KADRABAD MODINAGAR 2013-2014 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

Certified that the seminar report entitled ROLLING PROCESS which is being submitted by VISHAL TIWARI in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of bachelor of technology in Mechanical Engineering of Mahamaya Technical University, Noida under my supervision and guidance during the academic session 20 !" #$

%eminar &ncharge Mr. SHIVAM SRIVASTAVA

'ead of (ept$ Mr. SHIVAM SRIVASTAVA

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The tas) of developing this system would not have been possible without the constant help of my mentors$ & ta)e this opportunity to e*press my profound sense of gratitude and respect to those who helped me throughout the duration of this seminar$ & e*press my gratitude to Mr. S !"#$ Sr!"#%&#"# H'#( )* D'+#r&$',& )* ME- RDFGITM)(!,#.#r$

VISHAL TIWARI R)// N). 1200140213

TABLE OF CONTENTS
&ntroduction Compression Compressors 'ermetic compressor Centrifugal compressors+ ,*ial flow compressors -eciprocating compressors+ (iaphragm compressor Compressor selection ,ssessment of capacity of a compressor Compressor efficiency %election considerations Conclusions -eferences

INTRODUCTION Compression:
.luids, when forced into smaller volumes, increase the pressure applied by them$ This is in direct relation with /ernoulli0s theorem for fluids$ , compressor uses this property of fluids to increase the pressure and thus cause fluids to either pass in a circuit" e$g$ compressors of refrigeration systems" or in the petroleum industry for the transport of petroleum and natural gas through the pipelines$

Compressors:

External

Drive

Compressor1,n e*ternal

drive or open"type

compressor is bolted together$ &ts cran)shaft e*tends through the cran)case and is driven by a flywheel 2pulley3 and belt, or it can be driven directly by

an electric motor$ , lea) proof seal must be maintained where the cran)shaft e*tends out of the cran)case of an open"type compressor$ The seal must be designed to hold the pressure developed inside of the compressor$ &t must prevent refrigerant and oil from lea)ing out and prevent air and moisture from entering the compressor$ Two types of seals are used1the stationary bellows seal and the rotating bellows seal$ ,n internal stationary cran)shaft seal shown in figure consists of a corrugated thin brass tube 2seal bellows3 fastened to a bron4e ring 2seal guide3 at one end and to the flange plate at the other$ The flange plate is bolted to the cran)case with a gas)et between the two units$ , spring presses the seal guide mounted on the other end of the bellows against a seal ring positioned against the shoulder of the cran)shaft$ ,s the pressure builds up in the cran)case, the bellows tend to lengthen, causing additional force to press the seal guide against the seal ring$ 5il from the cran)case lubricates the surfaces of the seal guide and seal ring$ 4This forms a gastight sea whether the compressor is operating or idle$

Hermetic Compressor1&n the hermetically sealed compressor, the

electric motor and compressor are both in the same airtight 2hermetic3 housing and share the same shaft$ .igure 2 shows a hermetically sealed unit$ Note that after assembly, the two halves of the case are welded together to form an airtight cover$ The compressor, in this case, is a double"piston reciprocating type$ 5ther compressors may be of the centrifugal or rotary types$

Cooling and lubrication are provided by the circulating oil and the movement of the refrigerant vapor throughout the case$ The advantages of the hermetically sealed unit 2elimination of pulleys, belts and other coupling methods, elimination of a source of refrigerant
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lea)s3 are offset somewhat by the inaccessibility for repair and generally lower capacity$ Centrifugal Compressors: Centrifugal compressors use a rotating dis) or impeller in a shaped housing to force the gas to the rim of the impeller, increasing the velocity of the gas$ , diffuser 2divergent duct3 section converts the velocity energy to pressure energy$ They are primarily used for continuous, stationary service in industries such as oil refineries, chemical and plants and natural gas processing plants$ Their application can be from 00 horsepower 267 )83 to thousands of horsepower$ 8ith multiple staging, they can achieve e*tremely high output pressures greater than 0,000 psi 29: M;a3$

Axial Flo

Compressors:

,*ial"flow compressors are dynamic rotating compressors that use arrays of fan"li)e airfoils to progressively compress the wor)ing fluid$ They are used where there is a re<uirement for a high flow rate or a compact design$ The arrays of airfoils are set in rows, usually as pairs+ one rotating and one stationary$ The rotating airfoils, also )nown as blades or rotors, accelerate the fluid$ The stationary airfoils, also )nown as stators or vanes, decelerate and redirect the flow direction of the fluid, preparing it for the rotor blades of the ne*t stage$ ,*ial compressors are almost always multi"staged, with the cross"sectional area of the gas passage diminishing along the compressor to maintain an optimum a*ial Mach number$ /eyond about 7 stages or a #+ design pressure ratio, variable geometry is normally used to improve operation$

