respiratory Standard
temperature.
🞤 Air Contaminants Standard
• Both the Celsius and the Kelvin
are part of the metric system; 🞤 Personal Protective
Equipment Standard.
Fahrenheit scale belongs to the
Bloodborne Pathogen Standard
English system
▪ applies to all exposure to
• The Celsius scale is the most blood or other potentially
commonly used in scientific work infectious materials in any
occupational setting
▪ Universal Precaution and
PPE
▪ mandates the development
of an exposure control plan
▪ decontamination and safe
Laboratory Safety handling of specimen
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND ▪ requirement for HBV
HEALTH ACT (OSHA) vaccination
🞭 Public Law 91-596
🞭 was enacted by the U.S. Hazard Communication Standard
Congress in 1970 ▪ Toxic and Hazardous
🞭 Main goal: provide all employees Substances regulations
with a safe work environment ▪ to ensure that the hazards
of all chemicals used in the
Occupational safety and Health workplace have been
Administration evaluated and that this
hazard information is
🞭 -authorized to conduct on-site successfully transmitted to
inspections to determine whether employers and their
an employer is complying with the employees
mandatory standards
🞭 OSHA standards that regulate
safety in the laboratory include
the following:
🞤 Bloodborne Pathogen
Standard
🞤 Formaldehyde Standard
🞤 Laboratory Standard
UNIVERSAL PRECAUTION 🞭 Gloves
🞭 Instituted by CDC (1987) 🞭 Mask, eye protection, and face
🞭 all patients are considered to be shield
possible carriers of blood-borne 🞭 Gown
pathogens
🞭 Patient care equipment
🞭 recommends wearing gloves
when collecting or handling blood 🞭 Environmental control
and body fluids contaminated 🞭 Linen
with blood
🞭 Occupational health and
🞭 wearing face shields when there blood-borne pathogens
is danger of blood splashing on
🞭 Patient placement
mucous membranes
CHEMICAL SAFETY HAZARD
🞭 disposing all needles and sharp COMMUNICATION
objects in puncture-resistant 🞭 OSHA published the new Hazard
containers. Communication Standard (Right
🞭 CDC excluded urine and body to Know Law).
fluids not visibly contaminated
🞭 To comply with the regulation,
by blood from UP, although many
clinical laboratories must:
specimens can contain a
considerable amount of blood 🞤 Plan and implement a
before it becomes visible. written hazard
communication program
🞭 The modification of UP for body
substance isolation (BSI) helped 🞤 Obtain material safety data
to alleviate this concern. sheets (MSDS)
🞭 BSI guidelines are not limited to 🞤 Educate all employees
blood-borne pathogens; they 🞤 Maintain hazard warning
consider all body fluids and labels on containers
moist body substances to be received or filled on site.
potentially infectious. MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET
BSI GUIDELINES 🞭 major source of safety
🞭 personnel should wear gloves at information for employees who
all times when encountering may use hazardous materials
moist body substances.
🞤 Product name and
🞭 A major disadvantage of BSI identification
guidelines are that they do not
recommend handwashing 🞤 Hazardous ingredients
following removal of gloves 🞤 Permissible exposure limit
unless visual contamination is (PEL)
present.
🞤 Physical and chemical data
STANDARD PRECAUTIONS
🞭 Handwashing 🞤 Health hazard data and
 carcinogenic potential medical surveillance
🞤 Primary routes of entry and consultation,
when necessary
🞤 Fire and explosion hazards Other Organizations/Law Concerned
🞭 Reactivity data with LAB SAFETY
🞭 Spill and disposal procedures 🞭 Clean Water Act
🞭 PPE recommendations 🞭 Resource Conservation
🞭 Handling and Recovery Act
🞭 Emergency and first aid 🞭 Toxic Substances Control
procedures Act
🞭 Storage and transportation 🞭 The Clinical and
precautions Laboratory Standards
Institute (CLSI) provides
🞭 Chemical manufacturer’s name, excellent general and
address, and telephone number infection control guidelines
🞭 Special information section in their documents
🞭 OSHA Laboratory Standard 🞭 The Joint Commission
🞤 to address the (TJC)
shortcomings of the Hazard 🞭 College of American
Communication Standard Pathologists (CAP)
▪ requires the appointment of 🞭 National Fire Protection
a chemical hygiene officer Association (NFPA)
and the development of a
chemical hygiene plan
▪ CHEMICAL HYGIENE
PLAN
▪ Procedures
describing how to
protect employees
against teratogens,
carcinogens, and
other toxic chemicals
must be described in
the plan.
▪ Must detail
engineering
controls, PPE, safe ECOLOGICAL SOLID WASTE
work practices, and MANAGEMENT ACT OF 2000
administrative (REPUBLIC ACT 9003) BY DENR
controls, including 🞭 Biodegradable waste – food
provisions for wastes, yard wastes, etc. (green)
🞭 Non-biodegradable/Recyclable practices are corrected.
wastes – paper, plastic, ▪ Engage in the conduct of
styrofoam, tin cans, bottles, etc. safe work practices and use
(red) of personal protective
🞭 Non-recyclable/residual wastes equipment.
– used/worn out rugs, ceramics, GENERAL LABORATORY SAFETY
soiled plastics, candy wrappers, PRACTICES
etc. (blue) 🞭 No smoking, eating, and
application of cosmetics
🞭 Special/Hazardous Wastes –
🞭 Proper use of PPE (should never
used fluorescent lamps/bulbs,
batteries, spray canisters, etc. be worn outside the laboratory)
(black) 🞭 Shoes should be made of
SAFETY AWARENESS FOR CLINICAL nonporous materials with closed
LABORATORY PERSONNEL toes and heels
🞭 Employer’s Responsibilities 🞭 Hand washing should be done
▪ Establish laboratory work between each patient even if
methods and safety gloves are worn
policies. 🞭 Needles and other sharps should
▪ Provide supervision and be discarded into
guidance to employees. puncture-resistant and
▪ Provide safety information, leak-proof containers (½ to ¾
training, personal protective full before disposal)
equipment, and medical SAFETY EQUIPMENT
surveillance to employees. 🞭 All laboratories are required to
have
▪ Provide and maintain
🞤 safety showers,
equipment and laboratory
facilities that are adequate (recommended that safety
for the tasks required. showers deliver 30 to 50
gallons of water per minute
🞭 Employee’s Responsibilities
at 20 to 50 psi)
▪ Know and comply with the
🞤 eyewash stations,
established laboratory work
safety methods. 🞤 fire extinguishers.
▪ Have a positive attitude 🞤 fire blankets, spill kits, and
toward supervisors, first aid supplies.
coworkers, facilities, and
safety training.
▪ Give prompt notification of
unsafe conditions or
practices to the immediate
supervisor and ensure that
unsafe conditions and
 🞭 Rinse the spill site with water.
🞭 Dispose of all materials in
appropriate biohazard containers.
LAB SAFETY GENERAL
CONSIDERATIONS
Concentrated Acid/Base Spills
🞭 Should be diluted with water
before cleanup is attempted
🞭 Cover the spill with neutalizer
🞤 Sodium bicarbonate- acids
🞤 Boric acid- bases
🞭 Absorb spill using an absorbent
🞭 Surface should be covered with
soap and water
CHEMICAL HAZARDS
Flammable/Combustible Chemicals
🞭 Flash point, which is the
temperature at which sufficient
vapor is given off to form an
ignitable mixture with air

