Module-6 Part - II Notes

CS364 Mobile Computing – Module-6 (Part-II)
Topics Covered:
LTE – Architecture & Interface – LTE radio planning and tools, 5G architecture, MIMO, Super
core concept, Features and Application Case Study – Setting up anadhoc network system, LiFi.
LTE
LTE stands for Long Term Evolution and it was started as a project in 2004 by
telecommunication body known as the Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP). LTE
evolved from an earlier 3GPP system known as the Universal Mobile Telecommunication
System (UMTS), which in turn evolved from the Global System for Mobile Communications
(GSM).
The main goal of LTE is to provide a high data rate, low latency and packet optimized
radio access technology supporting flexible bandwidth deployments. Same time its network
architecture has been designed with the goal to support packet-switched traffic with seamless
mobility and great quality of service.
Advantages of LTE
• High throughput: High data rates can be achieved in both downlink as well as uplink.
This causes high throughput.
• Low latency: Time required to connect to the network is in range of a few hundred
milliseconds and power saving states can now be entered and exited very quickly.
• FDD and TDD in the same platform: Frequency Division Duplex (FDD) and Time
Division Duplex (TDD), both schemes can be used on same platform.
• Superior end-user experience: Optimized signaling for connection establishment and
other air interface and mobility management procedures have further improved the
user experience. Reduced latency (to 10 ms) for better user experience.
• Seamless Connection: LTE will also support seamless connection to existing
networks such as GSM, CDMA and WCDMA.
• Plug and play: The user does not have to manually install drivers for the device.
Instead system automatically recognizes the device, loads new drivers for the hardware
if needed, and begins to work with the newly connected device.
• Simple architecture: Because of Simple architecture low operating expenditure
(OPEX).
LTE Network Architecture
The high-level network architecture of LTE is comprised of following three main components:
• The User Equipment (UE).
• The Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (E-UTRAN).
• The Evolved Packet Core (EPC).
Compiled by- Shyam Krishna K, Assistant Professor, Dept. of CSE, SCET 1

The evolved packet core communicates with packet data networks in the outside world such
as the internet, private corporate networks or the IP multimedia subsystem. The interfaces
between the different parts of the system are denoted Uu, S1 and SGi as shown below:
The User Equipment (UE)

The internal architecture of the user equipment for LTE is identical to the one used by
UMTS and GSM which is actually a Mobile Equipment (ME). The mobile equipment
comprised of the following important modules:
• Mobile Termination (MT) : This handles all the communication functions.
• Terminal Equipment (TE) : This terminates the data streams.
• Universal Integrated Circuit Card (UICC) : This is also known as the SIM card for
LTE equipments. It runs an application known as the Universal Subscriber Identity
Module (USIM).
A USIM stores user-specific data very similar to 3G SIM card. This keeps information about
the user's phone number, home network identity and security keys etc.
The E-UTRAN (The access network)
The architecture of evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (E-UTRAN) has
been illustrated below.
The E-UTRAN handles the radio communications between the mobile and the evolved packet
core and just has one component, the evolved base stations, called eNodeB or eNB. Each eNB

is a base station that controls the mobiles in one or more cells. The base station that is
communicating with a mobile is known as its serving eNB.
LTE Mobile communicates with just one base station and one cell at a time and there are
following two main functions supported by eNB:
• The eBN sends and receives radio transmissions to all the mobiles using the analogue
and digital signal processing functions of the LTE air interface.
• The eNB controls the low-level operation of all its mobiles, by sending them signalling
messages such as handover commands.
Each eBN connects with the EPC by means of the S1 interface and it can also be connected
to nearby base stations by the X2 interface, which is mainly used for signalling and packet
forwarding during handover.
A home eNB (HeNB) is a base station that has been purchased by a user to provide
femtocell coverage within the home. A home eNB belongs to a closed subscriber group (CSG)
and can only be accessed by mobiles with a USIM that also belongs to the closed subscriber
group.
The Evolved Packet Core (EPC) (The core network)
The architecture of Evolved Packet Core (EPC) has been illustrated below. There are
few more components which have not been shown in the diagram to keep it simple. These
components are like the Earthquake and Tsunami Warning System (ETWS), the Equipment
Identity Register (EIR) and Policy Control and Charging Rules Function (PCRF).
Below is a brief description of each of the components shown in the above architecture:
• The Home Subscriber Server (HSS) component has been carried forward from UMTS
and GSM and is a central database that contains information about all the network
operator's subscribers.

• The Packet Data Network (PDN) Gateway (P-GW) communicates with the outside
world ie. packet data networks PDN, using SGi interface. Each packet data network is
identified by an access point name (APN). The PDN gateway has the same role as the
GPRS support node (GGSN) and the serving GPRS support node (SGSN) with UMTS
and GSM.
• The serving gateway (S-GW) acts as a router, and forwards data between the base
station and the PDN gateway.
• The mobility management entity (MME) controls the high-level operation of the
mobile by means of signalling messages and Home Subscriber Server (HSS).
• The Policy Control and Charging Rules Function (PCRF) is a component which is not
shown in the above diagram but it is responsible for policy control decision-making,
as well as for controlling the flow-based charging functionalities in the Policy Control
Enforcement Function (PCEF), which resides in the P-GW.
The interface between the serving and PDN gateways is known as S5/S8. This has two slightly
different implementations, namely S5 if the two devices are in the same network, and S8 if
they are in different networks.
Network Architecture
LTE architecture is characterised by three special requirements: support for PS domain
only, low latency and reduced cost. To achieve the above objectives and to overcome the
complexities of the previous network architectures, LTE must be designed to contain fewer
network nodes. This is important because smaller number of network nodes reduces overall
amount of protocol-related processing, cost of testing and number of interfaces. It also
translates into ease of optimizing radio interface protocols. It can be done by merging some
control protocols and using shorter signaling sequences resulting into rapid session setups. LTE
uses two-node architecture. Figure below gives an overview of the E-UTRAN architecture
where yellow-shaded boxes depict the logical nodes, white boxes depict the functional entities
of the C-plane, and blue boxes depict the functional entities of the U-plane.

The E-UTRAN consists of:

· eNB (Enhanced Node B)
· aGW (access Gateway)
eNB is the basic access network element covering a single cell or installed on one site.
It provides the E-UTRA user plane (PDCP/RLC/MAC/PHY) and control plane (RRC) protocol
terminations towards the UE [25]. Two eNBs are connected with each other through X2
interface. LTE is designed to give eNBs a greater degree of intelligence to reduce the overhead.
As a result, functions for Radio Resource Management are provided by eNB. This includes
Radio Bearer Control, Radio Admission Control, Connection Mobility Control, Dynamic
allocation of resources to UEs in both uplink and downlink. eNB is involved in security
services by encryption of user data stream and routing of user plane data towards serving
gateway.
Moreover, it also carries out scheduling and transmission of paging messages and
BCCH information. aGW is one level above eNB. A aGW can be connected to one or more

eNBs depending upon the network design. aGW performs many different function, together
with paging origination, ciphering of user plane data and SAE bearer control. aGW is
functionally divided into two parts, MME (Mobility Management Entity) and UPE (User Plane
Entity). MME is the control plane part of aGW. Its functionalities include management and
storage of temporary user IDs, Termination of U-plane packets for paging reasons and
management and NAS security. On the other hand, UPE is responsible for tasks related to user
plane. It is accountable for Packet routing and forwarding, allocation of local IP address for
mobility, charging for roaming and anchoring for inter eNB mobility, charging of paging
messages to eNBs and inter-3GPP access Mobility.
E-UTRAN Interfaces
One of the objectives of EUTRAN is to simplify and reduce the number of interfaces
between different network elements. Interfaces between different network elements are S1
(eNodeBaGW) and X2 (inter ENodeB) as shown in figure.
S1 is the interface between eNB and UPE. This interface can be subdivided into two
parts:
· C-plane: S1-C is the interface between eNB and MME function in EPC
· U-plane: S1-U is the interface between eNB and UPE function in EPC
From the S1 perspective, the EUTRAN access point is an eNB and the EPC access point is
either the control plane MME node or the user plane SAE gateway logical node. S1 access
point shall independently fulfill the requirements of the relevant S1 specifications. S1 interface
supports many functions which include initial context setup, UE context management and
mobility functions. Initial context setup function supports the establishment of overall initial
UE context plus SAE bearer context, security context, roaming restriction, UE capability
information, etc. in the eNB to enable idle-to-Active transition. S1 interface also establishes

and releases the UE contexts in eNB and in EPC to support user signaling. Moreover, S1 also
provide mobility functions for handover. This can be intra-LTE handover or inter-3GPP
handover (with a system other than LTE).
X2 interface allows the interconnection between eNBs. X2 has the status of an open
interface. It supports the signal information exchange between two eNBs, along with the
forwarding of PDUs to their destination. In terms of logical point of view, X2 is a point-to-
point interface within E-UTRAN. Therefore, it is possible to create an X2 interface between
two eNBs even if there is no physical and direct connection between them. X2 facilitates the
interconnection between eNBs of different vendors and offers a continuation of the services
offered via S1 interface for a seamless network. In addition, it makes possible the introduction
of new future technologies by clearly separating radio network and transport network
functionalities.
With significant improvements in the radio interface and other components, enabling a
lower data access cost per megabyte, as well as several potentially important new services, 3G
Long- Term Evolution (LTE) will bring substantial technological improvements. These efforts
are expected to deliver economic benefits to operators, and therefore provide a decisive
advantage over alternative wireless technologies, keeping the mobile cellular systems
competitive during the next decade.
Dimensioning of LTE Network

