Compression:

Fluids, when forced into smaller volumes, increase the pressure applied by
them. This is in direct relation with Bernoulli’s theorem for fluids.

A compressor uses this property of fluids to increase the pressure and thus
cause fluids to either pass in a circuit- e.g. compressors of refrigeration
systems- or in the petroleum industry for the transport of petroleum and
natural gas through the pipelines.

Compressors:

External Drive Compressor—An external drive or open-type

compressor is bolted together. Its crankshaft extends through the crankcase
and is driven by a flywheel (pulley) and belt, or it can be driven directly by
an electric motor. A leakproof seal must be maintained where the
crankshaft extends out of the crankcase of an open-type compressor. The
seal must be designed to hold the pressure developed inside of the
compressor. It must prevent refrigerant and oil from leaking out and
prevent air and moisture from entering the compressor. Two types of seals
are used—the stationary bellows seal and the rotating bellows seal.
An internal stationary crankshaft seal shown in figure consists of a
corrugated thin brass tube (seal bellows) fastened to a bronze ring (seal
guide) at one end and to the flange plate at the other. The flange plate is
bolted to the crankcase with a gasket between the two units. A spring
 presses the seal guide mounted on the other end of the bellows against a
seal ring positioned against the shoulder of the crankshaft. As the pressure
builds up in the crankcase, the bellows tend to lengthen, causing additional
force to press the seal guide against the seal ring. Oil from the crankcase
lubricates the surfaces of the seal guide and seal ring. zThis forms a
gastight sea whether the compressor is operating or idle.

Hermetic Compressor—In the hermetically sealed compressor, the

electric motor and compressor are both
Fig 2 in the same airtight (hermetic) housing
and share the same shaft. Figure 2 shows
a hermetically sealed unit.
Note that Fig 1 after assembly, the two
halves of the case are welded together
to form an airtight cover. The compressor, in this case, is a double-piston
reciprocating type. Other compressors may be of the centrifugal or rotary
types.
 Cooling and lubrication are provided by the circulating oil and the
movement of the refrigerant vapor throughout the case.
The advantages of the hermetically sealed unit (elimination of pulleys,
belts and other coupling methods, elimination of a source of refrigerant
leaks) are offset somewhat by the inaccessibility for repair and generally
lower capacity.
Centrifugal Compressors:

Centrifugal compressors use a rotating disk or impeller in a shaped

housing to force the gas to the rim of the impeller, increasing the velocity
of the gas. A diffuser (divergent duct) section converts the velocity energy
to pressure energy. They are primarily used for continuous, stationary
service in industries such as oil refineries, chemical and plants and natural
gas processing plants. Their application can be from 100 horsepower
(75 kW) to thousands of horsepower. With multiple staging, they can
achieve extremely high output pressures greater than 10,000 psi (69 MPa).

Axial Flow Compressors:

Axial-flow compressors are dynamic rotating compressors that use arrays

of fan-like airfoils to progressively compress the working fluid. They are
used where there is a requirement for a high flow rate or a compact design.
The arrays of airfoils are set in rows, usually as pairs: one rotating and one
stationary. The rotating airfoils, also known as blades or rotors, accelerate
the fluid. The stationary airfoils, also known as stators or vanes, decelerate
and redirect the flow direction of the fluid, preparing it for the rotor blades
of the next stage. Axial compressors are almost always multi-staged, with
the cross-sectional area of the gas passage diminishing along the
compressor to maintain an optimum axial Mach number. Beyond about 5
stages or a 4:1 design pressure ratio, variable geometry is normally used to
improve operation.

Reciprocating Compressors:

Reciprocating compressors use pistons driven by a crankshaft. They can be

either stationary or portable, can be single or multi-staged, and can be
driven by electric motors or internal combustion engines. Small
reciprocating compressors from 5 to 30 horsepower (hp) are commonly
seen in automotive applications and are typically for intermittent duty.
Larger reciprocating compressors well over 1,000 hp (750 kW) are
commonly found in large industrial and petroleum applications. Discharge
pressures can range from low pressure to very high pressure (>18000 psi
or 180 MPa). In certain applications, such as air compression, multi-stage
double-acting compressors are said to be the most efficient compressors
available, and are typically larger, and more costly than comparable rotary
units. Another type of reciprocating compressor is the swash plate
compressor, which uses pistons which are moved by a swash plate
mounted on a shaft - see Axial Piston Pump.
Household, home workshop, and smaller job site compressors are typically
reciprocating compressors 1½ hp or less with an attached receiver tank.
Diaphragm Compressor:

