AD Final Notes

AE8604 AIRCRAFT DESIGN TPC3003
OBJECTIVE:
To make the student understand the choice of the selection of design parameters, Fixing the geometry
and to investigate the performance and stability characteristics of airplanes.
UNIT I INTRODUCTION 6
State of art in airplane design, Purpose and scope of airplane design, Classification of airplanes based
on purpose and configuration. Factors affecting configuration, Merits of different plane layouts.
Stages in Airplane design. Designing for manufacturability, Maintenance, Operational costs,
Interactive designs.
UNIT II PRELIMINARY DESIGN PROCEDURE 9
Data collection and 3-view drawings,· their purpose, weight estimation, Weight equation method –
Development & procedures for evaluation of component weights. Weight fractions for various
segments of mission. Choice of wind loading and thrust. Loading .
UNIT III POWER PLANT SELECTION 10
Choices available, comparative merits, Location of power plants, Functions dictating the locations.
UNIT IV DESIGN OF WING, FUSELAGE AND EMPHANAGE 10
Selection of aerofoil. Selection of Wing parameters, selection of sweep, Effect of Aspect ratio, Wing
Design and Airworthiness requirements, V-n diagram, loads, Structural features. Elements of fuselage
design, Loads on fuselage, Fuselage Design. Fuselage and tail sizing. Determination of tail surface
areas, Tail design, Structural features, Check for nose wheel lift off.
UNIT V DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR AND CONTROL SURFACE 10
Landing Gear Design, Loads on landing gear, Preliminary landing gear design. Elements of Computer
Aided and Design, Special consideration in configuration lay-out, Performance estimation. Stability
aspects on the design of control surface.
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Raymer, D.P. Aircraft conceptual Design, AIAA series, 5th edition, 2012.
2. Torenbeck, E. Synthesis of Subsonic Airplane Design, Delft University Press, U.K. 1986.
REFERENCE:
1. Kuechemann, D, ― The Aerodynamic Design of Aircraft, American Institute of Aeronautics
publishers, 2012
1 Aircraft Design B.Ramesh Chandra (AeSI, MTech)

AE 8604 :: AIRCRAFT DESIGN
Unit 1 - INTRODUCTION
 State of art in airplane design
Aircraft design is a separate discipline of aeronautical engineering different from the
analytical disciplines such as aerodynamics, structures, controls, and propulsion. An aircraft
designer needs to be well versed in these and many other specialties, but will actually spend
little time performing such analysis in all but the smallest companies. Instead, the designer's
time is spent doing something called "design," creating the geometric description of a thing to
be built. To the uninitiated, "design" looks a lot like "drafting" (or in the modern world,
"computer-aided drafting"). The designer's product is a drawing, and the designer spends the
day hunched over a drafting table or computer terminal. However, the designer's real work is
mostly mental. If the designer is talented, there is a lot more than meets the eye on the
drawing. A good aircraft design seems to miraculously glide through subsequent evaluations
by specialists without major changes being required. Somehow, the landing gear fits, the fuel
tanks are near the center of gravity, the structural members are simple and lightweight, the
overall arrangement provides good aerodynamics, the engines install in a simple and clean
fashion, and a host of similar detail seems to fall into place. This is no accident, but rather the
product of a lot of knowledge and hard work by the designer. This book was written
primarily to provide the basic tools and concepts required to produce good designs which will
survive detailed analysis with minimal changes. Other key players participate in the design
process. Design is not just the actual layout, but also the analytical processes used to
determine what should be designed and how the design should be modified to better meet the
requirements. In a small company, this may be done by the same individuals who do the
layout design. In the larger companies, aircraft analysis is done by the sizing and performance
specialists with the assistance of experts in aerodynamics, weights, propulsion, stability, and
other technical specialties.
 Purpose and scope of airplane design