🞭 Acetone, Benzene, Ethanol,

BIOLOGIC SAFETY GENERAL Heptane, Isopropanol, Methanol,
CONSIDERATIONS Toluene, xylene.
Spills
🞭 Wear appropriate protective 🞭 Certain gases, such as hydrogen,
equipment. and solids, such as paraffin
🞭 Use mechanical devices to pick Categories of Chemicals
up broken glass or other sharp 🞭 Corrosive - chemicals with a pH
objects. of <2 or > 12.5
🞭 Absorb the spill with paper 🞭 Toxic Substances - poisons,
towels, gauze pads, or tissue. irritants and asphyxiants
🞭 Clean the spill site using a 🞭 Carcinogens - capable of causing
common aqueous detergent. cancers
🞭 Disinfect the spill site using
🞭 Mutagens and Teratogens -
approved disinfectant or 10%
capable of causing chromosomal
bleach, using appropriate contact
aberrations and congenital
time.
malformations
🞭 Ignitable - flammable and ❑ Benz[a] pyrene
combustible ❑ 4-Aminobiphenyl
🞭 Reactive - explosives and ❑ Benzidine
oxidizers
Corrosive Chemicals ❑ 1-Naphthylamine
❑ 2-Naphthylamine
🞭 injurious to the skin or eyes by
direct contact ❑ 4-Nitrobiphenyl
🞭 Injurious to the tissue of the ❑ Benzene
respiratory and gastrointestinal ❑ Ethylenimine
tracts if inhaled or ingested.
❑ P-Dimethylaminobenzene
🞭 Acids (acetic, sulfuric, nitric, and ❑ Β-Propiolactone
hydrochloric)
❑ Bis Chloromethyl ether
🞭 Bases (ammonium hydroxide, RADIATION SAFETY
potassium hydroxide, and sodium ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
hydroxide) Four Types of Ionizing Radiation
Reactive Chemicals
🞤 Alpha Particles (e.g.
🞭 With molecular structures of high Plutonium)
reactivity
🞤 Beta Particles
🞭 Oxidizers with high oxygen
content or compounds with redox 🞤 Electromagnetic Radiation
groups (gamma rays and x-rays)
🞭 substances that, under certain 🞤 Neutron
conditions, can spontaneously
explode or ignite or that evolve
heat or flammable or explosive Effects:
gases 🞭 damage to DNA leading to
🞭 Some strong acids or bases react mutation, cancer or cell death
with water to generate heat Alpha Particles
(exothermic reactions) 🞤 Large and can travel only a
🞭 mixture of oxidizing agents, such very short range in air
as peroxides, and reducing 🞤 May be stopped by skin or
agents, such as hydrogen, paper
generate heat and may be 🞤 Cause tissue damage if
explosive. inhaled or ingested
OSHA Regulated Carcinogenic
Chemicals Beta Particles
❑ Chloromethyl methyl ether- 🞤 Smaller and they are
vinyl chloride negatively charged electron
❑ N-Nitrosodimethylamine 🞤 With limited penetrating
power
 🞤 Cause tissue damage if
inhaled or ingested
🞤 Emitted by 3H, 14C, 32P
Neutrons
🞤
Arise from spontaneous
fission of some isotopes
and produced by atomic
reactors and accelerators THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUES
Gamma rays and X-rays 🞭 Exposure limits to toxic chemical
🞤 Composed of in the workplace
electromagnetic energy and 🞭 THREE TYPES
not composed of atomic
particles 1. Time-Weighted Average
(TLV-TWA)- represents the
Gamma rays maximum allowable exposure
🞤 No mass or charge but with over an 8-hour work day
great penetrating ability 2. Short-Term Exposure Limit
🞤 Produce significant internal (TLV-STEL)- represents the
and external hazard if in maximum amount of allowable
high concentration exposure for a short period
🞤 Produced by 125I and 131I such as 15 minutes