A diaphragm compressor (also known as a membrane compressor) is a

variant of the conventional reciprocating compressor. The compression of
gas occurs by the movement of a flexible membrane, instead of an intake
element. The back and forth movement of the membrane is driven by a rod
and a crankshaft mechanism. Only the membrane and the compressor box
come in contact with the gas being compressed.
Diaphragm compressors are used for hydrogen and compressed natural gas
(CNG) as well as in a number of other applications.

Compressor Selection

The principle selection criteria is the capacity of the compressor must

match the capacity of the evaporator(s) (system) under the nominated
operating conditions (compressor speed)
Insufficient flow rates at lower compressor speeds will result in
dramatically reduced capacity of the system, and result is possible risk of
damage to the compressor. (See separate booklet - Unicla Service
Information)
In the absence of system capacity/evaporator capacity data the TX valve
size may be used as an indicator of capacity. The TX should be sized to
adequately fill the coil under full heat loads.
Low side pressure analysis should not be used in isolation as a method of
determining compressor size/capacity due to the variables of pressure
drop/TX flow rates etc.
Dual evaporator systems will require a compressor with adequate capacity
to cater for both evaporators at nominated compressor speeds.
Power consumption graphs are used to ascertain drive motor
capacity/input power requirements.

A comparison of important compressor types (Sustainable Energy

Development Office)

Assessment of capacity of a compressor

Due to aging of the compressors and inherent inefficiencies in the internal
components, the free air delivered may be less than the design value,
despite good maintenance practices. Sometimes, other factors such as poor
maintenance, fouled heat exchanger and effects of altitude also tend to
reduce free air delivery. In order to meet the air demand, the inefficient
compressor may have to run for more time, thus consuming more power
than actually required.
The power wastage depends on the percentage deviation of FAD capacity.
For example, a worn out compressor valve can reduce the compressor
capacity by as much as 20 percent. A periodic assessment of the FAD
capacity of each compressor has to be carried out to check its actual
capacity. If the deviations are more than 10 percent, corrective measures
should be taken to rectify the same.
The ideal method of compressor capacity assessment is through a nozzle
test wherein a calibrated nozzle is used as a load, to vent out the generated
compressed air. Flow is assessed, based on the air temperature,
stabilization pressure, orifice constant, etc.

Simple method of capacity assessment at the shop floor

1. Isolate the compressor along with its individual receiver that are to be
taken for a test from the main compressed air system by tightly closing the
isolation valve or blanking it, thus closing the receiver outlet.
2. Open the water drain valve and drain out water fully and empty the
receiver and the pipeline. Make sure that the water trap line is tightly
closed once again to start the test.
3. Start the compressor and activate the stopwatch.
4. Note the time taken to attain the normal operational pressure P2 (in the
receiver) from initial pressure P1.
5. Calculate the capacity as per the formulae given below

The above equation is relevant where the compressed air temperature is

the same as the ambient air temperature, i.e., perfect isothermal
compression. In case the actual compressed air temperature at discharge,
say t2 oC is higher than ambient air temperature say t10C (as is usual
case), the FAD is to be corrected by a factor (273 + t1) / (273 + t2).

Compressor Efficiency
 Several different measures of compressor efficiency are commonly used:
volumetric efficiency, adiabatic efficiency, isothermal efficiency and
mechanical efficiency.
Adiabatic and isothermal efficiencies are computed as the isothermal or
adiabatic power divided by the actual power consumption. The figure
obtained indicates the overall efficiency of a compressor and drive motor.

Isothermal efficiency
Isothermal Efficiency = Actual measured input power I IsothermalPower
Isothermal power (kW) = P1 x Q1 x loger/36.7 2 Where
P1 = Absolute intake pressure kg/ cm
Q1 = Free air delivered m3/hr.
r = Pressure ratio P2/P1
The calculation of isothermal power does not include power needed to
overcome friction and generally gives an efficiency that is lower than
adiabatic efficiency. The reported value of efficiency is normally the
isothermal efficiency. This is an important consideration when selecting
compressors based on reported values of efficiency.

