Conservation Laws and

Governing Equations of
Fluid Mechanics
Dr. Fahad Butt

LECTURE 2
Conservation Laws and Governing
Equations

1.1. Synopsis
• Continuum Hypothesis
• Euler and Lagrangian Descriptions
• Relationship Between Eulerian and Lagrangian Descriptions
• Conservation Laws of Mass, Momentum and Energy
• Assignment: Navier-Stoke’s Equations

1.2. Continuum Hypothesis

We know that fluids are composed of molecules and these molecules
collide with one and another and with the solid objects. The distance
between two successive collisions is called the mean free path. The
continuum hypothesis is an assumption and it assumes the fluid to
be continuous and not made of the molecules. That is, properties
(like pressure, density, velocity, temperature etc.) are assumed to vary
continuously from one point to another of the order of the mean free
path. These properties are taken to be the average properties of a large
ensemble of molecules.

1.2.1. Fluid Volumes

Quite often in fluid mechanics, we are interested in the integral forms
of governing equations like the Navier-Stoke’s equations. Because of
1
2 DR. FAHAD BUTT, CONSERVATION LAWS

the integral nature of the equations, it is necessary to consider a finite

volume (non-zero volume) of the fluid continuum. If we reduce these
finite volumes to points in the fluid continuum then we can only obtain
the differential forms of the governing equations/conservation laws and
not the integral forms.
In this document, we introduce ourselves to two different types of
fluid volumes for the derivation of the conservation laws, even though
we will use only one of them.
(a) A lagrangian or material volume is a finite volume of fluid
whose surface is moving at the same velocity as the mass av-
erage velocity of the fluid continuum itself. This means that
none of the fluid enters or leaves the lagrangian volume. This
means that the mass contained in the lagrangian volume re-
mains constant/conserved at all times during its movement in
space-time. Therefore the conservation of mass is built-in the
definition of the lagrangian volume.
(b) an eulerian volume is a finite volume fixed in the space as the
fluid enters and leaves it through the surface(s).
In this document we will use the lagrangian volume to derive the con-
servation laws.

1.3. Eulerian and Lagrangian Descriptions

Recall my lectures in which I gave detailed talks on eulerian and la-
grangian descriptions of the fluid flow. In lagrangian description, we
will use a lagrangian volume and follow it as it moves in space-time
and deforms. On the contrary the eulerian description of the fluid flow
studies an eulerian volume as it remains fixed in space at all times and
the fluid passes across its surface(s).
In this document we start deriving conservation laws using the la-
grangian descritption.

1.4. Relationship Between Eulerian and Lagrangian

Descriptions: The Material Derivative
Before embarking on finding the relationship between the eulerian and
lagrangian descriptions, let us first understand the differentials and
their physical interpretations:
(a) dtd is the total rate of change of any quantity for a moving
volume and includes both temporal and spatial dependencies.
The dtd follows the motion and takes the difference in the value
 LECTURE 2. CONSERVATION LAWS AND GOVERNING EQUATIONS 3

of the quantity at successive instants in time at the same point

in the moving matter. It therefore measures the rate of change
of the physical quantity following the material rather than at
a fixed point in space. Therefore, it is also called the time
derivative for the lagrangian approach.
∂
(b) ∂t is the rate of change of any quantity at a fixed point in space
in some reference frame. In other words, if there is motion,
∂
∂t
compares this quantity at the same point in space for two
different points in the material.
Now, consider a lagrangian volume in fluid continuum. In the limit as
volume goes to zero, the lagrangian volume becomes a fluid particle.
Let ρ (x, y, z, t) be the local density of the fluid inside the lagrangian
volume. We wish to monitor this property over a period of time as the
lagrangian volume moves. In other words, we would like to know how
does density change as the volume moves in space-time.
How much ρ changes during time ∆t is written as:
∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ
(1.1) ∆ρ = ∆t + ∆x + ∆y + ∆z,
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
where ∆x, ∆y, and ∆z are the distances measured in lagrangian co-
ordinates that the particle has moved during ∆t. Taking the limit as
∆t → 0 gives:
 
dρ ∆ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ dx ∂ρ dy ∂ρ dz
(1.2) = lim∆t→0 = + + + .
dt ∆t ∂t ∂x dt ∂y dt ∂z dt

The dxdt
=u, dy
dt
= v, and dz
dt
= w are the total derivatives and not partial
because x, y and z are functions of time only. Also, u, v and w are
the cartesian velocity components in x, y and z coordinate directions
respectively.
D
In fluid dynamics, we quite often replace dtd with Dt , such that the
equation 1.2 becomes:
Dρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ
(1.3) = +u +v +w = + u · ∇ρ.
Dt ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
D
Dt
is a special operator, which is called the substantial or material
derivative or convective derivative and gives the total rate of change of
a moving particle. Its mathematical definition, therefore, is:
D ∂
(1.4) = + u · ∇.
Dt ∂t
4 DR. FAHAD BUTT, CONSERVATION LAWS

