Structural Design of Railways

and Pavements

Railways Structure- Railway

structures encompass a wide
array of construction intended
to support the track itself or
house railway operations.

Bridge Deck- portion of a railway bridge that supplies a means of carrying the
track rails.

2 general types of Bridge Deck:

• Open Bridge Deck- the rails are

anchored directly to timber bridge
ties supported directly on the floor
system of the superstructure.

Open Bridge Deck

 • Ballasted Bridge- the rails are anchored
directly National to timber track ties
supported in the ballast section.

Ballasted Bridge
STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Structural design is the methodical investigation of the stability, strength and

rigidity of structures. The basic objective in structural analysis and design is to
produce a structure capable of resisting all applied loads without failure during
its intended life.

STRUCTURAL DESIGN PROCESS

A structural design project may be divided into three phases, i.e. planning,
design and construction.

Planning: This phase involves consideration of the various requirements and

factors affecting the general layout and dimensions of the structure and results
in the choice of one or perhaps several alternative types of structure, which
offer the best general solution.

Design: This phase involves a detailed consideration of the alternative solutions

defined in the planning phase and results in the determination of the most
suitable proportions, dimensions and details of the structural elements and
connections for constructing each alternative structural arrangement being
considered.

Construction: This phase involves mobilization of personnel; procurement of

materials and equipment, including their transportation to the site, and actual
on-site erection.

The geometric design of a railway track includes all those parameters which
determine or affect the geometry of the track. These parameters are as follows.
1. Gradients in the track, including grade compensation, rising gradient, and
falling gradient.

2. Curvature of the track, including horizontal and vertical curves, transition

curves, sharpness of the curve in terms of radius or degree of the curve, cant or
superelevation on curves, etc.

3. Alignment of the track, including straight as well as curved alignment.

Necessity for Geometric Design The need for proper geometric design of a track
arises because of the following considerations

∙ To ensure the smooth and safe running of trains

∙ To achieve maximum speeds
∙ To carry heavy axle loads
∙ To avoid accidents and derailments due to a defective permanent way ∙
To ensure that the track requires least maintenance.
∙ For good aesthetics

Gradients are provided to negotiate the rise or fall in the level of the railway
track.

∙ A rising gradient is one in which the track rises in the direction of the
movement of traffic and a down or falling gradient is one in which the
track loses elevation in the direction of the movement of traffic.
∙ A gradient is normally represented by the distance travelled for a rise or
fall of one unit.
∙ Sometimes the gradient is indicated as per cent rise or fall. For example, if
there is a rise of 1 m in 400 m, the gradient is 1 in 400 or 0.25%.

Gradients are provided to meet the following objectives.

(a) To reach various stations at different elevations

(b) To follow the natural contours of the ground to the extent possible
 (c) To reduce the cost of earthwork.

The following types of gradients are used on the railways.

(a) Ruling gradient - is the steepest gradient that exists in a section.

(b) Pusher or helper gradient - When the gradient of the ensuing section is so
steep as to necessitate the use of an extra engine for pushing the train, it is
known as a pusher or helper gradient.

(c) Momentum gradient - is steeper than the ruling gradient and can be
overcome by a train because of the momentum it gathers while running on the
section.
(d) Gradients in station yards - are quite flat due to the following reasons.

∙ To prevent standing vehicles from rolling and moving away from the yard
due to the combined effect of gravity and strong winds.
∙ To reduce the additional resistive forces required to start a locomotive to
the extent possible.

Grade Compensation on Curves

Curves provide extra resistance to the movement of trains. As a result,

gradients are compensated to the following extent on curves .

(a) On BG tracks, 0.04% per degree of the curve or 70/R, whichever is minimum

(b) On MG tracks, 0.03% per degree of curve or 52.5/R, whichever is minimum

(c) On NG tracks, 0.02% per degree of curve or 35/R, whichever is minimum
where R is the radius of the curve in metres. The gradient of a curved portion of
the section should be flatter than the ruling gradient because of the extra
resistance offered by the curve.

Example: Find the steepest gradient on a 2° curve for a BG line with a ruling
gradient of 1 in 200.
Solution

(i) Ruling gradient = 1 in 200 = 0.5%

(ii) Compensation for a 2° curve = 0.04 × 2 = 0.08%

(iii) Compensated gradient = 0.5 – 0.08 = 0.42% = 1 in 238

The steepest gradient on the curved track is 1 in 238.

Introduction to pavement design
A highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers
of processed materials above the natural soil sub-grade, whose primary function
is to distribute the applied vehicle loads to the sub-grade.