Dimensioning is the initial phase of network planning. It provides the first estimate of
the network element count as well as the capacity of those elements. The purpose of
dimensioning is to estimate the required number of radio base stations needed to support a
specified traffic load in an area.
Dimensioning is based on a set of input parameters and the provided results are relevant for
that set of input parameters only. These parameters include area under consideration, expected
traffic and required QoS. Dimensioning provides the evaluation of the requirements for
network infrastructure. This is done with the help of dimensioning tool for both access and core
networks. Dimensioning uses relatively simpler models for modeling of the actual conditions
as compared to the detailed planning. Simpler models and methods reduce the time required
for dimensioning. On the other hand, dimensioning tool should be accurate enough to provide
results with an acceptable level of accuracy, when loaded with expected traffic profile and
subscriber base.
Wireless cellular network dimensioning is directly related to the quality and effectiveness of
the network, and can deeply affect its development. Wireless cellular network dimensioning
follows these basic steps:
• Data/Traffic Analysis
• Coverage estimation
• Capacity evaluation
• Transport dimensioning
Traffic analysis gives an estimate of the traffic to be carried by the system. Different types of
traffic that will be carried by the network are modeled. Traffic types may include voice calls,
VOIP, PS or CS traffic. Overheads carried by each type of traffic are calculated and included
in the model. Time and amount of traffic is also forecasted to evaluate the performance of the
network and to determine whether the network can fulfill the requirements set forth.
Coverage estimation is used to determine the coverage area of each base station. Coverage
estimation calculates the area where base station can be heard by the users (receivers). It gives
the maximum area that can be covered by a base station. But it is not necessary that an
acceptable connection (e.g. a voice call) between the base station and receiver can be
established in coverage area. However, base station can be detected by the receiver in coverage
area. Coverage planning includes radio link budget and coverage analysis. RLB computes the
power received by the user (receiver) given a specific transmitted power (from the transmitter
or base station). RLB comprises of all the gains and losses in the path of signal from transmitter
to the receiver. This includes transmitter and receiver gains as well as losses and the effect of
the wireless medium between them. Free space propagation loss, fast fading and slow fading
is taken into account. Additionally, parameters that are particular to some systems are also
considered. Frequency hopping and antenna diversity margins are two examples.
Capacity planning deals with the ability of the network to provide services to the users with
a desired level of quality. After the site coverage area is calculated using coverage estimation,
capacity related issues are analysed. This involves selection of site and system configuration,
e.g. channels used, channel elements and sectors. These elements are different for each system.
Configuration is selected such that it fulfills the traffic requirements. In some wireless cellular
systems, coverage and capacity are interrelated, e.g. in WCDMA. In this case, data pertaining
to user distribution and forecast of subscriber’s growth is of utmost importance. Dimensioning
team must consider these values as they have direct impact on coverage and capacity. Capacity
evaluation gives an estimate of the number of sites required to carry the anticipated traffic over
the coverage area.
Once the number of sites according to the traffic forecast is determined, the interfaces
of the network are dimensioned. Number of interfaces can vary from a few in some systems to
many in others. The objective of this step is to perform the allocation of traffic in such a way
that no bottle neck is created in the wireless network. All the quality of service requirements
are to be met and cost has to be minimised. Good interface dimensioning is very important for
smooth performance of the network

LTE Dimensioning process includes the following steps

Step 1: Data and Traffic Analysis
This is the first step in LTE dimensioning. It involves gathering of required inputs and their
analysis to prepare them for use in LTE dimensioning process. Operator data and requirements
are analysed to determine the best system configuration. One other possibility is to stick with
a group of configurations and carry out dimensioning for each of them to determine the most
suitable choice. For example, this may involve choosing two or three different channel
bandwidths for analysis.
Step 2: Traffic Analysis

Traffic demand is analyzed to get the best possible network configuration with minimum
supplies. In this thesis, three types of traffic are considered for LTE. They are; VoIP, streaming
and browsing. Overhead due to higher layers is taken into account while calculating net bit rate
for these traffic types. Peak hour traffic is used instead of average values. In the same way,
demand for different services should also be considered.
Step 3: Coverage Planning

Coverage analysis fundamentally remains the most critical step in the design of LTE network
as with 3G systems. RLB is at the heart of coverage planning, which allows the testing of path
loss model and the required peak data rates against the target coverage levels. The result is the
effective cell range to work out the coverage-limited site count. This requires the selection of
appropriate propagation model to calculate path loss. LTE RLB is explained in chapter 4. With
the knowledge of cell size estimates and of the area to be covered, an estimate of the total
number of sites is found. This estimate is based on coverage requirements and needs to be
verified for the capacity requirements.
Step 4: Capacity Planning

With a rough estimate of the cell size and site count, verification of coverage analysis is carried
out for the required capacity. It is verified whether with the given site density, the system can
carry the specified load or new sites have to be added. In LTE, the main indicator of capacity
is SINR distribution in the cell. This distribution is obtained by carrying out system level
simulations. SINR distribution can be directly mapped into system capacity (data rate). LTE
cell capacity is impacted by several factors, for example, packet scheduler implementation,
supported MCSs, antenna configurations and interference levels. Therefore, many sets of
simulation results are required for comprehensive analysis. Capacity based site count is then
compared with the coverage result and greater of the two numbers is selected as the final site
count, as already mentioned in the previous section.
Step 5: Transport Dimensioning

Transport dimensioning deals with the dimensioning of interfaces between different network
elements. In LTE, S1 (between eNB and aGW) and X2 (between two eNBs) are the two
interfaces to be dimensioned. These interfaces were still in the process of being standardised
at the time of this work. Therefore, transport dimensioning is not included in this thesis work.

An initial sketch of LTE network is obtained by following the above mentioned steps of
dimensioning exercise. This initial assessment forms the basis of detailed planning phase. In
this thesis, main emphasis is on steps two to four. First step is unnecessary because the data for
the test cases is taken from a WiMAX scenario, allowing its bypass. Coverage and Capacity
planning is dealt in detail and resulting site count is calculated to give an estimate of the
dimensioned LTE network. Dimensioning of LTE will depend on the operator strategy and
business case. The physical side of the task means to find the best possible solution of the
network which meets operator requirements and expectations.
Tools for LTE Dimensioning

LTE dimensioning tool is excel-based software developed to carry out dimensioning of
LTE networks. The workbook (Excel-based dimensioning tool) is structured so that there is a
clear separation between planning inputs, system inputs (e.g. link and system level results),
working section and results. It consists of eight sheets.
• Inputs
• Tables
• Radio Link Budget (RLB)
• Capacity Evaluator
• Traffic Forecast
• Dimensioning Output
• Version and history of change
Dimensioning inputs
‘Input sheet’ lists all the required inputs for dimensioning process of LTE networks. Inputs are
grouped into three clusters.
• System inputs
• Coverage planning inputs
• Capacity planning inputs
Input sheet is an important part of the structure of the dimensioning tool. It collects all
the possible inputs in one place. This is quite a different approach when compared to other
available dimensioning tools for other systems. In other dimensioning software, it is always a
difficult process to collect all the inputs in one place. User has to switch from one part to
another to change the input parameters. This is time consuming as well as difficult to use. The
purpose of having clearly separated inputs is to allow users to change dimensioning inputs from
one place.
To make a clear distinction between inputs, coverage and capacity related inputs are
arranged into two columns. System inputs are placed on the top of the coverage inputs as they
are directly used by the coverage evaluator. This allows the user to control the output of
coverage and capacity evaluators independent of each other. System inputs include carrier
frequency, channel bandwidth and area of deployment. Coverage related inputs available in the
dimensioning tool are RLB inputs and propagation model. Along with these inputs general
RLB parameters, like antenna transmitter powers, system gains and losses, etc are also present.
Capacity related inputs are traffic forecast for each type of traffic, utilization factor and

subscriber geographical spread. Subscriber geographical spread gives the percentage of

population to be covered by the network in each type of deployment area. There are three types
of deployment areas considered; city/urban, suburban and rural. These inputs are vendor-
specific.
Tables and background data

All the required information to carry out the coverage and capacity calculations is
positioned on ‘Tables’ sheet. This sheet contains all the data needed for number crunching.
Sheet is partitioned into different parts.
First part contains the tables for adaptive modulation coding schemes. It lists all the
allowed modulation schemes like, QPSK, 16QAM and allowed coding rates for these schemes
in LTE networks. The most important section of this part is Shannon-Alpha tables. Shannon-
Alpha formula is used for coverage estimation.
Second part carries details of different antenna configuration, channel models used and
system parameters. System parameters are operating frequency and channel bandwidth.
Third section details the maximum available data rates for different modulation and
coding schemes. These tables are used to calculate the data rate supported by one eNB in
capacity planning.
Fourth section holds the link level simulation results. This table gives the minimum
required SINR for each modulation and coding scheme e.g. for QPSK ½. Currently,
dimensioning tool has the data for two combinations of channel model and antenna
configuration.
Fifth section features system level results from simulator. These are SINR distribution
tables for different environments.
Radio link budget