X-rays 3. Ceiling Value Form (TLV-C)-

represents the concentration
🞤
Differ from gamma rays of an agent that must never be
only in the origin of radiation exceeded
🞭 Nuclear Regulatory Commission STORAGE OF CHEMICALS
(NRC) license is required if the 🞭 Stored in an uncluttered area
total amount of radioactive (properly ventilated)
material exceeds a certain level.
🞭 Away from heat source
🞭 Film badge or dosimeter must be
worn when handling radioactive 🞭 Should not be stored above eye
chemicals levels
🞭 Inorganics should be stored
separately from organics
(EXCEPT NITRIC ACID)
🞭 Flammables should be stored in
an approved flammable safety
cabinet
🞭 Water reactive chemicals should
be stored in a dry environment
(no automatic sprinkler system)c
FIRE SAFETY
THE CHEMISTRY OF FIRE
🞭 all the elements essential for fire
to begin are present—fuel, heat
or ignition source, and oxygen
(air)
CLASSIFICATION OF FIRES
🞭 Class A: ordinary combustible
solid materials, such as paper,
wood, plastic, and fabric
🞭 Class B: flammable liquids/gases
and combustible petroleum
products
🞭 Class C: energized electrical
equipment
ELECTRICAL HAZARDS
🞭 Class D: combustible/reactive 🞭 Use only explosion-proof
metals, such as magnesium, equipment in hazardous
sodium, and potassium atmospheres.
🞭 Be particularly careful when
operating high-voltage
equipment, such as
electrophoresis apparatus.
🞭 Use only properly grounded
equipment (three-pronged plug).
🞭 Check for frayed electrical cords.
🞭 Promptly report any malfunctions
or equipment.
🞭 Do not work on “live” electrical
equipment
🞭 Equipment should be checked
annually for current leakage and
ground integrity

LAB SAFETY RULES

1. Always follow the teacher’s
directions and only do lab work
when a teacher is present.
2. Conduct yourself in a responsible
manner at all times.
3. Do not touch any equipment,
chemicals, or other materials until
 told to do so. • Erlenmeyer Flask - Are often
4. Do not eat food, drink beverages, or used for preparing reagents
chew gum in the lab. Do not use and titration purposes
lab glassware as food or beverage
containers • Test tubes - Test tubes comes
5. Report ALL accidents to your teacher in different sizes depending on
immediately, even if you think it is their intended use; chemical
minor. reaction medium

Glassware and Apparatuses • Graduated cylinder - A long

and straight sided cylindrical
Types of Glass piece of glassware with
• High Thermal calibration.
Resistant/Borosilicate Glass – • Biuret - Long cylindrical
used for heating and sterilization, graduated pipettes with
commonly used for constriction of stopcock; used for titration
reagent bottles
• Pipettes
• Boron-free/Soft Glass – high
resistance to alkali • Another type of volumetric
glassware used extensively in
• Corex – special alumina-silicate the laboratory.
glass that has been strengthened
chemically than thermally • Classification

• Flint glass – poor resistance to • I. Calibration Marks/Design

high temperature; used to make • To deliver (TD)
disposable glassware
• To contain (TC)
• Low-actinic glass – used for light
sensitive reagents • II. Drainage Characteristics