Volumetric Efficiency

Where
D = Cylinder bore, metre L = Cylinder stroke, metre S = Compressor
speed rpm ? = 1 for single acting and
2 for double acting cylinders n = No. of cylinders
For practical purposes, the most effective guide in comparing compressor
efficiencies is the specific power consumption, i.e. kW/volume flow rate,
for different compressors that would provide identical duty.

SELECTION CONSIDERATIONS
There are several factors that should be considered during the course of
evaluating potential selections for a new screw compressor or changing the
operating conditions of an existing screw compressor. Items that designers
should considered include:
1. Expected range of operating suction and discharge pressures single
stage or two stage operation (booster or high-stage) swing duty (boosters
operating as a single (or high) stage) load variability over time (large pull-
down loads vs. relatively constant loads).
2. Climate type and system minimum head pressure constraints.
3. Oil separator sizing/selection.
4. Oil cooling methods.
5. System and package losses for check valves, service valves, strainers
installed around the compressor.
6. Expected maintenance costs over machine’s life

One of the key selection criteria is the expected operating suction and
discharge pressures for the compressor. Many compressors operate with a
fixed or relatively narrow compressor suction pressure (temperature);
however, some compressors are designed for swing duty to serve loads at
different suction levels. All compressors will operate over a range of
discharge pressures and some will run over a wider range of discharge
pressures due to seasonal fluctuations in condensing pressures. The
greatest challenge for systems that operate over a wide range of
condensing temperatures is selecting a fixed volume ratio screw
compressor that can deliver a high level of energy efficiency. Table 1
below provides suggested volume ratio selections for fixed Vi compressors
that will operate over high, medium, and low ranges in head pressure. In
all cases, the data in Table 1 assumes that the maximum saturated
condensing temperature is 35°C [95°F]; however, the minimum saturated
condensing temperature varies from 18°C [65°F] to 27°C [80°F].
Ideal volume ratios for fixed Vi machines operating over a range of suction
and discharge conditions were shown earlier in this paper. Below, Figure 5
shows ideal volume ratios for fixed Vi compressors operating under
booster duty in two-stage compression systems. If a compressor will
operate as a swing machine, select a variable volume ratio compressor due
to its ability to deliver superior performance in comparison to its fixed Vi
counterpart. If a compressor is expected to operate over a wide range of
suction pressures (due to pull-down or process variability) select a variable
volume ratio screw compressor.

The condensing or head pressure of a system is dictated, in part, by the

outside air wet bulb temperature. As the outside air wet bulb temperature
decreases, the condensing temperature decreases until the system’s
minimum is reached. The minimum condensing temperature depends on a
number of system-specific constraints such as: thermostatic expansion
valves, hot gas defrost (main and run-out sizing, defrost relief regulator set
points, gas- pumping requirements, etc.), presence of liquid injection oil
cooling, sizing of high pressure liquid lines, and others.

In the course of selecting a screw compressor for peak performance during

off-design conditions, oil separator sizing becomes important because the
full-load volume flow rate of gas at the discharge of the compressor will
slightly increase as the head pressure decreases. The discharge volume
flow rate will also increase slightly with an increase in suction pressure.
Both of these increases in volume flow rate are due to an increased
volumetric efficiency as the compression ratio decreases. Any increase in
the volume flow rate will result in an increase in the mass flow rate of
refrigerant through the compressor. In addition to the increased volume
flow rate, as the suction pressure increases the suction vapor density
increases resulting in a larger mass flow rate of refrigerant for the same
volume flow rate. Individually or combined, lowering condensing
pressures and raising suction pressures are two widely pursued strategies
for effectively improving the energy efficiency of refrigeration systems.
Both have the net effect at increasing the mass flow rate of gas through the
compressor and through the oil separator. A decrease in discharge pressure
results in a decrease in vapor density, which means that for a given mass
flow rate through the compressor the discharge volume flow rate increases.
If the discharge volume flow rate through the separator exceeds the rate
assumed in the sizing of the separator, the efficiency of oil separation will
decrease. As the oil separation efficiency decreases, the concentration of
oil leaving the separator and migrating out into the system will increase.
This results in the need for greater frequency of oil draining from points
out in the system. Select the oil separator for full-load operation at the
maximum expected suction pressure coincident with the lowest expected
discharge pressure.
The choice of oil cooling methods also influences the compressor
efficiency. Oil cooling can be accomplished either internal or external to
the compressor. Internal oil cooling is commonly called “liquid injection”
oil cooling and is accomplished by injecting high-pressure liquid ammonia
into the body of the compressor to absorb a portion of the heat of
compression; thereby, maintaining cool oil temperatures. The discharge
temperature of the refrigerant vapor and oil is controlled to maintain the
required oil supply temperature. Liquid injection oil cooling is the lowest
capital cost option for screw compressor oil cooling; however, it results in
a loss of compressor capacity and necessitates a higher minimum head
pressure to maintain the required pressure differential across the oil
cooling thermostatic expansion valve to maintain control authority.

