Lecture 2: Active and Passive Circuit Elements (Resistors Only)

Circuit components can be broadly classified as being either active or passive. An active element
is capable of generating energy. For instant: current or voltage sources. A passive element is an
element that does not generate energy, however, they can either consume or store energy.
Examples of passive circuit elements are: resistors, capacitors, and inductors.

Sign Convention: Circuit elements that absorb electrical power are passive in nature and Figure
1 represents one kind of a passive element. All the elements are generally represented by their
specific schematic block (in this case, there are two terminals a and b) as shown in the figure. For
the passive elements, if a is marked +ve, the direction of current will be from a towards b.
Addionally, the voltage or potential difference across the passive element is represented by Vab.
The active elements are the source of electric power and the current convention is opposite to that
of passive element.

Fig.1: Sign convention for passive circuit elements

1. Active Power Elements:

An (ideal) independent source is an active element that provides a specified voltage or current
that is independent of other circuit elements and/or how the source is used in the circuit. Figure
2 represents an ideal voltage source and its two possible circuit representations. There are
terminals (A and B) as shown in the figure. Terminal A is at higher potential than terminal B. The
voltage source is connected to the circuit with the help of these terminals. The output measured
across the two terminal is also shown. As it can be seen, the output of an ideal source remains
constant with time and is independent of the current drawn from the source. However, this is not
the case for the practical power sources. There exists a ripple or noise in the output or the
magnitude of the output changes with the change in amount of current drawn from the source.

Fig.2: Ideal voltage source: symbols and output

Equivalent representation of ideal independent current source whose current i(t) is maintained
under all voltage requirements is shown in Figure 3.
 Fig.3: Ideal current source: symbol and output

An ideal voltage and current source are impossible to achieve. The voltage output is not uniform
in the voltage sources and the current output is not constant based on the loading condition. As
shown in Figure 4, equivalent practical voltage and current sources are represented with the help
of a series and parallel resistance to counter/model these variation.

Fig.4: Practical voltage and current sources schematic

The symbol for AC voltage source is shown in Figure 5. The output of the ideal AC power source
is also shown. The magnitude of the voltage source is Vm and the time period of the periodic wave
is T which defines frequency f or ω of the voltage source. In ideal scenario, the amplitude and
frequency of the source are supposed to be same for each period. However practically, there is
always a small variation in the voltage sources as well.

Fig.5: Alternating voltage source: symbol and output

2. Passive Elements: Resistors:
A component that is specifically designed to have a certain amount of resistance is called a
resistor. The principal applications of resistors are to limit current in a circuit, to divide voltage,
and, in certain cases, to generate heat. Although resistors come in many shapes and sizes, they
can all be placed in one of two main categories: fixed or variable.

Fixed Resistors Fixed resistors are available with a large selection of resistance values that are set
during manufacturing and cannot be changed easily. They are constructed using various
methods and materials. Generally, a resistor is composed of a resistance material as shown in
Figure 6. This material is responsible for providing a controlled opposition to the flow of current.
Coating on a resistor defines the power rating of the particular resistor. As resistors are passive
elements, they absorb power and hence heat up. The coating provide the resilience to the
generated heat without damaging the resistive element. The coating defines the power rating of
the resistor such as 1/8W, 1/4W, 0.5W, 1W, 5W and so on. The leads are for the circuit
connections. The color band is used to represent the resistance value for the user. The symbol to
represent a resistor in a circuit diagram are also shown in the figure.

Fig.6: Resistor: construction and symbols

Reading Assignment: Color codes, label codes and power rating of resistors

Variable Resistors: Variable resistors are designed so that their resistance values can be changed
easily. Two basic uses for variable resistors are to divide voltage and to control current. The
variable resistor used to divide voltage is called a potentiometer. The variable resistor used to
control current is called a rheostat. Schematic symbols for these types are shown in Figure 7. The
potentiometer is a three-terminal device, as indicated in part (a). Terminals 1 and 2 have a fixed
resistance between them, which is the total resistance. Terminal 3 is connected to a moving contact
(wiper). You can vary the resistance between 3 and 1 or between 3 and 2 by moving the contact.

Fig.7: Variable resistor symbols

Figure 7(b) shows the rheostat as a two-terminal variable resistor. Part (c) shows how you can use
a potentiometer as a rheostat by connecting terminal 3 to either terminal 1 or terminal 2. Parts (b)
and (c) are equivalent symbols.

Ohms law: the relationship of current, voltage and resistance: Ohm’s law states that current is
directly proportional to voltage and inversely proportional to resistance. The circuits in Figures 1
and 2 illustrate Ohm’s law, which is given in the following formula:
𝑉
𝐼= (1)
𝑅

where I is current in amperes (A), V is voltage in volts (V), and R is resistance in ohms (Ω). For a
constant value of R, if the value of V is increased, the value of I increases; if V is decreased, I
decreases. If V is constant and R is increased, I decreases. Similarly, if V is constant and R is
decreased, I increases.

In resistive circuits, current and voltage are linearly proportional. Linear means that if one of the
quantities is increased or decreased by a certain percentage, the other will increase or decrease by
the same percentage, assuming that the resistance is constant in value.