Reciprocating Compressors:

-eciprocating compressors use pistons driven by a cran)shaft$ They can be either stationary or portable, can be single or multi"staged, and can be driven by electric motors or internal combustion engines$ %mall reciprocating compressors from 7 to !0 horsepower 2hp3 are commonly seen in automotive applications and are typically for intermittent duty$ =arger reciprocating compressors well over ,000 hp 2670 )83 are commonly found in large industrial and petroleum applications$ (ischarge pressures can range from low pressure to very high pressure 2> ?000 psi or ?0 M;a3$ &n certain applications, such as air compression, multi"stage double"acting compressors are said to be the most efficient compressors
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available, and are typically larger, and more costly than comparable rotary units$ ,nother type of reciprocating compressor is the swash plate compressor, which uses pistons which are moved by a swash plate mounted on a shaft " see ,*ial ;iston ;ump$ 'ousehold, home wor)shop, and smaller @ob site compressors are typically reciprocating compressors A hp or less with an attached receiver tan)$

Diap!ragm Compressor:

, diaphragm compressor 2also )nown as a membrane compressor3 is a variant of the conventional reciprocating compressor$ The compression of gas occurs by the movement of a fle*ible membrane, instead of an inta)e element$ The bac) and forth movement of the membrane is driven by a rod and a cran)shaft mechanism$ 5nly the membrane and the compressor bo* come in contact with the gas being compressed$ (iaphragm compressors are used for hydrogen and compressed natural gas 2CNB3 as well as in a number of other applications$

Compressor "election

The principle selection criteria is the capacity of the compressor must match the capacity of the evaporator2s3 2system3 under the nominated operating conditions 2compressor speed3 &nsufficient flow rates at lower compressor speeds will result in dramatically reduced capacity of the system, and result is possible ris) of damage to the compressor$ 2%ee separate boo)let " Unicla %ervice &nformation3 &n the absence of system capacityCevaporator capacity data the TD valve si4e may be used as an indicator of capacity$ The TD should be si4ed to ade<uately fill the coil under full heat loads$ =ow side pressure analysis should not be used in isolation as a method of determining compressor si4eCcapacity due to the variables of pressure dropCTD flow rates etc$ (ual evaporator systems will re<uire a compressor with ade<uate capacity to cater for both evaporators at nominated compressor speeds$
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;ower consumption graphs are used to ascertain drive motor capacityCinput power re<uirements$

, comparison of important compressor types 2%ustainable Energy (evelopment 5ffice3

(ue to aging of the compressors and inherent inefficiencies in the internal components, the free air delivered may be less than the design value, despite good maintenance practices$ %ometimes, other factors such as poor maintenance, fouled heat e*changer and effects of altitude also tend to reduce free air delivery$ &n order to meet the air demand, the inefficient compressor may have to run for more time, thus consuming more power than actually re<uired$
0

The power wastage depends on the percentage deviation of .,( capacity$ .or e*ample, a worn out compressor valve can reduce the compressor capacity by as much as 20 percent$ , periodic assessment of the .,( capacity of each compressor has to be carried out to chec) its actual capacity$ &f the deviations are more than 0 percent, corrective measures should be ta)en to rectify the same$ The ideal method of compressor capacity assessment is through a no44le test wherein a calibrated no44le is used as a load, to vent out the generated compressed air$ .low is assessed, based on the air temperature, stabili4ation pressure, orifice constant, etc$ %imple method of capacity assessment at the shop floor $ &solate the compressor along with its individual receiver that are to be ta)en for a test from the main compressed air system by tightly closing the isolation valve or blan)ing it, thus closing the receiver outlet$ 2$ 5pen the water drain valve and drain out water fully and empty the receiver and the pipeline$ Ma)e sure that the water trap line is tightly closed once again to start the test$ !$ %tart the compressor and activate the stopwatch$ #$ Note the time ta)en to attain the normal operational pressure ;2 2in the receiver3 from initial pressure ; $ 7$ Calculate the capacity as per the formulae given below

The above e<uation is relevant where the compressed air temperature is the same as the ambient air temperature, i$e$, perfect isothermal compression$ &n case the actual compressed air temperature at discharge, say t2 oC is higher than ambient air temperature say t 0C 2as is usual case3, the .,( is to be corrected by a factor 226! E t 3 C 226! E t23$
Compressor Efficienc#

%everal different measures of compressor efficiency are commonly used+ volumetric efficiency, adiabatic efficiency, isothermal efficiency and mechanical efficiency$ ,diabatic and isothermal efficiencies are computed as the isothermal or adiabatic power divided by the actual power consumption$ The figure obtained indicates the overall efficiency of a compressor and drive motor$ &sothermal efficiency &sothermal Efficiency F ,ctual measured input power & &sothermal;ower &sothermal power 2)83 F ; * G * logerC!9$6 2 8here ; F ,bsolute inta)e pressure )gC cm
2