Glassware for Measurement • Blowout

• Volumetric flasks - Are • Self-draining

frequently used for preparation • III. Types
of standard solutions
• Transfer pipettes
• Beaker - Wide straight sided
cylindrical vessels that are • Graduated or Measuring
available in many sizes; used pipettes
generally for mixing and for • Transfer Pipette
reagent preparation
• Volumetric pipette
• Pasteur pipette
 • Automatic pipette • Never look directly inside the
tube that is being heated
• Graduated Pipette
• Never smell the solution directly
• Serologic Pipette
from the test tube, wave your
• Mohr pipette hand towards you to identify the
smell
• Centrifuge
Handling Solids
An instrument that uses centrifugal
force to separate solid matter from a • To get solids from a reagent
liquid suspension bottle, spoon it with a clean and
dry spatula (a dirty spatula will
Common Laboratory Procedures
contaminate the portion being
1. When pouring contents from a taken and all the reagents inside
reagent bottle into am the bottle)
open-mouth container such as a
• When weighing solid chemicals,
beaker, use a stirring rod.
put the reagent on a watch glass
2. Remove the glass stopper from
• Do not place the reagent directly
reagent bottles by pulling it with
on the pans of the balance
the use of index and middle
fingers, palm facing upward • Do not return excess reagents
into its original container
Using the Laboratory Pipette
Separating Mixtures
1. If a small portion of the liquid is to
be transferred to another 1. Filtration – it is the process of
container, use a pipette or a separating solid particles from liquid by
medicine dropper pouring the mixture in a filter paper
2. Let the pipette be filled by means Residue – solid left on the filter paper
of capillary action.
Filtrate – the liquid portion at the bottom
3. To hold the liquid in, place the of the container
index finger at the open end of
Decantation
the pipette
• It is the process of pouring the
4. If exact amounts of solutions are
liquid portion of the mixture to
needed, use an aspirator.
another container while not
Heating solutions in a Test tube disturbing the solid particles that
settle at the bottom of the
• Never point the open end of the
container
tube to anyone while heating the
solution in it
 • Residue/sediment – solid at the
bottom of the container
• Decantate – the liquid portion on
top of the solution
Atoms and the Periodic Table
Atoms
• All matter is made up of small
particles called atoms
• Atoms, in turn, are made up of
even smaller particles called
subatomic particles
• Three types of subatomic Atomic Number and Mass Number
particles are found within atoms
• The atomic number is the number
Subatomic Particles of protons in the nucleus of an
atom (Z)
• All protons and all neutrons are
found at the center of an atom Z = number of protons = number of
electrons
• Almost all of the mass of an atom
is concentrated in its center • The mass number is the number
of protons and the number of
• The outer region of an atom
neutrons in the nucleus (A)
contains all of the electrons
A = number of protons + number of
• The nucleon is any subatomic
neutrons
particle found in the nucleus of an
atom • Complete chemical symbol
notation: atomic number is placed
• An atom as a whole is electrically
as a subscript in front of the
neutral
chemical symbol and the mass
number is placed as a superscript
in front of the chemical symbol
Electrons and Chemical
Properties
• The chemical properties of an
atom are determined by the
number and arrangement of
electrons about the nucleus
 • An element is a pure substance Groups and Periods
in which all atoms present have
• A period is a horizontal row of
the same atomic number
elements in the periodic table
Isotopes
• A group is a vertical column of
• An atom must have the same elements in the periodic table
number of electrons and protons
• Four Groups of elements have
• However, the number of neutrons common (non-numerical) names
do not have to be the same as
• Alkali metal, Alkaline earth metal,
the number of protons or
Halogen and Noble Gas
electrons
Metals and Nonmetals
• Isotopes are atoms of an element
that have the same number of • A metal is an element that has
protons and the same number of the characteristic properties of
electrons but different numbers of luster, thermal conductivity,
neutrons electrical conductivity, and
malleability
Atomic Mass
• A nonmetal is an element
• The atomic mass is the
characterized by the absence of
calculated average mass for the
properties of luster, thermal
isotopes of an element,
conductivity, electrical
expressed on a scale where 126C
conductivity, and malleability
serves as the reference point
• The majority of the elements are
Periodic Law and Periodic Table
metals
• The periodic law states that when
Electron Arrangements within Atoms
elements are arranged in order of
increasing atomic number, • Electrons are restricted to
elements with similar chemical specific regions within the
properties occur in periodic extranuclear portion of the atom
(regularly recurring) intervals
• Electron energies are limited to
• A periodic table is a tabular certain values, and a specific
arrangement of the elements in behavior is associated with each
order of increasing atomic allowed energy value
number such that elements
• The space in which electrons
having similar chemical
move rapidly about is divided into
properties are positioned in
subspaces called shells,
vertical columns
subshells and orbitals
Electron Shells • The number of subshells
within a shell is the same as
• An electron shell is a region of
the shell number
space about a nucleus that
contains electrons that gave • Subshells differ in size, and each
approximate the same energy type is designated using the
and that spend most of their time letters s, p, d and f. Listed in this
approximately the same distance order, these letters denote
from the nucleus subshells of increasing energy
and size
• Electron shells are numbered 1,
2, 3, and so on, outward from the • An s subshell can accommodate
nucleus a maximum of 2 electrons, p
subshell 6 electrons, a d subshell
• The higher shell number (n), the
10 electrons, and an f subshell 14
more electrons can be present
electrons
• The lowest-energy shell (n = 1)
• Both a number and a letter are
accommodates a maximum of 2
used in identifying subshells
electrons. In the second, third
and fourth shells, 8, 18, 32 • The number gives the shell within
electrons, respectively, are which the subshell is located, and
allowed the letter gives the type of
subshell
• Ex. Shell number 1 has only one
subshell, the 1s
• Shell 2 has two subshells, the 2s
and 2p
• Shell 3 has three subshells, the
3s, 3p, and 3d
Electron Orbitals
• An electron orbital is a region of
space within an electron subshell
where an electron with a specific
•
energy is most likely to be found
Electron Subshells
• An electron orbital, independent
• An electron subshell is a region of all other considerations, can
of space within an electron shell accommodate maximum of 2
that contains electrons that have electrons
the same energy
• Thus an s subshell (2 electrons) number-letter combinations (1s,
contains one orbital, a p subshell 2s, and 2p etc.)
(6 electrons) contains three
• A superscript following each
orbitals, a d subshell (10
subshell designation indicated
electrons) five orbitals, and an f
the number of electrons in that
subshell (14 electrons) contains
subshell
seven orbitals
• The electron configuration for
• Orbitals have distinct shaped
nitrogen (atomic number = 7) is:
related to the type of subshell
1s22s22p3
which they are found
• An s orbital, found in the s
subshell, is spherical in shape
• p orbitals, found in the p subshell,
have shaped similar to the “figure
8”