Radio link budget calculations deal with the coverage estimation of LTE network. RLB
is evaluated with respect to different criteria. All the factors effecting RLB are listed in the
sheet with DL and UL budgets calculated side by side. Figure 6-4 is the snapshot of radio link
budget sheet.
One of the main features of this dimensioning tool is the facility to calculate RLB using
three different methods. User of the software can adopt anyone of these methods, depending
upon the analysis strategy. Maximum coverage is the primary criteria, which is usually used
for RLB. LTE is a packet optimized network. All the traffic is carried in form of data packets.
Therefore, using a modulation scheme will affect the amount of data carried by the network.
For example, using a MCS of 16QAM 4/5 instead of QPSK ½ will allow a better utilisation of
the network and higher data rate. But 16QAM 4/5 can only be used in favourable channel
condition. Otherwise error rate will be high enough to cancel the advantage of using a better
MCS. In maximum coverage criteria, it is assumed that lowest MCS is used. Lowest MCS
corresponds to the lowest data rate. Use of lowest MCS allows the estimation of farthest reach
of eNB. In this way, an estimate of maximum possible cell radius is obtained.
A second criterion available for RLB is ‘fixed inter-site distance’. For this criterion,
user is allowed to fix the inter-site distance. With a fixed inter-site distance, RLB is calculated

in reverse to find out the allowed MCS for a given channel model and thus the maximum
available data rate of the cell. The data rate obtained in this process is the theoretical maximum
and it will be higher than the achievable data rate. To provide the user with full freedom, a third
criterion of ‘User defined target data rate’ is also available. In this RLB criterion, user can set
the desired or target data rate that should be provided by a cell. RLB calculations are then
carried out to find out the MCS needed to support this data rate. This MCS is then used to
compute the allowed cell radius. Therefore, this criterion is the converse of ‘fixed inter-site
distance’ criterion. These three criteria make this software a very versatile and powerful LTE
dimensioning tool.
Capacity Evaluator
Capacity evaluator sheet calculates maximum cell throughput for a specific Cell Range.
Thus, it provides the capacity of a single eNB in LTE access network. Calculation of maximum
cell throughput is based on SINR distribution tables which are obtained from system level
simulations of LTE network. A simple approach of direct SINR-MCS mapping is used to
calculate the cell throughput. SINR distribution tables from system level simulations are placed
in ‘tables’ sheet. Minimum required SINR for each MCS is calculated. Data rate that can be
achieved, using a specific MCS is known by using system parameters.
Dimensioning Output
This sheet contains the detailed outputs, which are calculated by using the data from
previous sheets. This sheet displays the final dimensioning results. A screen shot of ‘output’
sheet is given below. Each column corresponds to one year, mentioning the results calculated
on the basis of current year data and forecast provided by the customer. Rows are bunched
together in different groups.
• Population statistics
• Number of subscribers
• Area to be covered by the network
• Subscriber geographical spread
• Cell Throughput
• Capacity-based site count
• Final site-count

LTE Radio Protocol Architecture

The radio protocol architecture for LTE can be separated into control
planearchitecture and user plane architecture as shown below:
At user plane side, the application creates data packets that are processed by protocols such
as TCP, UDP and IP, while in the control plane, the radio resource control (RRC) protocol
writes the signalling messages that are exchanged between the base station and the mobile. In
both cases, the information is processed by the packet data convergence protocol (PDCP), the
radio link control (RLC) protocol and the medium access control (MAC) protocol, before
being passed to the physical layer for transmission.
User Plane
The user plane protocol stack between the e-Node B and UE consists of the following sub-
layers:
• PDCP (Packet Data Convergence Protocol)
• RLC (radio Link Control)
• Medium Access Control (MAC)
On the user plane, packets in the core network (EPC) are encapsulated in a specific EPC
protocol and tunneled between the P-GW and the eNodeB. Different tunneling protocols are
used depending on the interface. GPRS Tunneling Protocol (GTP) is used on the S1 interface
between the eNodeB and S-GW and on the S5/S8 interface between the S-GW and P-GW.

Packets received by a layer are called Service Data Unit (SDU) while the packet output of a
layer is referred to by Protocol Data Unit (PDU) and IP packets at user plane flow from top to
bottom layers.
Control Plane
The control plane includes additionally the Radio Resource Control layer (RRC) which
is responsible for configuring the lower layers.
The Control Plane handles radio-specific functionality which depends on the state of
the user equipment which includes two states: idle or connected.
Mode Description
Idle The user equipment camps on a cell after a cell selection or reselection process where
factors like radio link quality, cell status and radio access technology are considered.
The UE also monitors a paging channel to detect incoming calls and acquire system
information. In this mode, control plane protocols include cell selection and reselection
procedures.
Connected The UE supplies the E-UTRAN with downlink channel quality and neighbour cell
information to enable the E-UTRAN to select the most suitable cell for the UE. In this
case, control plane protocol includes the Radio Link Control (RRC) protocol.
The protocol stack for the control plane between the UE and MME is shown below. The grey
region of the stack indicates the access stratum (AS) protocols. The lower layers perform the
same functions as for the user plane with the exception that there is no header compression
function for the control plane.
LTE Protocol Stack Layers

Let's have a close look at all the layers available in E-UTRAN Protocol Stack which
we have seen in previous chapter. Below is a more ellaborated diagram of E-UTRAN Protocol
Stack:

Physical Layer (Layer 1)

Physical Layer carries all information from the MAC transport channels over the air interface.
Takes care of the link adaptation (AMC), power control, cell search (for initial
synchronization and handover purposes) and other measurements (inside the LTE system and
between systems) for the RRC layer.
Medium Access Layer (MAC)
MAC layer is responsible for Mapping between logical channels and transport channels,
Multiplexing of MAC SDUs from one or different logical channels onto transport blocks (TB)
to be delivered to the physical layer on transport channels, de multiplexing of MAC SDUs
from one or different logical channels from transport blocks (TB) delivered from the physical
layer on transport channels, Scheduling information reporting, Error correction through
HARQ, Priority handling between UEs by means of dynamic scheduling, Priority handling
between logical channels of one UE, Logical Channel prioritization.
Radio Link Control (RLC)
RLC operates in 3 modes of operation: Transparent Mode (TM), Unacknowledged Mode
(UM), and Acknowledged Mode (AM).
RLC Layer is responsible for transfer of upper layer PDUs, error correction through ARQ
(Only for AM data transfer), Concatenation, segmentation and reassembly of RLC SDUs
(Only for UM and AM data transfer).
RLC is also responsible for re-segmentation of RLC data PDUs (Only for AM data transfer),
reordering of RLC data PDUs (Only for UM and AM data transfer), duplicate detection (Only

for UM and AM data transfer), RLC SDU discard (Only for UM and AM data transfer), RLC
re-establishment, and protocol error detection (Only for AM data transfer).
Radio Resource Control (RRC)
The main services and functions of the RRC sublayer include broadcast of System Information
related to the non-access stratum (NAS), broadcast of System Information related to the access
stratum (AS), Paging, establishment, maintenance and release of an RRC connection between
the UE and E-UTRAN, Security functions including key management, establishment,
configuration, maintenance and release of point to point Radio Bearers.
Packet Data Convergence Control (PDCP)
PDCP Layer is responsible for Header compression and decompression of IP data, Transfer
of data (user plane or control plane), Maintenance of PDCP Sequence Numbers (SNs), In-
sequence delivery of upper layer PDUs at re-establishment of lower layers, Duplicate
elimination of lower layer SDUs at re-establishment of lower layers for radio bearers mapped
on RLC AM, Ciphering and deciphering of user plane data and control plane data, Integrity
protection and integrity verification of control plane data, Timer based discard, duplicate
discarding, PDCP is used for SRBs and DRBs mapped on DCCH and DTCH type of logical
channels.
Non Access Stratum (NAS) Protocols
The non-access stratum (NAS) protocols form the highest stratum of the control plane between
the user equipment (UE) and MME.
NAS protocols support the mobility of the UE and the session management procedures to
establish and maintain IP connectivity between the UE and a PDN GW.
LTE Communication Channels
The information flows between the different protocols are known as channels and signals.
LTE uses several different types of logical, transport and physical channel, which are
distinguished by the kind of information they carry and by the way in which the information
is processed.
• Logical Channels : Define whattype of information is transmitted over the air, e.g.
traffic channels, control channels, system broadcast, etc. Data and signalling messages
are carried on logical channels between the RLC and MAC protocols.
• Transport Channels : Define howis something transmitted over the air, e.g. what are
encoding, interleaving options used to transmit data. Data and signalling messages are
carried on transport channels between the MAC and the physical layer.
• Physical Channels : Define whereis something transmitted over the air, e.g. first N
symbols in the DL frame. Data and signalling messages are carried on physical
channels between the different levels of the physical layer.

Logical Channels
Logical channels define what type of data is transferred. These channels define the data-
transfer services offered by the MAC layer. Data and signalling messages are carried on
logical channels between the RLC and MAC protocols.
Logical channels can be divided into control channels and traffic channels. Control Channel
can be either common channel or dedicated channel. A common channel means common to
all users in a cell (Point to multipoint) while dedicated channels means channels can be used
only by one user (Point to Point).
Logical channels are distinguished by the information they carry and can be classified in two
ways. Firstly, logical traffic channels carry data in the user plane, while logical control
channels carry signalling messages in the control plane.
Transport Channels
Transport channels define how and with what type of characteristics the data is transferred by
the physical layer. Data and signalling messages are carried on transport channels between the
MAC and the physical layer.
Transport Channels are distinguished by the ways in which the transport channel processor
manipulates them.
Physical Channels
Data and signalling messages are carried on physical channels between the different levels of
the physical layer and accordingly they are divided into two parts:
• Physical Data Channels
• Physical Control Channels
Physical data channels
Physical data channels are distinguished by the ways in which the physical channel processor
manipulates them, and by the ways in which they are mapped onto the symbols and sub-
carriers used by Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDMA).
The transport channel processor composes several types of control information, to support
the low-level operation of the physical layer.
Physical Control Channels
The transport channel processor also creates control information that supports the low-level
operation of the physical layer and sends this information to the physical channel processor in
the form of physical control channels.
The information travels as far as the transport channel processor in the receiver, but is
completely invisible to higher layers. Similarly, the physical channel processor creates
physical signals, which support the lowest-level aspects of the system.

5G
What 5G Technology Offers??