The process of design of a vehicle, in general involves the use of knowledge in diverse fields
to arrive at a product that will satisfy requirements regarding functional aspects, operational
safety and cost. The design of an airplane, which is being dealt in this course, involves
synthesizing knowledge in areas like aerodynamics, structures, propulsion, systems and
manufacturing techniques. The aim is to arrive at the configuration of an airplane, which will
satisfy aforesaid requirements.
The design of an airplane is a complex engineering task. It generally involves the

following.
1. Obtaining the specifications of the airplane, selecting the type and determiningthe
geometric parameters.
2. Selection of the power plant
3. Structural design and working out details of construction.
4. Fabrication of prototype.
5. Determination of airplane performance, stability, and structural integrity from flight
tests.

 Classification of airplanes based on purpose and configuration
The classification of aircraft is generally based on
(a) the purpose of the airplane and
(b) the configuration.
(a) Classification of Airplanes based on purpose

There are two main types of airplanes, they are civil and military.
1) The civil airplanes are categorized as passenger, cargo, agricultural, sports and ambulance
etc.,
2) The military airplanes are categorized as fighter, bomber, interceptor,and rescue airplane.
The military aircraft are often designed to cater to more than one role
e.g. fighter-bomber or interceptor-fighter.
Passenger airplane should have

(a) high level of safety in operation
(b) adequate payload carrying capacity
(c) economy in operation
(d) comfort level depending on range and cruising altitude,
(e) ability to fly in weather conditions normally encountered on chosen routes and
(f) ability to use airfields of intended destinations.
A bomber airplane should have

(a) range corresponding to the mission,
(b) capacity to carry and deploy intended bomb load,
(c) high values of speed, endurance, and ceiling
(d) adequate protection against accidental fire.
An interceptor airplane should have

(a) Adequate thrust to give high
1) rate of climb,
2) maximum flight speed and
3) maneuverability
(b) ceiling 3 to 4 km above that of contemporary bombers
(c) ability to fly in adverse weather conditions and
(d) appropriate armament.
(b) Classification of aircraft based on configuration.

This classification is based on the following features of the configuration.
a) Shape, number and position of wing.
b) Type of fuselage.
c) Location of horizontal tail.
d) Location and number of engines.

The different types of configurations are shown below

1) wing configuration
Early airplanes had two or more wings e.g. the Wright airplane had two wings braced with
wires. Presently only single wing is used. These airplanes are called monoplanes. When the
wing is supported by struts the airplane is called semi cantilever monoplane Depending on
the location of the wing on the fuselage, the airplane is called high wing, mid-wing and low
wing configuration and Further, if the wing has no sweep the configuration is called straight
wing monoplane The swept wing and delta wing configurations
2) Classification of airplanes based on fuselage
Generally airplanes have a single fuselage with wing and tail surfaces mounted on the
fuselage In some cases the fuselage is in the form of a pod. In such a case, the horizontal tail
is placed between two booms emanating from the wings These airplanes generally have two
vertical tails located on the booms. The booms provide required tail arm for the tail surfaces.
Some airplanes with twin fuselage had been designed in the past. However, these
configurations are not currently favored
3) Classification of airplanes based on horizontal stabilizer
In a conventional configuration, the horizontal stabilizer is located behind the wing In some
airplanes there is no horizontal stabilizer and the configuration is called tailless design. In
these airplanes, the functions of elevator and aileron are performed by ailevons located near
the wing tips. When both ailevons (on left and right wings) move in the same direction, they
function as elevators and when the two ailevons move in opposite direction, they function as
ailerons. In some airplanes, the control in pitch is obtained by a surface located ahead of the
wing. This configuration is called canard configuration (Fig.1.2l). In conventional
configuration the horizontal tail has a negative lift and the total lift produced by the wing is
more than the weight of the airplane. In canard configuration, the lift on the canard is in the

upward directionand lift produced by the wing is less than the weight of the aircraft.
However, thecanard has destabilizing contribution to the longitudinal stability.
4) Classification of airplanes based on number of engines and their location
Airplanes with one, two, three or four engines have been designed. In rare cases, higher
number of engines are also used. The engine, when located in the fuselage, could be in the
nose or in the rear portion of the fuselage. When located outside the fuselage the engines are
enclosed in nacelles, which could be located on the wings or on the rear fuselage (see section
6.6 for further details). In case of airplanes with engine-propeller combination, there are two
configurations – tractor propeller and pusher propeller. In pusher configuration the propeller
is behind the engine In tractor configuration the propeller is ahead of the engine
 Factors affecting configuration