1.5. Conservation of Mass

We will derive the conservation of mass principle using the following
specifications:
• a material volume also called a lagrangian volume,
• continuum hypothesis.
Let us consider a finite material or lagrangian volume Ω (t) bounded
by a surface b (t) moving with velocity vector u in the fluid continuum
as it deforms in both shape and size. If ρ (r, t) denotes the local density
in our lagrangian volume and r = r (x, y, z) denotes the position vector,
then the total mass in our material volume is given by an integral
relation:
Z
(1.5) m (t) = ρ (r, t) dΩ = 0.
Ω(t)

For a lagrangian volume, the time rate of change of the total mass is
zero, as no matter flows across the surface (by definition). Hence
Z
dm d
(1.6) = ρ (r, t) dΩ = 0.
dt dt Ω(t)
Can we randomly and simple-mindedly move the time rate of change
inside the volume integral or equivalently can we move the volume
integral outside of the time rate of change? This is only possible if the
volume integral is considered independent of time. By definition you
know that the lagrangian volume changes shape and size as it moves
in space-time, therefore the limits of integration of the volume integral
is time dependent when the fluid is in motion.
Hence we are stuck with a problem of finding a time rate of change
of a time-dependent volume integral of time-dependent integrands. The
procedure to deal with taking a time derivative of a volume integral of
a moving system is known as the Reynolds Transport Theorem.
This is done by assuming that at a given time instant t, the la-
grangian volume coincides exactly with an eulerian volume. Ofcourse
at time t + δt, the lagrangian volume will move on leaving the eulerian
volume behind. But we are only interested in a frozen time instant t
when the two volumes conincide. This way, we can apply the concept
of rate of change of an extensive property of an eulerian volume.
Reynolds Transport Theorem says that the time rate of change of
an extensive property (total mass of the lagrangian volume) is equal
to time rate of change of the corresponding intensive property (local
density inside the eulerian volume) plus the net flow rate across the
surface of the eulerian volume.
 LECTURE 2. CONSERVATION LAWS AND GOVERNING EQUATIONS 5

Hence equation 1.6 becomes:

Z Z
dm ∂ρ
(1.7) = dΩ + {ρu · n̂} db = 0,
dt Ω(t) ∂t b(t)

where n̂ is the outward directed unit vector for the surface area element
db. Since the lagrangian volume has a finite volume, we are only inter-
ested in the volume integrals. Using the Gauss’s divergence theorem
for the last term on the right-hand-side in equation 1.7 gives:
Z Z
dm ∂ρ
(1.8) = dΩ + {∇ · ρu} dΩ = 0,
dt Ω(t) ∂t Ω(t)
or
Z  
dm ∂ρ
(1.9) = + ∇ · ρu dΩ = 0.
dt Ω(t) ∂t
Now, since the volume integral is zero for the chosen volume, the inte-
grand must be zero. Hence, the differential form of the Law of Conser-
vation of Mass becomes:
∂ρ
(1.10) + ∇ · ρu = 0,
∂t
where the last term on the right-hand-side is a divergence of the product
of velocity vector u and density ρ, and can be expanded as:
(1.11) ∇ · ρu = (ρ∇) · u + ρ (∇ · u) .
Substituting equation 1.11 in equation 1.10 produces:
∂ρ
(1.12) + (ρ∇) · u + ρ (∇ · u) = 0,
∂t
Dρ ∂ρ
recalling that Dt
= ∂t
+ (ρ∇) · u, the equation 1.12 becomes:
Dρ
(1.13) + ρ (∇ · u) = 0,
Dt
giving us an alternate form of the differential form of the Law of Con-
servation of Mass. Equations 1.10 and 1.13 are two variants of the Law
of conservation of Mass and any of these two equations is called the
continuity equation used in the Navier-Stoke’s set of equations.

1.5.1. Special Case of Incompressible Fluids

Let us consider a special case of incompressible fluids i.e., the fluids
for which density is a constant ρ = cst. With this simplification the
equation 1.13 becomes:
(1.14) ρ (∇ · u) = 0,
6 DR. FAHAD BUTT, CONSERVATION LAWS

or dividing both sides by ρ gives:

(1.15) (∇ · u) = 0,
which means that for incompressible fluids, the divergence of velocity
field is zero. We can also write equation 1.13 in the following form:
1 Dρ
(1.16) = − (∇ · u) = 0,
ρ Dt
When written in this form, it is evident that the divergence of the
velocity is equal to the unit rate of decrease of density in the neigh-
borhood of a fluid particle. Thus ∇ · u is the rate of expansion of a
material region, also known as the dilation rate. Which means that
for incompressible fluids there is no linear deformation and all particles
within the lagrangian volumes have the same density at all times as it
moves.