Electron Configuration
• Electron subshells are filled in
order of increasing energy
• However, energies of subshells in
different shelf often “overlap”
• For example, the 4s subshell has • Write the electron configuration
lower energy than the 3d subshell of the following elements

• An electron configuration is a • Strontium (atomic number = 38)

statement of how many electrons • 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s2
an atom has in each of its
electron subshells • Lead (atomic number = 82)

• Electron configurations are • 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d10

written using symbols 5p66s24f145d106p2

• Subshells containing electrons, Electron Configurations and the

listed in the order of increasing Periodic Law
energy, are designated by using
 • Groups (columns) of elements atom or group of atoms to
have similar chemical properties another
because of similarities in their
• Covalent bonds – formed
electron configuration
through the sharing of one
• Ex. The group IA of the periodic or more pairs of electrons
table between two atoms
Chemical Bonds and Compounds • It is important to note that most
bonds are not 100% ionic or 10%
Part 1: Ionic Bond Model
covalent
• Ionic compounds – high melting
points, good conductors of
electricity when in liquid state or
in solution
• Molecular compounds – lower
melting points, tend to be gases,
liquids, or solids. Do not conduct
electricity in liquid state
• Ionic compounds do not have
molecules as their basic
structural unit, instead they are
Chemical Bonds made up of extended array of
positively and negatively charged
• Compounds are divided into two particles called ions
broad categories: ionic
compounds and molecular • Chemical bonds result from
compounds interactions between electrons
found in the combining atoms,
• Certain combinations of elements thus the nature of chemical
produces ionic compounds, some bonding is closely related to
other combinations form electron configs
molecular compounds
• Ionic compounds are compounds
• Chemical bond is the attractive in which ionic bonds are present
force that holds two atoms
together in a more complex unit • Molecular compounds are
compounds in which covalent
• Ionic bonds – formed bonds are present
through transfer of one or
more electrons from one • Most bonds have some degree of
both ionic and covalent character
Valence Electrons number of valence electrons
present in atoms of the element
There are two fundamental concepts to
understanding ionic and covalent • The general practice in writing
bonding models these symbols is to place the first
four dots separately on the four
1. Not all electrons in an atom
sides of the chemical symbol and
participate in bonding. Those that do are
then begin pairing the dots are
called valence electrons
further dots are added
2. Certain arrangements of electrons are
Three things to note:
more stable than others, as is explained
by the octet rule • 1. Representative elements in the
same group of the periodic table
• Valence electron is an electron
have the same number valence
in the outer-most electron shell of
electrons
a representative or noble-gas
element • 2. The number of valence
electrons for the representative
• The number of valence electrons
elements is the same as the
in an atom of a representative
Roman numeral periodic-table
element can be determined from
group number
the atom’s electron configuration
• 3. The maximum number of
valence electrons for any element
is eight
Octet Rule
• The valence electrons of the
noble gases are considered the
most stable of all valence
electron configurations
• Helium’s electron configuration is
1s2. All other noble gases
possesses and ns2np6 valence
electron configurations, where n
has the maximum value found in
and atom
Lewis Symbols
• The conclusion that an ns2np6
• A Lewis symbol is the chemical
electron configuration (1s2 for
symbol of an element surrounded
helium) is based on the chemical
by dots equal in number to the
inertness of the noble gases
 • Octet rule – in forming
compounds, atoms of elements
lose, gain, or share electrons in
such a way as to produce a noble
gas electron configuration for
each of the atoms involved
Ionic Bond Model
• Ions are produced as a result of
ionic bonding
• An ion is an atom (or group of
atoms) that is electrically charged
as a result of the loss or gain of
electrons
• If an atom gains one or more
electrons, it becomes a
negatively charged ; if an atom
loses one or more electrons, it
becomes a positively charged
• Loss of one, two, or three
electrons gives ions with +1, +2,
or +3 charges, respectively
• Gain of one, two, or three
electrons gives ions with -1, -2, or
-3 charges, respectively