5G is going to be a new mobile revolution in mobile tele-phone market. 5G technologies
now we can use worldwide cellular phones and this technology also strike the china mobile
market and a user being competent to get access to USA phone as a local phone. Because of
5G technology the customers can be offered approximately priceless handset to its customers.
In future also 5G will take over the world market. One of the biggest advantages of 5G is, it
has excellent capability to support both software and consultancy. 5G network will provide
high connectivity because of switch and router technology.
Need of 5G Wireless System

If we will compare 5G with other generation mobile phones, it is obvious that 5G has
some extraordinary features and advantages.
1). 5G has better coverage area and high data rate at the edge of the cell.
2). It has low battery consumption.
3). Availability of multiple data transfer path.
4). Around 1 Gbps data rate is easily possible.
5). Security is more.
6). Energy efficiency and spectral efficiency are good.
Due to the above advantages, 5th generation wireless system is very much essential.
5G Wireless Cellular Architecture

The proposed 5th generation cellular architecture is shown in the figure below. The
architecture shows that it is an IP based model for wireless and mobile networks
interoperability. The 5G wireless system consists of a user terminal and number of independent
radio access technologies. User terminal plays a very important role in this system.

Radio access technology (RAT) means a physical connection method for a radio based
communication network. It is shown in the figure that, with in each of the terminals each RATs
are the IP link to the outside world and also in mobile terminal there should be different radio
interface for each RATs. If someone wants to access four different radio access technologies
than four different accesses specific interfaces should be there in the mobile terminal and all of
them should be activated at the same time in order to function the architecture.
It is called as the IP based model and the main purpose is to ensure control data for
proper routing of IP packets belonging to a certain application connections. Routing of packets
is carried out by the users with some specific policies and rules. Application connections are
established between clients and servers in the internet i.e. via sockets. These Internet sockets
are end points for data communication flows and each socket of the web is an unique
combination of local IP address and appropriate local transport communications port, target IP
address and target suitable communication port, and type of transport protocol.
In case of interoperability between heterogeneous networks and for the vertical

handover between the respective radio technologies, the local Internet Protocol address and
destination Internet Protocol address should be fixed and unchanged. Fixing of these two
parameters should certain handover transparency to the Internet connection end-to-end, when
there is a mobile telephone user at least on one end of such connection. In order to preserve the
proper design of the packets and to reduce or prevent packets losses, drive off to the target
destination and vice versa should be unique and it should be using the same path.

Each radio access technology that is available to the user in achieving connectivity with
the relevant radio access is presented with appropriate Internet Protocol interface or medium.
Each Internet Protocol (IP) medium or interface in the terminal is characterized by its IP
address and net mask and parameters associated with the routing of IP packets across the
network. In uniform inter-system handover the modification of access technology (i.e., vertical
handover) would mean changing the local Internet Protocol address. Then, change in some
parameters of the socket means change of the socket that is, closing and opening of a new
socket. This approach is not adjustable, and it is based on today’s wireless communication. In
order to solve this insufficiency we propose a new level that will take care of the abstraction
levels of network access technologies to higher layers of the protocol stack. This layer is very
critical in the new architecture. From the authors [6], to enable the functions of the applied
transparency and control or direct routing of packets through the most appropriate radio access
technology, in the suggested architecture we introduce a control system in the functional
architecture of the networks, which works in complete coordination or works together
effectively with the user terminal and provides a network abstraction functions and routing of
packets based on defined rules or policies. At the same time this control system is an essential
element through which it can determine the quality of service for each transmission technology.
Protocol system of the new levels within the occurring protocol stack, which form the
suggested design and architecture, is given in Figure (Protocol Layout for the Elements of the
Proposed Architecture). The network concept or idea would be provided by creating IP tunnels
over IP interfaces obtained by connection to the terminal via the access technologies available
to the terminal (i.e., mobile user). In fact, the tunnels would be established between the user
terminal and control system named here as Policy Router or blueprint router, which performs
routing based on given policies or some strategies. In this way the client side will generate an
appropriate number of tunnels connected to the number of radio access technologies, and the
client will put a local Internet Protocol address which will be formed with sockets Internet
communication of client applications with Internet servers. The way Internet Protocol packets
are choosing the right tunnel, would be worked by policies or strategies whose rules will be
exchanged via the virtual network layer protocol. This way we achieve the necessary idea of
the network to the client applications at the mobile terminal. The process of initiating a tunnel
to the Policy Route or strategy router, for routing based on the given strategies, are took out

immediately after the initiation of IP connectivity across the radio access technology, and it is
started off from the mobile terminal Virtual Network-level Protocol. Initiating tunnel links as
well as maintaining them represents basic functionality of the virtual network level.
Tthe wireless users stay indoors generally for 80% of the total time and stay outdoors
for 20% only. The outdoor base stations are used in the current cellular architecture to
communicate with the mobile users. That doesn’t matter, whether they stay indoor or outdoor.
When the indoor users communicate with the outdoor base station, the signals penetrate the
building walls. Due to this, penetration loss occurs and apart from that data rate, spectral
efficiency and energy efficiency are also damaged. In order to avoid these deficiencies, some
new technologies are used now days and they are such as- Distributed antenna system (DAS),
and MIMO technology.
Cognitive radio technology is one of the key concepts of 5G. Cognitive radio
technology, also known as smart-radio: allowing different radio technologies to share the same
spectrum efficiently by adaptively finding unused spectrum and adapting the transmission
scheme to the requirements of the technologies currently sharing the spectrum. This powerful
radio resource management is achieved in a distributed fashion, and relies on software defined
ratio.
MIMO Concept for 5G

MIMO stands for Multiple Input and Multiple Output. In wireless communication
system this method is used to increase the capacity of channel in radio link b using multiple
transmit and receive antennas. MIMO has become an important element of wireless
communication system standards including IEEE 802.11ac (WI-FI), WI-MAX (4G) etc.
MIMO system consist multiple antennas at both the transmitter and receiver. One of the big
advantage of this system is more data can be added to the wireless channels. So by using this
method the energy efficiency, spectral efficiency and reliability can be improved.in MIMO
system the transmitter and receiver part contained large number of antennas or we can say array
of antennas. At one time in wireless the term “MIMO” referred to the mainly theoretical use of
multiple antennas at both the transmitter and the receiver. In modern technical world, “MIMO”
refers to a practical technique for sending and receiving more than one data signal on the same
radio channel at the same time via multipath propagation. MIMO is conceptually different from
smart antenna techniques developed to enhance the performance of a single data signal.

Also, MIMO is applied to Power line communication for 3-wire installations as part of ITU
G.hn standard and Home Plug AV2 specification. In MIMO system the transmit antennas are
distributed to in various applications and also the receive antennas are distributed to many
devices. By using this massive MIMO system, the energy efficiency and spectral efficiency
can be increased dramatically. One of the biggest advantages of MIMO technology is, here in
this method intracell interference and noise can be minimized.
So due to these advantages, MIMO system is one of the key concept of wireless
communication system.
5G Super Core Concept

The 5G will have the following three main technologies:
• Nanotechnology.
• Cloud Computing.
• All Flat IP Platform.
The existing telecom networks are arranged in an ordered way, where subscriber traffic
is aggregated at aggregation point (BSC/RNC) and then drives off to gateways. Flat Internet
Protocol architecture will lessen burden on aggregation point and traffic will directly move
from Base station to Media gateways. When transition from legacy (TDM, ATM) platforms to
IP will be concluded, a common ALL IP platform will be appeared. All network operators
(GSM, CDMA, Wi-max, Wire line) can be connected to one Super core with enormous
capacity. The super core concept will roughly calculate all interconnecting charges, which is
now days network operator is facing.

Features of 5TH Generation Wireless System

5G technology would offer high resolution for wireless gadget users and bi-directional large
bandwidth shaping.
• The advanced billing interfaces of 5G technology makes it more attractive and
effective.
• The high quality services of 5G technology is based on Policy to avoid error. 5G
technology would provide large broadcasting of data in Gigabytes.
• The 5G technology network offers enhanced and available connectivity just about the
world.
• The traffic statistics by 5G technology makes it more accurate. Through remote
management offered by 5G technology a user can get better and fast solutions.
• The remote diagnostics also a great feature of 5G technology.
• The 5G technology also support virtual private network.
Applications of 5G Technology
1. One can be able to feel her kid’s stroke when he/she is in her mother’s womb.
2. One can be able to perceive his/her sugar level with his/her mobile.
3. One can be able to charge his/her mobile with his/her own heartbeat.

4. One can be able to view his/her residence in his/her mobile when someone enters.
5. The mobile will ring according to our mood.
6. One can be able to pay all bills in a single payment with his/her mobile.
7. One can get the live share value.
8. One can be able to navigate the train for which he/she might be waiting.
9. One can be able to vote from his/her mobile.
10. One can be able to know the exact time of his/her child birth that too in nanoseconds.
11. One can be able to sense tsunami/earthquake before it occurs.
12. Our mobile can share our work load.
13. One can get an alert in his/her mobile when someone opens his/ her intelligent car.
14. One can be ale to lock his/her car or bike with his/her mobile when he/she forgets to do so.
15. We can be able to expand our coverage using our mobile phone.
16. Our mobile can perform radio resource management.
CASE STUDIES
I. Setting up an ad-hoc network system
An Ad hoc network is a collection of mobile nodes, which forms a temporary network
without the aid of centralized administration or standard support devices regularly available as
conventional networks. These nodes generally have a limited transmission range and, so, each
node seeks the assistance of its neighboring nodes in forwarding packets and hence the nodes
in an Ad hoc network can act as both routers and hosts. Thus a node may forward packets
between other nodes as well as run user applications. By nature these types of networks are
suitable for situations where either no fixed infrastructure exists or deploying network is not
possible. Ad hoc mobile networks have found many applications in various fields like military,
emergency, conferencing and sensor networks. Each of these application areas has their
specific requirements for routing protocols.
FEATURES OF MOBILE AD HOC NETWORKS
The mobile Ad hoc networks has the following features