1.6. Conservation of Momentum

We start our journey by considering a lagrangian volume and show how
the conservation of linear momentum can be reached using Euler’s first
and second laws for the continuum (equivalent to Newton’s first and
second laws for a particle).
Euler’s first law states that the time rate of change of linear mo-
mentum of a body is equal to the sum of forces acting on a body.
There are essentially two types of forces that can act on a fluid or
continuum:
• body forces: these are distributed throughout the continuum,
act on the whole volume and are proportional to the mass.
An example of such a body force is gravitational force which
influences the whole volume of the fluid under consideration.
Other example is electromagnetic force. Let us denote these
forces by f.
• surface forces: these are the forces that just act on the surface
element under consideration and are short-range forces on the
scale of the mean free path of the molecules. Examples are the
normal and tangential stresses (i.e., pressures and shears).
Hence the mathematical description of the statement of the conserva-
tion law is:
Z Z Z 
d ¯

(1.17) ρudΩ = ρf dΩ + T̄ · n̂ db,
dt Ω(t) Ω(t) b(t)
 LECTURE 2. CONSERVATION LAWS AND GOVERNING EQUATIONS 7

where T̄¯ is the stress tensor (second-order vector) including the con-
tributions from both normal stresses (i.e., pressures) and tangential
stresses (i.e., shear stresses). Tensors are a compact index form of rep-
resenting equations. Its study might be out of scope for your course
but kindly attend the class presentation to understand the idea behind
it. At the moment it is sufficient to understand that this represents
the surface forces.
Recalling the use of the Reynold’s transport theorem and then the
Divergence theorem for the surface integral, we get for the only term
on the left hand side:
Z Z  
d ∂ρu
(1.18) ρudΩ = + ∇ · (ρuu) dΩ,
dt Ω(t) Ω(t) ∂t
also using the Divergence theorem for the last term on the right hand
side in equation 1.17 gives:
Z   Z  
(1.19) ¯
T̄ · n̂ db = ¯
∇ · T̄ dΩ.
b(t) Ω(t)

Substituting equations 1.18 and 1.19 in 1.17 finally gives the integral
form of the Law of Conservation of linear momentum:
Z  
∂ρu ¯
(1.20) + ∇ · ρuu − ρf − ∇ · T̄ dΩ = 0.
Ω(t) ∂t
The integrand must hold too:
∂ρu ¯ = 0.
(1.21) + ∇ · ρuu − ρf − ∇ · T̄
∂t
The second term in the differential form of the Law of Conservation of
linear momentum (equation 1.21) can be simplified by using the vector
identity:
(1.22) ∇ · (ρuu) = ρu · ∇u + u (∇ · (ρu)) ,
∂ρ
and using the continuity equation ∂t
+ ∇ · ρu = 0, we get:
∂ρ
(1.23) ∇ · (ρuu) = ρu · ∇u + u .
∂t
Hence a simplified form of the Law of Conservation of linear momentum
is:
∂u ¯ + ρf ,
(1.24) ρ + ρu · ∇u = ∇ · T̄
∂t
or in terms of material derivative:
Du ¯ + ρf .
(1.25) ρ = ∇ · T̄
Dt
8 DR. FAHAD BUTT, CONSERVATION LAWS

This equation gives three scalar equations corresponding to the three

velocity components and combined with the continuity equation we
have a total of four equations. Obviously we need another equation for
solving density.
Note that the angular momentum is conserved if linear momentum
is conserved and the stress tensor is symmetric.

1.7. Conservation of Energy

The conservation of energy is deliberately skipped at this point in our
course. I will come back to the energy conservation at a later stage in
our course when students will have a better understanding and appre-
ciation of things.

1.8. Assignment: Navier-Stoke’s Equations

Strictly speaking the Navier-Stoke’s equations are the mathematical
statement of the conservation of momentum. But generally, the three
scalar momentum equations are combined with the continuity equa-
tion (conservation of mass equation), and the conservation of energy
equation to produce a set of 4 equations. For compressible fluids, we
need to solve for density as well leading us to another equation called
the equation of state. And if the conservation of energy is written in
terms of the internal energy then we need another equation relating
the internal energy and the temperature.
At this point we skip the energy conservation equation also because
without this the Navier-Stoke’s equations are complete. For the assign-
ment below, only focus on the mass and momentum conservation. Your
assignment is extremely important for your understanding. You must
satisfy the following challenges for your assignment:
(a) write down the conservation laws in integral and differential
forms in cartesian system,
(b) use the conservation laws to write down Navier-Stoke’s equa-
tions for incompressible newtonian fluids in cartesian system,
(c) use the conservation laws to write down Navier-Stoke’s equa-
tions for compressible newtonian fluids in cartesian system,
(d) use the conservation laws to write down Navier-Stoke’s equa-
tions for inviscid fluids in cartesian system,
(e) please explain what each term in these equations represent
physically.