Generalizations
1. Metal atoms containing one, two, or
three valence electrons (metals in
Groups IA, IIA, and IIIA) tend to lose
electrons to acquire a noble gas
electron configuration.
• Group IA metals form 1+
ions
• Group IIA metals form 2+
THE SIGN AND MAGNITUDE OF ions
IONIC CHARGE
 • Group IIIA metals form 3+ valence electrons) is represented as
ions follows with a Lewis structure
2.Non-metal atoms containing five, six,
or seven electrons (non-metals of
Groups VA, VIA, and VIIA) tend to gain
electrons to acquire a noble gas • When sodium, which has one
electron configuration valence electron, combines with
• Group VIIA nonmetals oxygen, which has six valence
form 1- atoms electrons, the oxygen atom
requires the presence of two
• Group VIA nonmetals form sodium atoms to acquire two
2- ions additional electrons
• Group VA nonmetals form
3- ions
3. Elements in Group IVA would
have to gain or lose four
electrons to attain stability, but in
• An opposite situation to that in
most cases the bonding that
Na2O occurs in the reaction
results is more adequately
between calcium, which has two
described by the covalent bond
valence electrons, and chlorine,
model
which has seven valence
Lewis Structures for Ionic electrons.
Compounds
• Here, two chlorine atoms are
Ion formation requires the presence of necessary to accommodate
two elements: a metal that can donate electrons transferred from one
electrons and a nonmetal that can calcium atom because a chlorine
accept electrons atom can accept only one
electron. (It has seven valence
The positive and negative ions
electrons and needs only one
simultaneously formed from such
more.)
electron transfer attract one another,
forming and ionic compound
A Lewis structure is a combination of
Lewis symbols that represents either the
transfer or sharing of electrons in
chemical bonds
Chemical Formulas for Ionic
The reaction between sodium (1 Compounds
valence electron) and chlorine (7
 • Ionic compounds are always • The compounds NaCl, CO2,
NEUTRAL P4O10 are all binary compounds
• The ratio in which positive and A binary ionic compound is an
negative ions combine is the ionic compound in which one
ratio that achieves charge element present is a metal and the
neutrality for the resulting other element present is a nonmetal
compound
NAMING RULE: the full name of the
metallic element is given first, followed
by a separate word containing the stem
of the nonmetallic element and the suffix
–ide.
The total positive charge present on the • Ex. NaF - sodium fluoride
ions that have lost electrons always is
exactly counterbalanced by the total Naming Binary Compounds
negative charge on the ions that have • The chlorides of Fe2+ and Fe3+
gained electrons (FeCl2 and FeCl3, respectively)
Ions combine in a ratio that causes the are named iron(II) chloride and
positive and negative charges to add to iron(III) chloride
zero • CuO is named copper(II) oxide
Recognizing and Naming Binary Ionic • If you are uncertain about the
Compounds charge on the metal ion in an
• The compounds NaCl, CO2, ionic compound, use the charge
P4O10 are all binary compounds on the nonmetal ion (which does
not vary) to calculate it
• A binary ionic compound is an
ionic compound in which one • For example in CuO, you can
element present is a metal and note that the oxide ion carries a
the other element present is a -2 charge (because oxygen is in
nonmetal group VIA), this means that the
copper ion must have a +2
• NAMING RULE: the full name of charge to counterbalance the -2
the metallic element is given first, charge
followed by a separate word
containing the stem of the Naming Binary Compounds
nonmetallic element and the • You must know which metals
suffix –ide. exhibit variable ionic charge and
• Ex. NaF - sodium fluoride which have a fixed ionic charge.
 • The fixed charge metals are compounds, the basic structural unit is a
those in group IA (+1 ionic molecule (molecular compounds)
charge), those in group IIA (+2
4. All ionic compounds are solids at RT.
ionic charge) and five others
Molecular compounds may be solids,
(Al3+, Ga3+, Zn2+, Cd2+, and Ag +)
liquids, or gases at RT.
• Metals from the diagram form
5. An ionic solid, if soluble in water,
ionic compounds without roman
forms aqueous solution that conducts
numerals in their names
electricity. A molecular compound, if
Polyatomic ions soluble in water, usually produces a
nonconduction aqueous solution
• A monoatomic ion is an ion
formed from a single atom Covalent Bond
through loss or gain of electrons
• A covalent bond is a chemical
(Cl-, Na+, Ca2+)
bond resulting from two nuclei
• A polyatomic ion is an ion formed attracting the same shared
from a group of atoms (held electrons
together by covalent bonds)
• Consider two hydrogen atoms,
through loss or gain of electrons
each with a single electron that
(SO42-)
are brought together
• This ion contains four O atoms
• The orbitals that contain the
and one S atom, and the whole
valence electrons overlap to
group of five atoms has acquired
create an orbital common to both
a charge of -2
atoms