The configuration of an airplane is finalized after giving consideration tothe following
factors.
1. Aerodynamics
2. Low structural weight
3. Lay-out peculiarities
4. Manufacturing procedures
5. Cost and operational economics
6. Interaction between various features
 Merits of different plane layouts

 Low wing airplane
Advantages
Disadvantages

 Mid wing airplane
8. Mid wing aircraft have better rolling movements than high wing & low wing
aircrafts...
9. They get lift in vertically reverse direction. ...
10. Mid wing aircraft has less interference drag. ...
11. Mid wings allows carrying weapons such as Missiles & Bombs.

 High wing airplane
Advantages:-
1. Eases and facilitates the loading and unloading of loads and cargo into and out of
cargo aircraft. For instance, truck and other load lifter vehicles can easily move
around aircraft and under the wing without anxiety of the hitting and breaking the
wing.
2. Facilitates the installation of engine on the wing, since the engine (and propeller)
clearance is higher (and safer), compared with low wing configuration.
3. Facilitates the taking off and landing from sea. In a sea-based or an amphibian
aircraft, during a take-off operation, water will splash around and will high the
aircraft. An engine installed on a high wing will receive less water compared with a
low wing. Thus, the possibility of engine shut-off is much less.
4. Increases the dihedral effect. It makes the aircraft laterally more stable.
5. The wing will produce more lift compared with mid and low wing, since two parts of
the wing are attached at least on the top part.
6. The pilot has better view in lower-than-horizon. A fighter pilot has a full view under
the aircraft.
7. For an engine that is installed under the wing, there is less possibility of sand and
debris to enter engine and damage the blades and propellers.
8. There is a lower possibility of human accident to hit the propeller and be pulled to the
engine inlet.
9. The aerodynamic shape of the fuselage lower section can be smoother.
10. There is more space inside fuselage for cargo, luggage or passenger.
Disadvatages:-
1. The aircraft tend to have more frontal area (compared with mid wing). This will
increase aircraft drag.
2. The ground effect is lower, compared with low wing. During takeoff and landing
operations, the ground will influence the wing pressure distribution. The wing lift will
be slightly lower than low wing configuration. This will increase the takeoff run
slightly.
3. Landing gear is longer if connected to the wing. This makes the landing gear heavier
and requires more space inside the wing for retraction system. This will further make
the wing structure heavier.
4. The pilot has less higher-than-horizon view. The wing above the pilot will obscure
part of the sky for a fighter pilot.
5. If landing gear is connected to fuselage and there is not sufficient space for retraction
system, an extra space must be provided to house landing gear after retraction. This
will increase fuselage frontal area and thus will increase aircraft drag.
6. The wing is producing more induced drag (Di), due to higher lift coefficient.

7. The horizontal tail area of an aircraft with a high wing is about 20% larger than the
horizontal tail area with a low wing. This is due to more downwash of a high wing on
the tail.
8. A high wing is structurally about 20% heavier than a low wing.
9. The aircraft lateral control is weaker compared with mid wing and low wing, since the
aircraft has more laterally dynamic stability.
 Parasol wing
 Stages in airplane design

The design process can be divided into the following three stages.
a) Project feasibility study.
b) Preliminary design.
c) Design project
a) Project feasibility study
The aim of this study is to evolve a complete set of specifications for the airplane. It involves
the following steps.
1) Comprehensive market survey to assess the number of airplanes needed.
2) Study of the operating conditions for the proposed airplane. These conditions
include
(a) landing field length
(b) type of landing field
(c) weather conditions in flight and near landing sites and
(d) visibility.
3) Study of the relevant design requirements as laid down by the civil and military
regulating agencies. Some of the regulating agency for civil airplanes are : FAA
(Federal Aviation Admiration) in USA; EASA (European Aviation Safety Agency)
in Europe; DGCA (Director General of Civil Aviation) in India.
The military airplanes are governed by more stringent regulations called MIL
Specifications in USA.