• Autonomous terminal
• Distributed operation
• Multihop routing
• Dynamic network topology

• Fluctuating link capacity

• Light-weight terminals
Autonomous Terminal In MANET, each mobile terminal is an autonomous node,

which may function as both a host and a router. In other words, beside the basic processing
ability as a host, the mobile nodes can also perform switching functions as a router. So usually
endpoints and switches are indistinguishable in MANET.
Distributed Operation
Since there is no background network for the central control of the network operations,
the control and management of the network is distributed among the terminals. The nodes
involved in a MANET should collaborate amongst themselves and each node acts as a relay as
needed to implement functions like security and routing.
Multihop Routing
Basic types of Ad hoc routing algorithms can be single-hop and multihop, based on
different link layer attributes and routing protocols. Single-hop MANET is simpler than
multihop in terms of structure and implementation, with the lesser cost of functionality and
applicability. When delivering data packets from a source to its destination out of the direct
wireless transmission range, the packets should be forwarded via one or more intermediate
nodes.
Dynamic Network Topology
Since the nodes are mobile, the network topology may change rapidly and
unpredictably and the connectivity among the terminals may vary with time. MANET should
adapt to the traffic and propagation conditions as well as the mobility patterns of the mobile
network nodes. The mobile nodes in the network dynamically establish routing among
themselves as they move about, forming their own network on the fly. Moreover, a user in the
MANET may not only operate within the Ad hoc network, but may require access to a public
fixed network (e.g. Internet)
Fluctuating Link Capacity
The nature of high bit-error rates of wireless connection might be more profound in a
MANET. One end-to-end path can be shared by several sessions. The channel over which the
terminals communicate is subjected to noise, fading, and interference, and has less bandwidth
than a wired network. In some scenarios, the path between any pair of users can traverse
multiple wireless links and the link themselves can be heterogeneous.

Light Weight Terminals
In most of the cases, the MANET nodes are mobile devices with less CPU processing
capability, small memory size, and low power storage. Such devices need optimized algorithms
and mechanisms that implement the computing and communicating functions.
ISSUES TO BE CONSIDERED WHEN DEPLOYING MANET
The following are some of the main routing issues to be considered when deploying MANETs
• Unpredictability of Environment
• Unreliability of Wireless Medium
• Resource-Constrained Nodes
• Dynamic Topology
• Transmission Errors
• Node Failures
• Link Failures
• Route Breakages
• Congested Nodes or Links
Unpredictability of Environment: Ad hoc networks may be deployed in unknown terrains,

hazardous conditions, and even hostile environments where tampering or the actual destruction
of a node may be imminent. Depending on the environment, node failures may occur
frequently.
Unreliability of Wireless Medium: Communication through the wireless medium is

unreliable and subject to errors. Also, due to varying environmental conditions such as high
levels of electro-magnetic interference (EMI) or inclement weather, the quality of the wireless
link may be unpredictable.
Resource-Constrained Nodes: Nodes in a MANET are typically battery powered as well as

limited in storage and processing capabilities. Moreover, they may be situated in areas where
it is not possible to re- charge and thus have limited lifetimes. Because of these limitations,
they must have algorithms which are energy efficient as well as operating with limited
processing and memory resources. The available bandwidth of the wireless medium may also
be limited because nodes may not be able to sacrifice the energy consumed by operating at full
link speed.
Dynamic Topology: The topology in an Ad hoc network may change constantly due to the
mobility of nodes. As nodes move in and out of range of each other, some links break while
new links between nodes are created.

As a result of these issues, MANETs are prone to numerous types of faults including the
following-
Transmission Errors:The unreliability of the wireless medium and the unpredictability of the
environment may lead to transmitted packets being garbled and thus received packet errors.
Node Failures: Nodes may fail at any time due to different types of hazardous conditions in
the environment. They may also drop out of the network either voluntarily or when their energy
supply is depleted.
Link Failures: Node failures as well as changing environmental conditions (e.g., increased
levels of EMI) may cause links between nodes to break. Link failures cause the source node to
discover new routes through other links.
Route Breakages: When the network topology changes due to node/link failures and/or
node/link additions to the network, routes become out-of-date and thus incorrect. Depending
upon the network transport protocol, packets forwarded through stale routes may either
eventually be dropped or be delayed.
Congested Nodes or Links: Due to the topology of the network and the nature of the routing
protocol, certain nodes or links may become over utilized, i.e., congested.
This will lead to either larger delays or packet loss.
APPLICATIONS OF AD HOC NETWORKS
Ad hoc networks are suited for use in situations where an infrastructure is unavailable or to
deploy one is not cost effective [39]. The following are some of the important applications.
Business Applications
One of many possible uses of mobile Ad hoc networks is in some business
environments, where the need for collaborative computing might be more important outside
the office environment than inside, such as in a business meeting outside the office to brief
clients on a given assignment. Work has been going on to introduce the fundamental concepts
of game theory and its applications in telecommunications. Game theory originates from
economics and has been applied in various fields. Game theory deals with multi-person
decision making, in which each decision maker tries to maximize his utility. The cooperation
of the users is necessary to the operation of Ad hoc networks; therefore, game theory provides
a good basis to analyze the networks. People playing multi-player games usually do so over the
Internet, with a remote host. This model is called the client-server model. In the case of multiple
users, each user just connects to a common server, and the server forwards the packets to
connected users. Fig 3.2 illustrates the client-server model.

Fig 3.2: Client-Server Model

This client-server model suffers the following major drawbacks: a user cannot play games
where there is no Internet infrastructure, or when the connection is too bad, or when the server
is not available (either the server is down or refuses users because the maximum number of
users is reached). Another drawback is that it limits the gamers from randomly announcing,
discovering and joining a networked game.
Military Applications
Military applications have motivated early research on Ad hoc networks. The ability to quickly
set up a network among military units in hostile territory without any infrastructure support can
provide friendly forces with a considerable tactical advantage on the battlefield. For instance,
each soldier can carry a mobile device that represents one of the mobile nodes in an Ad hoc
network linking all soldiers, tanks, and other vehicles as shown in Fig 3.3. Recent advances in
robotics have also motivated the idea of automated battlefields in which unmanned fighting
vehicles are sent into battle. Supporting military applications requires self-organizing
mechanisms that provide robust and reliable communication in dynamic battle situations.
Fig 3.3: Soldiers, Tanks and other Vehicles carrying Mobile Devices
Emergency Operations
Another promising application area for Ad hoc networks is emergency services, including
search and rescue and disaster recovery operations. As an example of search and rescue,

consider an airline that attaches small wireless devices to the life jackets under each seat.
Suppose that the plane has mechanical problems and has to make an emergency landing in the
water. Once search and rescue teams arrive at the landing site, they are provided with detailed
information about the location (the coordinates and potentially the depth) of the victims through
the transponders. As a result, the rescue teams can more effectively locate and reach the victims.
The mobile devices could also monitor the vital signs of victims, such as heart rate or breathing
rate, to prioritize the rescue of victims that are still alive.
A similar application arises when disasters, such as earthquakes, blackouts, or bombings occur.
The disaster may destroy existing communication infrastructure, preventing critical contact
among emergency workers. The emergency response teams can set up Ad hoc networks quickly
to replace the destroyed infrastructure, enabling the teams to better coordinate their efforts. In
emergency situation the wired networks could be destroyed. There will be a need of wireless
network, which could be deployed quickly for coordination of rescue. An example is the design
for future public safety communications. A European project called Wireless Deployable
Network System (WIDENS) [29] concentrated their work on this field. WIDENS have an idea
that using Ad hoc network to interoperate with existing TETRA network which is used for
public safety. The system structure is shown in Fig 3.4.
Fig 3.4: WIDENS System Structure
Home, Office, and Educational Applications
Ad hoc networks also have applications in home and office environments. The simplest and
most direct application of Ad hoc networks in both homes and offices is the networking of
laptops, PDAs and other WLAN-enabled devices in the absence of a wireless base station.
Another home application that falls within the Personal Area Network (PAN) class is wire
replacement through wireless links, as in Bluetooth. All periphery devices can connect to a
computer through wireless Bluetooth links, eliminating the need for wired connections. Ad hoc
networks can also enable streaming of video and audio among wireless nodes in the absence of
any base station. For instance, UWB provides a sufficiently high bandwidth (in the order of
Gb/s) to support several multimedia streams. UWB-equipped nodes can autonomously set up

an Ad hoc network to stream high quality video and audio between several computers through
wireless UWB connections. Educational and recreational activities can also benefit from Ad
hoc networks. For example, students attending a classroom can use their laptops to obtain the
latest class material from a professor’s laptop as the class progresses. Universities and campus
settings, Virtual classrooms, Ad hoc communications during meetings or lectures are some of
the educational applications of Ad hoc networks. On the recreational side, the mobility and
nomadic nature of Ad hoc networks enables richer multi-user games that can incorporate user
mobility and proximity into the virtual game environment.
A Vehicular Ad hoc Network [VANET]
VANET is a form of Mobile Ad hoc network, to provide communications among nearby

vehicles and between vehicles and nearby fixed equipment, usually described as roadside
equipment. The main goal of VANET is providing safety and comfort for passengers. To this
end a special electronic device will be placed inside each vehicle which will provide Ad hoc
Network connectivity for the passengers. This network tends to operate without any
infrastructure or legacy client and server communication. Each vehicle equipped with VANET
device will be a node in the Ad hoc network and can receive and relay others messages through
the wireless network. Collision warning, road sign alarms and in-place traffic view will give
the driver essential tools to decide the best path along the way. There are also multimedia and
internet connectivity facilities for passengers, all provided within the wireless coverage of each
car. Automatic payment for parking lots and toll collection are other examples of possibilities
inside VANET. Most of the concerns of interest to MANETS are of interest in VANETS, but
the details differ. Rather than moving at random, vehicles tend to move in an organized fashion.
The interactions with roadside equipment can likewise be characterized fairly accurately. And
finally, most vehicles are restricted in their range of motion, for example by being constrained
to follow a paved high way.
Fig 3.5: A Vehicular Ad hoc Network