Chemical Bonds and Compound

Part 2: Covalent Bond
Ionic vs Covalent
1. Ionic bonds form between atoms of
dissimilar elements (metal + nonmetal).
Covalent bond occurs between similar
or even identical atoms (often two
nonmetals are involved)
2. Ionic bond = Electron transfer,
Covalent bond = Electron sharing The two electrons, one from each H
3. Ionic compounds do not have discreet atom, now move throughout this new
molecules. In covalently bonded
orbital and are said to be shared by the
two nuclei
Once two orbitals overlap, the most
favorable location for the shared • Bonding electrons are pairs of
electrons is the area directly between valence electrons that are shared
the two nuclei. Here the two electrons between atoms in a covalent
can simultaneously interact with both bond. Nonbonding electrons
nuclei, a situation that produces are pairs of valence electrons on
increased stability an atom that are not involved in
electron sharing
The two shared electrons do double
duty, helping each hydrogen atom
achieve a helium noble gas
configuration
Lewis Structures for Molecular
Compounds Lewis Structures for Molecular
• The octet rule and Lewis symbols Compounds
are also useful for molecular • Consider the molecules H2O,
compounds NH3, and CH4. The hydrogen
• Fluorine (Group VIIA) has seven content of these molecules is
valence electrons. Lewis symbol: correlated directly with the fact
that oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon
have six, five, and four valence
electrons, and therefore need to
• Consider the molecules HF, F2, gain two, three and four
and BrF electrons, respectively, through
electron sharing in order for the
octet rule to be obeyed.

•
• A common practice in writing
Lewis structures for covalently
bonded molecules is to represent
the shared electron pairs with
dashes
Single, Double, and Triple Covalent
Bonds
• A single covalent bond is a • The two atoms in a triple covalent
covalent bond in which two atoms bond are commonly the same
share one pair of electrons element. However, they do not
have to be. Consider HCN
• A double covalent bond is a (hydrogen cyanide)
covalent bond in which two atoms
share two pairs of electrons
• A triple covalent bond is a
covalent bond in which two atoms Valence Electrons and Number of
share three pairs of electrons Covalent Bonds
• Consider the molecule N2, which • Not all elements can form
has a triple covalent bond. multiple bonds
• A nitrogen atom has five valence • There must be at least two
electrons. Lewis structure: vacancies in an atom’s valence
electron shell prior to bond
formation if it is to participate in a
double bond