G F .ree air delivered m!Chr$ r F ;ressure ratio ;2C; The calculation of isothermal power does not include power needed to overcome friction and generally gives an efficiency that is lower than adiabatic efficiency$ The reported value of efficiency is normally the isothermal efficiency$ This is an important consideration when selecting compressors based on reported values of efficiency$ Holumetric Efficiency

8here ( F Cylinder bore, metre = F Cylinder stro)e, metre % F Compressor speed rpm I F for single acting and 2 for double acting cylinders n F No$ of cylinders .or practical purposes, the most effective guide in comparing compressor efficiencies is the specific power consumption, i$e$ )8Cvolume flow rate, for different compressors that would provide identical duty$

"E$ECTION CON"IDERATION" There are several factors that should be considered during the course of evaluating potential selections for a new screw compressor or changing the operating conditions of an e*isting screw compressor$ &tems that designers should considered include+ $ E*pected range of operating suction and discharge pressures single stage or two stage operation 2booster or high"stage3 swing duty 2boosters operating as a single 2or high3 stage3 load variability over time 2large pull"down loads vs$ relatively constant loads3$ 2$ Climate type and system minimum head pressure constraints$ !$ 5il separator si4ingCselection$ #$ 5il cooling methods$ 7$ %ystem and pac)age losses for chec) valves, service valves, strainers installed around the compressor$ 9$ E*pected maintenance costs over machine0s life 5ne of the )ey selection criteria is the e*pected operating suction and discharge pressures for the compressor$ Many compressors operate with a fi*ed or relatively narrow compressor suction pressure 2temperature3J however, some compressors are designed for swing duty to serve loads at different suction levels$ ,ll compressors will operate over a range of discharge pressures and some will run over a wider range of discharge pressures due to seasonal fluctuations in condensing pressures$ The greatest challenge for systems that operate over a wide range of condensing temperatures is selecting a fi*ed volume ratio screw compressor that can deliver a high level of energy efficiency$ Table
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below provides suggested volume ratio selections for fi*ed Hi compressors that will operate over high, medium, and low ranges in head pressure$ &n all cases, the data in Table assumes that the ma*imum saturated condensing temperature is !7KC L:7K.MJ however, the minimum saturated condensing temperature varies from ?KC L97K.M to 26KC L?0K.M$

&deal volume ratios for fi*ed Hi machines operating over a range of suction and discharge conditions were shown earlier in this paper$ /elow, .igure 7 shows ideal volume ratios for fi*ed Hi compressors operating under booster duty in two"stage compression systems$ &f a compressor will operate as a swing machine, select a variable volume ratio compressor due to its ability to deliver superior performance in comparison to its fi*ed Hi counterpart$ &f a compressor is e*pected to operate over a wide range of suction pressures 2due to pull"down or process variability3 select a variable volume ratio screw compressor$

The condensing or head pressure of a system is dictated, in part, by the outside air wet bulb temperature$ ,s the outside air wet bulb temperature decreases, the condensing temperature decreases until the system0s minimum is reached$ The minimum condensing temperature depends on a number of system"specific constraints such as+ thermostatic e*pansion valves, hot gas defrost 2main and run"out si4ing, defrost relief regulator set points, gas" pumping re<uirements, etc$3, presence of li<uid in@ection oil cooling, si4ing of high pressure li<uid lines, and others$ &n the course of selecting a screw compressor for pea) performance during off"design conditions, oil separator si4ing becomes important because the full"load volume flow rate of gas at the discharge of the compressor will slightly increase as the head pressure decreases$ The discharge volume flow rate will also increase slightly with an increase in suction pressure$ /oth of these increases in volume flow rate are due to an increased volumetric efficiency as the compression ratio decreases$ ,ny increase in the volume flow rate will result in an increase in the mass flow rate of
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refrigerant through the compressor$ &n addition to the increased volume flow rate, as the suction pressure increases the suction vapor density increases resulting in a larger mass flow rate of refrigerant for the same volume flow rate$ &ndividually or combined, lowering condensing pressures and raising suction pressures are two widely pursued strategies for effectively improving the energy efficiency of refrigeration systems$ /oth have the net effect at increasing the mass flow rate of gas through the compressor and through the oil separator$ , decrease in discharge pressure results in a decrease in vapor density, which means that for a given mass flow rate through the compressor the discharge volume flow rate increases$ &f the discharge volume flow rate through the separator e*ceeds the rate assumed in the si4ing of the separator, the efficiency of oil separation will decrease$ ,s the oil separation efficiency decreases, the concentration of oil leaving the separator and migrating out into the system will increase$ This results in the need for greater fre<uency of oil draining from points out in the system$ %elect the oil separator for full"load operation at the ma*imum e*pected suction pressure coincident with the lowest e*pected discharge pressure$ The choice of oil cooling methods also influences the compressor efficiency$ 5il cooling can be accomplished either internal or e*ternal to the compressor$ &nternal oil cooling is commonly called Nli<uid in@ectionO oil cooling and is accomplished by in@ecting high"pressure li<uid ammonia into the body of the compressor to absorb a portion of the heat of compressionJ thereby, maintaining cool oil temperatures$ The discharge temperature of the refrigerant vapor and oil is controlled to maintain the re<uired oil supply temperature$ =i<uid in@ection oil cooling is the lowest
6