In addition, in the year 2006 the term MANET mostly describes an academic area of research,
and the term VANET perhaps it’s most promising area of application. In VANET, or Intelligent

Vehicular Ad hoc Networking, defines an intelligent way of using Vehicular Networking. In

VANET integrates on multiple Ad hoc networking technologies such as WiFi IEEE 802.11
b/g, WiMAX IEEE 802.16, Bluetooth, IRA, ZigBee for easy, accurate, effective and simple
communication between vehicles on dynamic mobility. Effective measures such as media
communication between vehicles can be enabled as well methods to track the automotive
vehicles are also preferred. In VANET helps in defining safety measures in vehicles, streaming
communication between vehicles, infotainment and telematics. Vehicular Ad hoc Networks are
expected to implement variety of wireless technologies such as Dedicated Short Range
Communications (DSRC) which is a type of WiFi. Other candidate wireless technologies are
Cellular, Satellite, and WiMAX. Vehicular Ad hoc Networks can be viewed as component of
the Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS).
Wireless Sensor Networks
Advances in processor, memory and radio technology will enable small and cheap nodes
capable of sensing, communication and computation. Networks of such nodes called wireless
sensor networks can coordinate to perform distributed sensing of environmental phenomena.
Fig 3.6: Applications of Sensor Networks

Sensor networks have emerged as a promising tool for monitoring (and possibly actuating)
the physical world, utilizing self-organizing networks of batterypowered wireless sensors that
can sense, process and communicate. A sensor network] is a network of many tiny
disposable low power devices, called nodes, which are spatially distributed in order to
perform an application-oriented global task. These nodes form a network by communicating

with each other either directly or through other nodes. One or more nodes among them
will serve as sink(s) that are capable of communicating with the user either directly or
through the existing wired networks. The primary component of the network is the sensor,
essential for monitoring real world physical conditions such as sound, temperature,
humidity, intensity, vibration, pressure, motion, pollutants etc. at different locations.
Wireless sensor networks can be considered as special case of mobile Ad hoc networks
(MANET) with reduced or no mobility. Initially WSNs was mainly motivated by military
applications. Later on the civilian application domain of wireless sensor networks as shown
in Fig 3.6 have been considered, such as environmental and species monitoring, disaster
management, smart home production and healthcare etc. These WSNs may consist of
heterogeneous and mobile sensor nodes, the network topology may be as simple as a star
topology; the scale and density of a network varies depending on the application.
Wireless mesh networks
Wireless mesh networks are Ad hoc wireless networks, which are formed to provide
communication infrastructure using mobile or fixed nodes/users. The mesh topology provides
alternative path for data transmission from the source to the destination. It gives quick re-
configuration when the firstly chosen path fails. Wireless mesh network should be capable of
self-organization and self-maintenance. The main advantages of wireless mesh networks are
high speed, low cost, quick deployment, high scalability, and high availability. It works on 2.4
GHz and 5 GHz frequency bands, depending on the physical layer used. For example, if IEEE
802.11a is used, the speed can be up to 54 Mbps. An application example of wireless mesh
network could be a wireless mesh networks in a residential zone, which the radio relay devices
are built on top of the rooftops. In this situation, once one of the nodes in this residential area
is equipped with the wired link to the Internet, this node could be the gateway node. Others
could connect to the Internet from this node. Other possible deployments are highways,
business zones, and university campus.
Here is an example of a possible ad hoc application called the ubiquitous flea market.
This application is available wherever you are and at all times. It is available on many mobile
devices and matches buyers and sellers present within a certain range, the latter being
previously defined by the user. As the user is walking, this ad hoc application scans its
surroundings for possible peer sellers or buyers. It has to be noted that any user can be buyer
and/or seller. When the application finds another mobile device that runs the same piece of
software, it scans the shared items in order to find a match. If there is a match, the user is alerted
and can then ask the peer to get in touch and make the physical transaction.

Figure 1: The ubiquitous flea market use case.
The ubiquitous flea market (see Figure 1) is based on a framework to ease its deployment. Our
so-called ad hoc application framework is based on existing standards, which makes it
lightweight, and facilitates its adoption by developers. Some frameworks close to ours actually
redefine, for instance, a transport protocol (PeerWare and Proem). This is not necessary as with
the advent of Java-enabled mobile devices, most of these basic services are already available
and standardised. Figure 2 presents the different layers for an ad hoc application when based
on our framework.
Figure 2: The different layers of an ad hoc

application.
LIFI
In the era of overcrowded (data communication) world, Li-Fi is a new way of wireless
communication that uses LED lights to transmit data wirelessly. Transmission of data

is one of the most important day to day activities in the fast growing world. The current
wireless networks that connect us to the Internet are very slow when multiple devices
are connected. Also with the increase in the number of devices which access the
Internet, the availability of fixed bandwidth makes it much more difficult to enjoy high
data transfer rates and to connect a secure network. Radio waves are just a small part
of the electromagnetic spectrum available for data transfer. Li-Fi has got a much
broader spectrum for transmission compared to conventional methods of wireless
communications that rely on radio waves. The basic ideology behind this technology
is that the data can be transferred through LED light by varying light intensities faster
than the human eyes can perceive. This technology uses a part of the electromagnetic
spectrum that is still not greatly utilized- The Visible Spectrum, instead of Gigahertz
radio waves for data transfer.
The idea of Li-Fi was introduced for the first time by a German physicist Harald Hass
in the TED (Technology, Entertainment, Design) Global talk on Visible Light
Communication (VLC) in July 2011, by referring to it as “data through illumination”.
He used a table lamp with an LED bulb to transmit a video of a blooming flower that
was then projected onto a screen. In simple terms, Li-Fi can be thought of as a light-
based Wi-Fi i.e. instead of radio waves it uses light to transmit data. In place of Wi-Fi
modems, Li-Fi would use transceivers fitted with LED lamps that could light a room
as well as transmit and receive information. By adding new and unutilized bandwidth
of visible light to the currently available radio waves for data transfer, LiFi can play a
major role in relieving the heavy loads which the current wireless system is facing.
Thus it may offer additional frequency band of the order of 400 THz compared to that
available in RF communication which is about 300 GHz. Also, as the Li-Fi uses the
visible spectrum, it will help alleviate concerns that the electromagnetic waves coming
with Wi-Fi could adversely affect our health.
By Communication through visible light, Li-Fi technology has the possibility to

change how we access the Internet, stream videos, receive emails and much more.
Security would not be an issue as data can’t be accessed in the absence of light. As a
result, it can be used in high security military areas where RF communication is prone
to eavesdropping.
Architecture of Li-Fi system

Li-Fi which can be the future of data communication appears to be a fast and cheap
optical version of Wi-Fi. Being a Visible Light Communication (VLC), Li-Fi uses
visible light of electromagnetic spectrum between 400 THz and 800 THz as optical
carrier for data transmission and illumination. It uses fast pulses of light to transmit
information in wireless medium. The main components of a basic Li-Fi system may
contain the following:
a) A high brightness white LED which acts as transmission source.

b) A silicon photodiode with good response to visible light as the receiving element.

Switching the LEDs on and off can make them generate digital strings with different
combination of 1s and 0s. To generate a new data stream, data can be encoded in the
light by varying the flickering rate of the LED. In this way, the LEDs work as a sender
by modulating the light with the data signal. The LED output appears constant to the
human because they are made to flicker at a phenomenal speed (millions of times per
second) and it’s impossible for human eye to detect this frequency. Communication
rate more than 100 Mbps can be achieved by using high speed LEDs with the help of
various multiplexing techniques. And this VLC data rate can be further increased to
as high as 10 Gbps via parallel data transmission using an array of LED lights with
each LED transmitting a different data stream.
The Li-Fi transmitter system comprises of four primary subassemblies:
• Bulb
• RF Power Amplifier Circuit (PA)
• Printed Circuit Board (PCB)
• Enclosure
Fig 2: Block Diagram of Li-Fi sub-assemblies.

(Source:
http://www.ijcta.com/documents/volumes/vol5issue1/ijcta2014050121.pdf)
The Printed circuit board (PCB) controls the electrical inputs and outputs of the lamp
and houses the microcontroller used to manage different lamp functions. A Radio
Frequency (RF) signal is generated by the Power Amplifier and is directed into the
electric field of the bulb. As a result of the high concentration of energy in the electric
field, the contents of the bulb will get vaporized into a plasma state at the bulb’s centre.
And this controlled plasma in turn will produce an intense source of light. All of these
subassemblies are contained in an aluminium enclosure as shown in Fig. 2 above.
Li-Fi Bulb sub-assembly:
The bulb sub-assembly is the main part of the Li-Fi emitter. It consists of a sealed bulb
embedded in a dielectric material which serves two purposes: one, it acts as a
waveguide for the RF energy transmitted by the PA (Power Amplifier) and two, it acts
as an electric field concentrator that focuses the energy into the bulb. The collected
energy from the electric field rapidly heats the material in the bulb to a plasma state
that emits light of high intensity of Visible light spectrum. Figure 3 shows the sub-
assembly of the bulb.
Fig 3: Bulb Sub Assembly
(Source:http://www.ijcta.com/documents/volumes/vol5issue1/ijcta2014050121.pdf)
There are various inherent advantages of this approach which includes high brightness,
excellent colour quality and high luminous efficacy of the emitter – in the range of
150 lumens per watt or greater. The structure is mechanically robust without typical
degradation and failure mechanisms associated with tungsten electrodes and glass to
metal seals, resulting in useful lamp life of 30,000+ hours. In addition, the unique
combination of high temperature plasma and digitally controlled solid state electronics
results in an economically produced family of lamps scalable in packages from 3,000
to over 100,000 lumens.
Important factors that should be considered while designing Li-Fi are as follows:
1) Presence of Light
2) Line of Sight (Los)
3) for better performance use fluorescent light & LED