• In order to have an octet of • At least three vacancies are

electrons, each nitrogen atom necessary for triple bond
must share thee of its electrons formation
with the other nitrogen atom • Multiple bonding does not have to
occur when an element has two,
three, or four vacancies; single
covalent bonds can be formed
instead
Electronegativity
• The ionic and covalent bonding
models seem to represent two
• Consider the molecule C2H2 very distinct forms of bonding, but
(acetylene). A carbon-carbon the two models are closely
triple covalent bond is present as related; they are the extremes of
well as two carbon-hydrogen a broad continuum of bonding
single bonds patterns
• Electronegativity is the measure
of the relative attraction that an
 atoms has for the shared • Unequal sharing of electrons in a
electrons in a bond polar covalent bond creates a
fractional positive and negative
• Linus Pauling developed a
charges on atoms
numerical scale for
electronegativity • The Greek letter delta (𝛿) is used
to denote fractional charge
• The close relationship between
the two models becomes • The symbol 𝛿– means fractional
apparent when the concepts of negative charge, and is placed
electronegativity and bond above the more electronegative
polarity are considered atom of the bond
• Electronegativity concept has its • The symbol 𝛿+ means fractional
origins in the fact that nuclei of positive charge, and it is placed
various elements have differing above the less electronegative
abilities to attract shared atom of the bond
electrons to themselves. Some
• When two atoms of equal
elements are better electron
electronegativity share one or
attractors than other elements
more pairs of electrons, each
• The higher the electronegativity atom exerts the same attraction
value for an element, the greater for the electrons, which results in
the attraction of atoms of that the electrons being equally
element for the shared electrons shared. This is called a nonpolar
covalent bond
• Electronegativity values increase
from left to right across periods • When two atoms involved in a
and from bottom to top within covalent bond have different
groups of the periodic table; electronegativities, the atom that
making nonmetals having higher has the higher electronegativity
electronegativities than metals attracts the electrons more
strongly than the other atom,
Bond Polarity
resulting in an unequal sharing of
• A nonpolar covalent bond is a electrons
covalent bond in which there is
• Unequal sharing means that
equal sharing of electrons
electrons spend more time near
between two atoms
the more electronegative atom of
• A polar covalent bond is a the bond (producing a fractional
covalent bond in which there is negative charge) and less time
unequal sharing of electrons near the less electronegative
between atoms
 atom of the bond (producing a 2. Bonds with an electronegativity
fractional positive charge) difference greater than 0.4 but less than
1.5 are called polar covalent bonds
• With the delta notation, the
direction of polarity of the bond in 3. Bonds with an electronegativity
hydrogen chloride (HCl) is difference greater than 2.0 are called
depicted as ionic bonds
4. Bonds with electronegativity
difference between 1.5 and 2.0 are
considered ionic if the bond involves a
metal and a nonmetal, polar covalent if
the bond involves two nonmetals
• The direction of polarity of a polar The existence of bond polarity means
covalent bond can also be that there is no natural boundary
designated by using and arrow between ionic and covalent bonding,
with a cross at one end most bonds are a mixture of pure ionic
and pure covalent bonds, that is,
unequal sharing of electrons occurs
Naming Binary Molecular
Compounds
• Rules are very similar to that
used for naming binary ionic
• Bond polarity is a measure of compounds
the degree of inequality in the
sharing of electrons between two • However, names for binary
atoms in a chemical bond molecular compounds always
contain numerical prefixes that
• The numerical value of the give the number of each type of
electronegativity difference atom present in addition to the
between two bonded atoms gives names of the elements present
an approximate measure of bond
polarity • The full name of the nonmetal of
lower electronegativity is given
Guidelines first, followed by a separate word
1. Bonds that involve atoms with the containing the stem of the name
same or very similar electronegativities of the more electronegative
are called nonpolar covalent bonds. nonmetal and the suffix –ide.
These are those with electronegativity Numerical prefixes, giving the
difference of 0.4 or less numbers of atoms, precede the
names of both nonmetals
• A binary molecular compound is
a molecular compound in which
only two nonmetallic elements
are present

Chemical Reactions
Chemical Equation
• A chemical equation is a written
statement that uses chemical
symbols and chemical formulas
instead of words to describe the
• For example: N2O, N2O3, N2O4 changes that occur in a chemical
reaction
• Names: dinitrogen monoxide,
dinitrogen trioxide, dinitrogen • In a chemical equation, there are
tetroxide reactants and there are products

• Compounds in which hydrogen is • Conventions: Reactants are

the first listed element in the written on the left side of
formula are named without equation, products on the right
numerical prefixes. Ex. HCl = side. Reactants and products are
hydrogen chloride separated by an arrow pointing
toward the products. Plus sign
• Few binary molecular compounds
are used to separate different
have common names
reactants or different products
 • Chemical equations must be: (1)
Consistent with experimental
facts and (2) must have the same
number of atoms of each kind on
both sides of the equation
• (2) states that chemical equations
must be balanced. This is
achieved with the use of equation The majority of reactions fall into these
coefficients. An equation five major categories: combination,
coefficient is a number that is decomposition, single-replacement,
placed to the left of a chemical double replacement, and combustion
formula in a chemical equation. reaction
In a combination reaction, two
substances join together to form a more
•
complicated product. The reactants can
Chemical Reaction be elements or compounds or an
element and a compound. The product
• A chemical reaction is a process
of the reaction is always a compound
in which at least one new
substance is produced as a result A decomposition rxn is the opposite of a
of chemical change combination rxn. The products may be
elements or compounds, but the
• A combination reaction is a
reactant is always a compound
reaction in which a single product
is produced from two (or more) • A single-replacement reaction
reactants is a chemical reaction in which an
atom or molecule replaces an
atom or group of atoms from a
compound

• A decomposition reaction is a
chemical reaction in which a
single reactant is converted into
two (or more) simpler substances
(elements or compounds)
• A double-replacement reaction
is a chemical reaction in which
two substance exchange parts
 with one another and form two
different substances

• A combustion reaction is a
chemical reaction between a
substance and oxygen (usually
from air) that proceeds with the
evolution of heat and light
(usually from a flame)