In the course of selecting a screw compressor for peak performance during

off-design conditions, oil separator sizing becomes important because the
full-load volume flow rate of gas at the discharge of the compressor will
slightly increase as the head pressure decreases. The discharge volume
flow rate will also increase slightly with an increase in suction pressure.
Both of these increases in volume flow rate are due to an increased
volumetric efficiency as the compression ratio decreases. Any increase in
the volume flow rate will result in an increase in the mass flow rate of
refrigerant through the compressor. In addition to the increased volume
flow rate, as the suction pressure increases the suction vapor density
increases resulting in a larger mass flow rate of refrigerant for the same
volume flow rate. Individually or combined, lowering condensing
pressures and raising suction pressures are two widely pursued strategies
for effectively improving the energy efficiency of refrigeration systems.
Both have the net effect at increasing the mass flow rate of gas through the
compressor and through the oil separator. A decrease in discharge pressure
results in a decrease in vapor density, which means that for a given mass
flow rate through the compressor the discharge volume flow rate increases.
If the discharge volume flow rate through the separator exceeds the rate
assumed in the sizing of the separator, the efficiency of oil separation will
decrease. As the oil separation efficiency decreases, the concentration of
oil leaving the separator and migrating out into the system will increase.
This results in the need for greater frequency of oil draining from points
out in the system. Select the oil separator for full-load operation at the
maximum expected suction pressure coincident with the lowest expected
discharge pressure.
The choice of oil cooling methods also influences the compressor
efficiency. Oil cooling can be accomplished either internal or external to
the compressor. Internal oil cooling is commonly called “liquid injection”
oil cooling and is accomplished by injecting high-pressure liquid ammonia
into the body of the compressor to absorb a portion of the heat of
compression; thereby, maintaining cool oil temperatures. The discharge
temperature of the refrigerant vapor and oil is controlled to maintain the
required oil supply temperature. Liquid injection oil cooling is the lowest
capital cost option for screw compressor oil cooling; however, it results in
a loss of compressor capacity and necessitates a higher minimum head
pressure to maintain the required pressure differential across the oil
cooling thermostatic expansion valve to maintain control authority.

CONCLUSIONS

With a proper choice of volume ratio, fixed volume ratio compressors offer
good energy efficiency performance as system head pressure floats to
achieve efficient system operation. Variable volume ratio machines will
deliver improved energy performance over a wide operating envelope but
a price is paid for that benefit. Variable volume ratio compressors have
 slightly higher capital costs, increased maintenance cost, and reduced
reliability when compared to their fixed Vi counterparts. The increased
maintenance costs and reduced reliability are attributed to the additional
components needed for volume ratio control.
If you have an opportunity, perform a life-cycle analysis for alternative
compressor selections. The life-cycle cost should include capital,
operating, maintenance, and replacement costs over a specified time
period. Keep in mind that, based on evidence from the field, some
ancillary equipment alternatives (such as liquid injection oil cooling) will
lead to shortened compressor lifetimes when compared to others (such as
thermosiphon oil cooling).

References-

1. www.wikipedia.org
2. NORSOK Standard, Mechanical Equipment Selection Guide
3. UNICLA International Limited Compressor Selection Criteria
Guidebook
4. Energy Efficiency Guide for Industry in Asia
5. SELECTION OF SCREW COMPRESSORS FOR ENERGY EFFICIENT
OPERATION presented at the International Congress of Refrigeration 2003,
Washington, D.C by
Reindl, Douglas T. and Jekel, T. B.
Industrial Refrigeration Consortium
University of Wisconsin-Madison