Fig 4: Construction of Li-Fi System

(Source:http://ijariie.com/AdminUploadPdf/Review_Paper_on_Li_Fi__Light_Fidel
ity__ijariie2056.pdf)
Working of Li-Fi
Basic Concept:
Light Fidelity (Li-Fi) technology is a wireless communication system based on the use
of visible light between the violet (800 THz) and red (400 THz). Unlike Wi-Fi which
uses the radio part of the electromagnetic spectrum, Li-Fi uses the optical spectrum
i.e. Visible light part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The principle of Li-Fi is based
on sending data by amplitude modulation of the light source in a well-defined and
standardized way. LEDs can be switched on and off faster than the human eyes can
detect since the operating speed of LEDs is less than 1 microsecond. This invisible on-
off activity enables data transmission using binary codes. If the LED is on, a digital
‘1’ is transmitted and if the LED is off, a digital ‘0’ is transmitted. Also these LEDs
can be switched on and off very quickly which gives us a very nice opportunity for
transmitting data through LED lights, because there are no interfering light frequencies
like that of the radio frequencies in Wi-Fi. Li-Fi is thought to be 80% more efficient,
which means it can reach speeds of up to 1Gbps and even beyond. Li-Fi differs from
fibre optic because the Li-Fi protocol layers are suitable for wireless communication
over short distances (up to 10 meters).
This puts Li-Fi in a unique position of extremely fast wireless communication over
short distances.

Fig 5: Li-Fi Transmission

(Source: http://www.internationaljournalssrg.org/IJECE/2015/Volume2-
Issue3/IJECE-V2I3P107.pdf )
How it Works:
The working of Li-Fi is very simple. There is a light emitter on one end i.e. an LED
transmitter, and a photo detector (light sensor) on the other. The data input to the LED
transmitter is encoded in to the light (technically referred to as Visible Light
Communication) by varying the flickering rate at which the LEDs flicker ‘on’ and
‘off’ to generate different strings of 1s and 0s. The onoff activity of the LED
transmitter which seems to be invisible (The LED intensity is modulated so rapidly
that human eye cannot notice, so the light of the LED appears constant to humans),
enables data transmission in light form in accordance with the incoming binary codes:
switching ON a LED is a logical '1', switching it OFF is a logical '0'. By varying the
rate at which the LEDs flicker on and off, information can be encoded in the light to
different combinations of 1s and 0s.
In a typical setup, the transmitter (LED) is connected to the data network (Internet
through the modem) and the receiver (photo detector/light sensor) on the receiving
end receives the data as light signal and decodes the information, which is then
displayed on the device connected to the receiver. The receiver (photo detector)
registers a binary ‘1’ when the transmitter (LED) is ON and a binary ‘0’ when the
transmitter (LED) is OFF. Thus flashing the LED numerous times or using an array of
LEDs (perhaps of a few different colours) will eventually provide data rates in the
range of hundreds of Mbps. The Li-Fi working is explained in a block diagram (Fig.6).

Fig 6: Block diagram of Li-Fi Sub System

(Source:
http://www.warse.org/pdfs/2014/icetetssp25.pdf )
Hence all that is required, is some or an array of LEDs and a controller that
controls/encodes data into those LEDs. All one has to do is to vary the rate at which
the LEDs flicker depending upon the data input to LEDs. Further data rate
enhancements can be made in this method, by using array of the LEDs for parallel data
transmission, or using mixtures of red , green and blue LEDs to alter the light’s
frequency, with each frequency encoding a different data channel.
Figure 7 shows working/deployment of a Li-Fi system connecting the devices in a
room.
Fig 7: Li-Fi system connecting devices in a room

(Source:http://ijariie.com/AdminUploadPdf/Review_Paper_on_Li_Fi__Light_Fidelity__ijar
iie2056.pdf)
Why Visible Light Communication:

The frequency spectrum that is available to us in the atmosphere consists of many
wave regions like X-rays, gamma rays, u-v region, infrared region, visible light rays,
radio waves, etc. Any one of the above waves can be used in the upcoming
communication technologies but why the Visible Light part is chosen? The reason
behind this is the easy availability and lesser harmful effects that occur due to these
rays of light. VLC uses the visible light between 400 THz (780 nm) and 800 THz (375
nm) as medium which are less dangerous for high-power applications and also humans
can easily perceive it and protect themselves from the harmful effects whereas the
other wave regions have following disadvantages:-
• Radio waves are expensive (due to spectrum charges) and less secure (due to
interference and possible interception etc.)
• Gamma rays are harmful because it could be dangerous dealing with it, by the
human beings due to their proven adverse effects on human health.
• X-rays have health issues, similar to the Gamma Rays.
• Ultraviolet light can be considered for communication technology purposes at
place without people, otherwise they can also be dangerous for the human body
when exposed continuously.
• Infrared, due to high safety regulation, can only be used with low power.
Hence the Visible light portion (from red to blue) of the electromagnetic spectrum does
not cause any harm to the people as visible rays are safe to use, provide larger
bandwidth and also have a promising future in the communication field.
Comparison Between Li-Fi and, Wi-Fi and other Radio Communication technologies
Both Wi-Fi and Li-Fi can provide wireless Internet access to users, and both the
technologies transmit data over electromagnetic spectrum. Li-Fi is a visible light
communication technology useful to obtain high speed wireless communication. The
difference is: Wi-Fi technology uses radio waves for transmission, whereas Li-Fi
utilizes light waves. Wi-Fi works well for general wireless coverage within
building/campus/compound, and Li-Fi is ideal for high density wireless data coverage
inside a confined area or room and is free from interference issues unlike the Wi-Fi.
Table I shows a comparison of transfer speed of various wireless technologies. Table

II shows a comparison of Li-Fi with Wi-Fi.

Table 1: Comparison of speed of various wireless technologies

Technology Speed
Li-Fi ~1 Gbps
Wi-Fi – IEEE 802.11n ~150 Mbps
IrDA ~4 Mbps
Bluetooth ~3 Mbps
NFC ~424 Kbps
Table 2: Comparison of Wi-Fi and Li-Fi

Parameter Li-Fi Wi-Fi
Spectrum Used Visible Light RF
Standard IEEE 802.15.7 IEEE 802.11
Range Based on Light Intensity (< Based on Radio propagation
10m) & interference ( < 300
m)
Data Transfer Rate* Very high ( ~1 Gbps) Low (100 Mbps-1 Gbps)
Power consumption Low High
Cost Low High
Bandwidth Unlimited Limited
* https://www.ijsr.net/archive/v4i12/NOV151778.pdf
Advantages of Li-Fi:
Li-Fi, which uses visible light to transmit signals wirelessly, is an emerging technology
poised to compete with Wi-Fi. Also, Li-Fi removes the limitations that have been put
on the user by the Radio wave transmission such as Wi-Fi as explained above vide 4.1.
Advantages of Li-Fi technology include:
a) Efficiency: Energy consumption can be minimised with the use of LED

illumination which are already available in the home, offices and Mall etc. for
lighting purpose. Hence the transmission of data requiring negligible additional
power, which makes it very efficient in terms of costs as well as energy.
b) High speed: Combination of low interference, high bandwidths and high-
intensity output, help Li-Fi provide high data rates i.e. 1 Gbps or even beyond.
c) Availability: Availability is not an issue as light sources are present everywhere.
Wherever there is a light source, there can be Internet. Light bulbs are present
everywhere – in homes, offices, shops, malls and even planes, which can be used
as a medium for the data transmission.

d) Cheaper: Li-Fi not only requires fewer components for its working, but also uses
only a negligible additional power for the data transmission.
e) Security: One main advantage of Li-Fi is security. Since light cannot pass
through opaque structures, Li-Fi internet is available only to the users within a
confined area and cannot be intercepted and misused, outside the area under
operation.
f) Li-Fi technology has a great scope in future. The extensive growth in the use of
LEDs for illumination indeed provides the opportunity to integrate the
technology into a plethora of environments and applications.
Limitations of Li-Fi:
Some of the major limitations of Li-Fi are:
• Internet cannot be accessed without a light source. This could limit the locations
and situations in which Li-Fi could be used.
• It requires a near or perfect line-of-sight to transmit data
• Opaque obstacles on pathways can affect data transmission
• Natural light, sunlight, and normal electric light can affect the data transmission
speed
• Light waves don’t penetrate through walls and so Li-Fi has a much shorter range
than Wi-Fi High initial installation cost, if used to set up a full-fledged data
network.
Yet to be developed for mass scale adoption.
Applications of Li-Fi
There are numerous applications of Li-Fi technology, from public Internet access
through existing lighting (LED) to auto-piloted cars that communicate through their
headlights (LED based). Applications of Li-Fi can extend in areas where the Wi-Fi
technology lacks its presence like aircrafts and hospitals (operation theatres), power
plants and various other areas, where electromagnetic (Radio) interference is of great
concern for safety and security of equipments and people. Since Li-Fi uses just the
light, it can be used safely in such locations or areas. In future with the Li-Fi
enhancement all the street lamps can be transformed to Li-Fi connecting points to
transfer data. As a result of it, it will be possible to access internet at any public place
and street.
Some of the future applications of Li-Fi could be as follows:
a) Education systems: Li-Fi is the latest technology that can provide fastest speed
for Internet access. So, it can augment/replace Wi-Fi at educational institutions
and at companies so that the people there can make use of Li-Fi with the high
speed.