capital cost option for screw compressor oil coolingJ however, it results in a loss of compressor capacity and necessitates a higher minimum head pressure to maintain the re<uired pressure differential across the oil cooling thermostatic e*pansion valve to maintain control authority$ &n the course of selecting a screw compressor for pea) performance during off"design conditions, oil separator si4ing becomes important because the full"load volume flow rate of gas at the discharge of the compressor will slightly increase as the head pressure decreases$ The discharge volume flow rate will also increase slightly with an increase in suction pressure$ /oth of these increases in volume flow rate are due to an increased volumetric efficiency as the compression ratio decreases$ ,ny increase in the volume flow rate will result in an increase in the mass flow rate of refrigerant through the compressor$ &n addition to the increased volume flow rate, as the suction pressure increases the suction vapor density increases resulting in a larger mass flow rate of refrigerant for the same volume flow rate$ &ndividually or combined, lowering condensing pressures and raising suction pressures are two widely pursued strategies for effectively improving the energy efficiency of refrigeration systems$ /oth have the net effect at increasing the mass flow rate of gas through the compressor and through the oil separator$ , decrease in discharge pressure results in a decrease in vapor density, which means that for a given mass flow rate through the compressor the discharge volume flow rate increases$ &f the discharge volume flow rate through the separator e*ceeds the rate assumed in the si4ing of the separator, the efficiency of oil separation will decrease$ ,s the oil separation efficiency decreases, the concentration of
?

oil leaving the separator and migrating out into the system will increase$ This results in the need for greater fre<uency of oil draining from points out in the system$ %elect the oil separator for full"load operation at the ma*imum e*pected suction pressure coincident with the lowest e*pected discharge pressure$ The choice of oil cooling methods also influences the compressor efficiency$ 5il cooling can be accomplished either internal or e*ternal to the compressor$ &nternal oil cooling is commonly called Nli<uid in@ectionO oil cooling and is accomplished by in@ecting high"pressure li<uid ammonia into the body of the compressor to absorb a portion of the heat of compressionJ thereby, maintaining cool oil temperatures$ The discharge temperature of the refrigerant vapor and oil is controlled to maintain the re<uired oil supply temperature$ =i<uid in@ection oil cooling is the lowest capital cost option for screw compressor oil coolingJ however, it results in a loss of compressor capacity and necessitates a higher minimum head pressure to maintain the re<uired pressure differential across the oil cooling thermostatic e*pansion valve to maintain control authority$

CONC$U"ION"
8ith a proper choice of volume ratio, fi*ed volume ratio compressors offer good energy efficiency performance as system head pressure floats to achieve efficient system operation$ Hariable volume ratio machines will deliver improved energy performance over a wide operating envelope but a price is paid for that benefit$ Hariable volume ratio compressors have slightly higher capital costs, increased maintenance cost, and reduced reliability when compared to their fi*ed Hi counterparts$ The increased maintenance costs and reduced reliability are attributed to the additional components needed for volume ratio control$ &f you have an opportunity, perform a life"cycle analysis for alternative compressor selections$ The life"cycle cost should include capital, operating, maintenance, and replacement costs over a specified time period$ Peep in mind that, based on evidence from the field, some ancillary e<uipment alternatives 2such as li<uid in@ection oil cooling3 will lead to shortened compressor lifetimes when compared to others 2such as thermosiphon oil cooling3$

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REFERENCES1.

www$wi)ipedia$org &nternational =imited Compressor %election Criteria

2$ N5-%5P %tandard, Mechanical E<uipment %election Buide !$ UN&C=, Buideboo) #$ Energy Efficiency Buide for &ndustry in ,sia
7$ %E=ECT&5N 5. %C-E8 C5M;-E%%5-% .5- ENE-BQ E..&C&ENT 5;E-,T&5N presented at the &nternational Congress of -efrigeration 200!, 8ashington, ($C by

-eindl, (ouglas T$ and Re)el, T$ /$ &ndustrial -efrigeration Consortium University of 8isconsin"Madison