Requirements of a pavement

An ideal pavement should meet the following requirements:

• Sufficient thickness to distribute the wheel load stresses to a safe value on the
sub-grade soil,

• Structurally strong to withstand all types of stresses imposed upon it, •

Adequate coefficient of friction to prevent skidding of vehicles, •

Smooth surface to provide comfort to road users even at high speed,

• Produce least noise from moving vehicles,

• Dust proof surface so that traffic safety is not impaired by reducing

visibility, • Impervious surface, so that sub-grade soil is well protected, and •

Long design life with low maintenance cost.

Soil Engineering for Highway Design

The basic characteristics of a soil may be described in terms of its origin,

formation, grain size, and shape.
I. SOIL CHARACTERISTICS

1.Origin and Formation of Soils

2. Surface Texture

∙ fine-textured soils-soils consisting mainly of silts and clays with very small
particle sizes.
∙ coarse-textured soils-soils consisting mainly of sands and gravel with much
larger particles.

II. PROPERTIES OF SOILS-influence their behavior when subjected to external

loads

1. Phase Relations-Soil is considered 3 phase system consist of air, water, and

solids.
A. Porosity-the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume of the soil.

B. Void Ratio-the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of solids.

C. Moisture Content-quantity of water in a soil mass.

D. Degree of Saturation-percentage of void space occupied by water.

E. Dry Density-density of the soil with the water removed.

F. Submerged Density-density of the soil when submerged in water and is

the difference between the saturated density and the density of water.
 2. Atterberg Limits-The water content levels at which the soil changes from
one state to the other mare the Atterberg limits.
a. Shrinkage Limit (SL)- When a saturated soil is slowly dried, the volume
shrinks, but the soil continues to contain moisture
b. Plastic Limit (PL)- the moisture content at which the soil crumbles when
it is rolled down to a diameter of one-eighth of an inch.
c. Liquid Limit (LL)- the moisture content at which the soil will flow and
close a groove of one-half inch within it after the standard LL
equipment has been dropped 25 times.

III. CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS FOR HIGHWAY USE-Soil classification is a method by

which soils are systematically categorized according to their probable
engineering characteristics.

1. AASHTO Soil Classification System-based on the Public Roads

 Classification System that was developed from the results of extensive
research conducted by the Bureau of Public Roads, now known as the
Federal Highway Administration.
2. Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)- The original USCS system was
developed during World War II for use in airfield construction.

IV. SOIL SURVEYS FOR HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION-Soil surveys for highway

construction entail the investigation of the soil characteristics on the highway route
and the identification of suitable soils for use as subbase and fill materials.

1. Geophysical Methods of Soil Exploration-Soil profiles can also be obtained

from one of two geophysical methods of soil exploration known as the
resistivity and seismic methods.
a. Resistivity Method- is based on the difference in electrical conductivity
or resistivity of different types of soils.
b. Seismic Method- is used to identify the location of rock profiles or
dense strata underlying softer materials.

V. SOIL COMPACTION- When soil is to be used as embankment or subbase

material in highway construction, it is essential that the material be placed in
uniform layers and compacted to a high density.

VI. SPECIAL SOIL TESTS FOR PAVEMENT DESIGN-The results obtained from these
tests are used individually in the design of some pavements, depending on
the pavement design method used.

1. California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test

2. Hveem Stabilometer Test

Types of pavements: points of contact in the granular

structure (see Figure 1).
1. Flexible pavements
2. Rigid pavements

Flexible pavement- will transmit wheel Types of Flexible Pavements:

load stresses to the lower layers by
grain-to-grain transfer through the
 transfer in granular structure

Load
• Conventional layered flexible pavement- are layered systems with high quality
expensive materials are placed in the top where stresses are high, and low
quality cheap materials are placed in lower layers.

• Full - depth asphalt pavement- are constructed by placing bituminous layers

directly on the soil sub-grade. This is more suitable when there is high traffic and
local materials are not available.

• Contained rock asphalt mat (CRAM)- are constructed by placing dense/open

graded aggregate layers in between two asphalt layers. Modified dense
graded asphalt concrete is placed above the sub-grade will significantly
reduce the vertical compressive strain on soil sub-grade and protect from
surface water.

Typical layers of a flexible pavement:

• Seal coat- is a thin surface treatment used to water-proof the surface and to
provide skid resistance.

• Tack coat- is a very light application of asphalt, usually asphalt emulsion

diluted with water. It provides proper bonding between two layer of binder
course and must be thin, uniformly cover the entire surface, and set very
fast.

• Prime coat- is an application of low viscous cutback bitumen to an absorbent

surface like granular bases on which binder layer is placed. It provides bonding
between two layers. Unlike tack coat, prime coat penetrates into the layer
below, plugs the voids, and forms a water tight surface.
• Surface course- is the layer directly in contact with traffic loads and generally
contains superior quality materials.

• Binder course- This layer provides the bulk of the asphalt concrete structure. Its
chief purpose is to distribute load to the base course.