b) Medical Applications: Operation theatres (OTs) do not allow Wi-Fi due to

radiation concerns. Usage of Wi-Fi at hospitals interferes/blocks the signals for
monitoring equipments. So, it may have hazardous effect to the patient's health,
due to improper working of medical apparatus. To overcome this and to make
OT tech savvy Li-Fi can be used to access internet and also to control medical
equipments. This will be beneficial for conducting robotic surgeries and other
automated procedures.
c) Cheaper Internet in Aircrafts: The passengers travelling in aircrafts get access
to low speed Internet that too at a very high price. Also Wi-Fi is not used because
it may interfere with the navigational systems of the pilots. In aircrafts Li-Fi can
be used for data transmission. Li-Fi can easily provide high speed Internet via
every light source such as overhead reading bulb, etc. present inside the airplane.
d) Underwater applications: Underwater ROVs (Remotely Operated Vehicles)
operate from large cables that supply their power and allow them to receive
signals from their pilots above. But the tether used in ROVs is not long enough
to allow them to explore larger areas. If their wires were replaced with light —
say from a submerged, highpowered lamp — then they would be much freer to
explore. They could also use their headlamps to communicate with each other,
processing data autonomously and sending their findings periodically back to
the surface. Li-Fi can even work underwater where Wi-Fi fails completely,
thereby throwing open endless opportunities for military underwater operations.
e) Disaster management: Li-Fi can be used as a powerful means of communication
in times of disaster such as earthquake or hurricanes. The average people may
not know the protocols during such disasters. Subway stations and tunnels,
common dead zones for most emergency communications, pose no obstruction
for Li-Fi.
f) Applications in sensitive areas: Power plants need fast, inter-connected data
systems so that demand, grid integrity and core temperature (in case of nuclear
power plants) can be monitored. The Radio communication interference is
considered to be bad for such sensitive areas surrounding these power plants. Li-
Fi can offer safe, abundant connectivity for all areas of these sensitive locations.
Also, the pressure on a power plant
‘s own reserves (power consumption for Radio communications deployments)
will be lessened.
g) Traffic management: In traffic signals Li-Fi can be used to communicate with
passing vehicles (through the LED lights of the cars etc) which can help in
managing the traffic in a better manner resulting into smooth flow of traffic and
reduction in accident numbers. Also, LED car lights can alert drivers when other
vehicles are too close.
h) Mobile Connectivity: Mobiles, laptops, tablets, and other smart phones can
easily connect with each other. The short-range network of Li-Fi can yield
exceptionally high data rates and higher security.

i) Replacement for other technologies: Li-Fi doesn‘t work using radio waves. So,
it can be easily used in the places where Bluetooth, infrared, Wi-Fi, etc. are
banned.
Use Cases:
1 The pureLiFi, which is a UK based company, claims to be one of the leading companies
in LiFi technology, having the following VLC products as on date:
Li-Flame Ceiling Unit to connect to an LED light fixture and Li-Flame Desktop Unit
which connects to a device via USB, both aiming to provide light and connectivity in
one device. LiFiX, claims to be evolution of the world’s first LiFi system, the Li-
Flame. The system offers a fully networked LiFi solution which supports multiple
access, roaming, complete mobility and ease of use – providing a level of user
experience that is comparable and more secure than existing wireless technologies i.e.
Wi-Fi. The LiFi-X delivers high data densities and eliminates unwanted external
network intrusion. In addition, the merger of illumination with wireless
communications claims to provide a measurable reduction in both infrastructure
complexity and energy consumption. LiFi-X apparently delivers: -
• Full duplex communication with a 40Mbps downlink and 40Mbps uplink;

• Full mobility (portable, USB-powered station)
• Multiple users per LiFi Access Point, supported through multiple access
• Secure wireless communications constrained by walls, eliminating the risk of
signal leakage to external eavesdroppers
• Safe wireless communication in environments where radio frequencies are not
suitable
• Flexible deployments
• Extensive range of wireless communication applications including and beyond
existing Wi-Fi
• A cost-effective delivery of light and data via a single infrastructure
LiFi-X consists of two main parts namely,

a) LiFi-X Access Point (AP)
• Support for Power over Ethernet (PoE) or Power Line Communications
(PLC)
• Simple installation
• Connect to a wide range of LED light fixture to form an atto-cell
• Multiple access
• Handover control enables seamless switching between APs
b) LiFi-X Station (STA)

• USB 2.0 powered
• Supports handover, allowing users to move while maintaining their
wireless session.
2 OLEDCOMM, a French company, designs and manufactures Li-Fi router solutions for
LED based lighting systems. The OLEDCOMM claims to be a world leader in the
field offering the following products /services based on its Li-Fi LED drivers:
a) GEOLiFi- Indoor Location Based Services:
GEOLiFi, a high efficiency dimmable LED driver combined to an Indoor Positioning

System (IPS) and works as a Li-Fi broadcast system. With GEOLiFi, the LED
lightings in a building can be converted into a true Indoor Positioning System or IPS.
An IPS is a system to locate objects or people inside a building. Based on the indoor
map, it allows to create Location Based Services like: mobile marketing via digital
place-based media that communicates with consumers on the move, Shoppers can
locate objects with ease, and also call for service when needed, person purchasing a
printer can be guided to ink cartridges available at a discounted rate, physical tracking
of a customer inside a store yields useful information on behaviour, Storage, stock-
keeping and retrieval of stock keeping units become easier.
b) LiFiNET - Unlimited bandwidth for connecting people and IoT:

LiFiNET is a solution which is a combination of a high efficiency dimmable LED
driver with a bidirectional Li-Fi communication for people and IoT. It allows a highly
secure and private bidirectional communication for the Internet of Things (IoT). This
system is designed to take care of major obstacles with regards to unleashing the
potential of the Internet of Things namely - high energy consumption and leak of
connectivity.
The company also claims to have developed the first Light Fidelity enabled car using
Li-Fi technology for car to car communication in the year 2007 and had equipped the
first public space in the world (a Museum in Europe) with Li-Fi technology in the year
2012.
Li-Fi is also reportedly being tested in Dubai, by UAE-based telecommunications
provider, du and Zero1. Du claims to have successfully provided internet, audio and
video streaming over a Li-Fi connection


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CS364 Mobile Computing – Module-6 (Part-II)

Compiled by- Shyam Krishna K, Assistant Professor, Dept. of CSE, SCET 1

The User Equipment (UE)

Compiled by- Shyam Krishna K, Assistant Professor, Dept. of CSE, SCET 2

Compiled by- Shyam Krishna K, Assistant Professor, Dept. of CSE, SCET 3

Compiled by- Shyam Krishna K, Assistant Professor, Dept. of CSE, SCET 4

The E-UTRAN consists of:

Compiled by- Shyam Krishna K, Assistant Professor, Dept. of CSE, SCET 5

Compiled by- Shyam Krishna K, Assistant Professor, Dept. of CSE, SCET 6

Dimensioning of LTE Network

Compiled by- Shyam Krishna K, Assistant Professor, Dept. of CSE, SCET 8

LTE Dimensioning process includes the following steps

Step 2: Traffic Analysis

Step 3: Coverage Planning

Step 4: Capacity Planning

Step 5: Transport Dimensioning

Compiled by- Shyam Krishna K, Assistant Professor, Dept. of CSE, SCET 9

Tools for LTE Dimensioning

Compiled by- Shyam Krishna K, Assistant Professor, Dept. of CSE, SCET 10

subscriber geographical spread. Subscriber geographical spread gives the percentage of

Tables and background data

Radio link budget

Compiled by- Shyam Krishna K, Assistant Professor, Dept. of CSE, SCET 11

Compiled by- Shyam Krishna K, Assistant Professor, Dept. of CSE, SCET 12

LTE Radio Protocol Architecture

Compiled by- Shyam Krishna K, Assistant Professor, Dept. of CSE, SCET 13

LTE Protocol Stack Layers

Compiled by- Shyam Krishna K, Assistant Professor, Dept. of CSE, SCET 14

Physical Layer (Layer 1)

Compiled by- Shyam Krishna K, Assistant Professor, Dept. of CSE, SCET 15

Compiled by- Shyam Krishna K, Assistant Professor, Dept. of CSE, SCET 16

Compiled by- Shyam Krishna K, Assistant Professor, Dept. of CSE, SCET 17

What 5G Technology Offers??

Need of 5G Wireless System

2). It has low battery consumption.

3). Availability of multiple data transfer path.

4). Around 1 Gbps data rate is easily possible.

5). Security is more.

6). Energy efficiency and spectral efficiency are good.

5G Wireless Cellular Architecture

Compiled by- Shyam Krishna K, Assistant Professor, Dept. of CSE, SCET 18

In case of interoperability between heterogeneous networks and for the vertical

Compiled by- Shyam Krishna K, Assistant Professor, Dept. of CSE, SCET 19

Compiled by- Shyam Krishna K, Assistant Professor, Dept. of CSE, SCET 20

MIMO Concept for 5G

Compiled by- Shyam Krishna K, Assistant Professor, Dept. of CSE, SCET 21

5G Super Core Concept

• All Flat IP Platform.

Compiled by- Shyam Krishna K, Assistant Professor, Dept. of CSE, SCET 22

Features of 5TH Generation Wireless System

Compiled by- Shyam Krishna K, Assistant Professor, Dept. of CSE, SCET 23

5. The mobile will ring according to our mood.

7. One can get the live share value.

9. One can be able to vote from his/her mobile.

11. One can be able to sense tsunami/earthquake before it occurs.

12. Our mobile can share our work load.

16. Our mobile can perform radio resource management.

FEATURES OF MOBILE AD HOC NETWORKS

The mobile Ad hoc networks has the following features