Let’s take a constant value of resistance, for example 10Ω, and calculate the current for several
values of voltage ranging from 10 V to 100 V in the circuit in Figure 8. The current values obtained
are shown too. The graph of I values versus the V values is shown in the figure. Note that it is a
straight line graph. This graph tells us that a change in voltage results in a linearly proportional
change in current. No matter what value R is, assuming that R is constant, the graph of I versus
V will always be a straight line.

Fig.8: Basic circuit and validation of Ohms law

Resistors in series: When connected in series, resistors form a “string” in which there is only one
path for current. The schematic in Figure 9(a) shows two resistors connected in series between
point A and point B. Part (b) shows three resistors in series, and part (c) shows four in series. Of
course, there can be any number of resistors in a series circuit. When a voltage source is connected
between point A and B, the only way for current to get from one point to the other in any of the
connections of Figure 1 is to go through each of the resistors. When resistors are connected in
series, the resistor values add because each resistor offers opposition to the current in direct
proportion to its resistance. A greater number of resistors connected in series creates more
opposition to current. More opposition to current implies a higher value of resistance. Thus, every
time a resistor is added in series, the total resistance increases.

Fig.9: Resistors in series

When resistors are added in series, the current flowing through the resistance path is same,
however, the voltage drop across each resistor is found with the help of Ohm’s law. For instance,
in Figure 9(a), the voltage drop across resistor R2 is IABR2 which is less than VAB. Therefore,
resistances in series can be considered as a voltage dividing network since VAB is divided into a
smaller value.

Example: In Figure 9(a), the applied voltage potential is 12V at VAB. Find the value of R1 and R2
to divide the voltage across R2 (VR2 ) to 5V. Consider IAB as 10 mA.

𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝐼𝐴𝐵 (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 )

𝑉𝑅2 5
𝑉𝑅2 = 𝐼𝐴𝐵 𝑅2 ≫ 𝑅2 = =
𝐼𝐴𝐵 0.01

𝑅2 = 500 Ω

𝑉𝑅2 (12 − 5)
𝑉𝑅1 = 𝐼𝐴𝐵 𝑅1 ≫ 𝑅1 = =
𝐼𝐴𝐵 0.01

𝑅1 = 700 Ω

Example: In Figure 9(a), the applied voltage potential is 12V at VAB. Let R1 is 1 KΩ, find the value
of R2 to divide the voltage across R2 (VR2 ) to 5V. (Current 𝑰𝑨𝑩 is not mentioned)

Exercise: In Figure 9(b), the applied voltage potential is 24V at VAB. Let R1 and R2 is 1 KΩ and 2.2
KΩ, find the value of R3 to divide the voltage across R3 (VR3 ) to 3V. Consider IAB as 12 mA.
Exercise: In Figure 9(b), the applied voltage potential is 24V at VAB. Let R1 and R3 is 1 KΩ and 4.7
KΩ, find the value of R2 to divide the voltage across R2 (VR2 ) to 3V. Consider IAB as 20 mA.

Exercise: In Figure 9(b), let R1, R2 and R3 is 1 KΩ, 3.3 KΩ and 2.2 KΩ, find the value of VAB to
divide the voltage across R2 (VR2 ) to 5V. Consider IAB as 12 mA.

Resistors in parallel: When two or more resistors are individually connected between two
separate points (nodes) in a circuit, they are in parallel with each other. A parallel circuit provides
more than one path for current. The circuit shown in Figure 10 comprises of three circuit elements,
two passive resistors R1 and R2 as well as an active element a DC voltage source VS. The
resistances are connected in series as they are sharing the same nodes (black dots, Node A and
Node B), hence sharing the same potential difference of VS. However, the current coming from
power source (IT) must be divided into two paths (branches) at Node A as shown. The same
current adds up to make the same magnitude current IT at Node B and goes back to the voltage
source. The magnitude of the current in the branches is dependent upon the resistance values of
R1 and R2. More current will flow through the branch of lesser resistance and vice versa. The
amount of current in each branch is calculated with the help of Ohm’s law. Therefore, it can be
concluded that the resistances in parallel divide current.

Fig.10: Resistors in parallel

Example: In Figure 10, the applied voltage potential is 12V at VAB. Let R1 and R2 is 1 KΩ and 2.2
KΩ, (i) find the value of current in each branch. (ii) find total current IT (iii) find the magnitude of
I1 w.r.t. I2.

𝑉𝐴𝐵 𝑉𝐴𝐵
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = +
𝑅1 𝑅2

12
𝐼1 = = 12 𝑚𝐴
103
12
𝐼2 = = 5.45 𝑚𝐴
2.2 × 103

𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 17.45 𝑚𝐴

𝐼1 12
=
𝐼2 5.45

𝐼1 = 2.2 𝐼2
Exercise: In Figure 10, the applied voltage potential is 24V at VAB. Let R1 is 1 KΩ, find the value
of R2 to divide the current in branch of R2 as 3mA. Consider IT as 12 mA.

Exercise: In Figure 10, the applied voltage potential is 12V at VAB. Let R1 is 10 KΩ, find the
value of R2 so that I2= 3I1.Consider IT as 12 mA.

Useful Links:

https://learn.sparkfun.com/tutorials/alternating-current-ac-vs-direct-current-dc/all

https://reference.digilentinc.com/learn/fundamentals/circuits/practical-resistors/start