• Base course- is the layer of material immediately beneath the surface of

binder course and it provides additional load distribution and contributes to the
sub-surface drainage.

• Sub-base course- is the layer of material beneath the base course and the
primary functions are to provide structural support, improve drainage, and
reduce the intrusion of fines from the sub-grade in the pavement structure.

• Top soil or sub-grade- is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive the stresses
from the layers above. It is essential that at no time soil sub-grade is
overstressed.

Failure of flexible pavements- The major flexible pavement failures are fatigue
cracking, rutting, and thermal cracking. The fatigue cracking of flexible
pavement is due to horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of the asphaltic
concrete.

Rigid pavements- have sufficient flexural strength to transmit the wheel load
stresses to a wider area below.

Typical Cross section of Rigid pavement

Types of Rigid Pavements:

• Jointed plain concrete pavement (JPCP)- are plain cement concrete

pavements constructed with closely spaced contraction joints. Dowel bars or
aggregate interlocks are normally used for load transfer across joints. They
normally have a joint spacing of 5 to 10m.

• Jointed reinforced concrete pavement (JRCP)- Although reinforcements do

not improve the structural capacity significantly, they can drastically increase
the joint spacing to 10 to 30m. Dowel bars are required for load transfer.
Reinforcements help to keep the slab together even after cracks.

• Continuous reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP)- Complete elimination of

joints are achieved by reinforcement.

• Pre-stressed concrete pavement (PCP)- are designed and produced to be

prestressed to bear tensile forces caused by external loads by various live
objects such as vehicles on the roads or aircraft in the airports.

Failure criteria of rigid pavements

Traditionally fatigue cracking has been considered as the major, or only criterion
for rigid pavement design. The allowable number of load repetitions to cause
fatigue cracking depends on the stress ratio between flexural tensile stress and
concrete modulus of rupture.

SOIL STABILIZATION- is the treatment of natural soil to improve its engineering

properties.

CHEMICAL STABILIZATION- Cement stabilization of soils usually involves the

addition of 5 to 14 percent Portland cement by volume of the compacted
mixture to the soil being stabilized.

The procedure for stabilizing soils with cement involves:

• Pulverizing the soil

• Mixing the required quantity of cement with the pulverized

soil • Compacting the soil cement mixture

• Curing the compacted layer
Asphalt Stabilization- is carried out to achieve one or both of the following:

• Waterproofing of natural materials through asphalt stabilization aids in

maintaining the water content at a required level by providing a membrane
that impedes the penetration of water, thereby reducing the effect of any
surface water that may enter the soil when it is used as a base course.

• Binding of natural materials- improves the durability characteristics of the

natural soil by providing an adhesive characteristic, whereby the soil particles
adhere to each other, increasing cohesion.

Lime Stabilization- is one of the oldest processes of improving the engineering

properties of soils and can be used for stabilizing both base and sub-base
materials.

AASHTO Design Method- The AASHTO method for design of highway pavements
is based primarily on the results of the AASHTO road test that was conducted in
Ottawa, Illinois.

Design Considerations

The factors considered in the AASHTO procedure for the design of flexible
pavement as presented in the 1993 guide are:

• Pavement performance

• Traffic

• Roadbed soils (subgrade material)

• Materials of construction

• Environment

• Drainage

•Reliability
A general equation for the accumulated ESAL for each category of axle load is
obtained as

ESALi = fd X Grn X AADTi X 365 × Ni X FE

ESALi = equivalent accumulated 18,000lb (80 kN) single-axle load for the axle category

i fd = design lane factor

Grn = growth factor for a given growth rate r and design period n

AADTi = first year annual average daily traffic for axle category i

Ni = number of axles on each vehicle in category i

FEi = load equivalency factor for axle category i

Structural Design

The objective of the design using the AASHTO method is to determine a flexible
pavement Structural Number (SN) adequate to carry the projected design
ESAL.

The 1993 AASHTO guide gives the expression for SN as:

SN = a1D1 + a2D2m2 + a3D3m3

References:

1. Link
a. https://www.arema.org/files/pubs/pgre/PGChapter8.pdf b.
https://www.teachengineering.org/lessons/view/cub_brid_lesson02 c.
https://www.civil.iitb.ac.in/tvm/1100_LnTse/401_lnTse/plain/plain.html d.
http://www.orsc.co.jp/english/tec/con08_4.html#:~:text=Prestressed%2
0concrete%20pavements%20are%20designed,their%20relatively
%20thi nner%20thickness%20design
e. https://www.civil.iitb.ac.in/~vmtom/1100_LnTse/403_lnTse/plain/

Reporters: (BSCE3 EC1 / TTH 9:00-10:30 am)

1. Baldelovar, John Ezer

2. Bulaclac, Krissan
3. Burata, Nicolle
4. Camit, Kimberly