4) Evaluation of existing designs of similar airplanes and possibility of incorporating new
concepts.
5) Collection of data on relevant power plants.
6) Laying down preliminary specifications which may consist of the following.
i. Performance: Maximum speed, maximum rate of climb, range, endurance, rate of

turn, radius of turn, take-off and landing distances.
ii. Payload.
iii. Operating conditions at the destinations.
iv. Maneuverability.
b) Preliminary design
This stage of design process aims at producing a brochure containing preliminary drawings
and stating the estimated operational capabilities of theairplane. This is used for seeking
approval by the manufacturer or the customer.
.
This stage includes the following steps.
i) Selection of geometrical parameters of main components based on designcriteria.
ii) Arrangement of equipment, and control systems.
iii) Selection of power plant.
iv) Aerodynamic and stability calculations.
v) Preliminary structural design of main components.
vi) Weight estimation and COG travel.
vii) Preparation of 3-view drawing.
viii) Performance estimation.
ix) Preparation of brochure. Section 10.3 deals with the items included in the brochure. It is
also called aircraft type specification.
c) Design project
After the preliminary design has been approved by the manufacturer / customer. The detailed
design studies are carried out. These include the following stages.
1) Wind tunnel and structural testing on models of airplane configuration arrived after
preliminary design stage. These tests serve as a check on the correctness of the estimated
characteristics and assessment of the new concepts proposed in the design.
2) Mock-up: This is a full scale model of the airplane or its important sections. This helps in
(a) efficient lay-out of structural components and equipment‘s,
(b) checking the clearances, firing angles of guns, visibility etc.
Currently this stage is avoided by the use of CAD(Computer Aided Design) packages which
provide detailed drawings of various components and subassemblies.
3) Complete wind tunnel testing of the approved configuration. Currently CFD
(Computational Fluid Dynamics) plays an important role in reducing the number of tests to
be carried-out. In CFD, the equations governing the fluid flow are solved numerically. The
results provide flow patterns, drag coefficient, lift coefficient, moment coefficient, pressure
distribution etc. Through the results may not be very accurate at high angles of attack, they
are generally accurate near the design point. Further, they provide information on the effects
of small changes in the geometric parameters, on the flow field and permit parametric studies.

4) Preparation of detailed drawings.
5) Final selection of power plant.
6) Calculations of (a) c.g. shift
(b) performance and
(c) stability.
7) Fabrication of prototypes. These are the first batch of full scale airplane. Generally six
prototypes are constructed. Some of them are used for verifying structural integrity and
functioning of various systems. Others are used for flight testing to evaluate performance and
stability.
 Manufacturing processes
During the detail design stage, attention must be paid to the manufacturing processes. The
cost of manufacture and quality control also must be kept in mind.
Operational costs
The total operating cost of an airplane is the sum of the direct operating cost (DOC) and the
indirect operating cost (IOC). The DOC relates to the cost of hourly operation of the airplane
viz. cost of fuel, lubricants, maintenance, overhaul, replacement of parts for airframe and
engine. IOC relates to crew cost, insurance cost, depreciation of airplane and ground
equipment, hangar rental, landing charges and overheads. Thus, for a personal plane lower
initial cost of the airplane may be more important whereas, for a long range passenger
airplane lower cost of fuel may be the primary consideration.
Interaction of various factors (Interactive designs)
Some of the considerations mentioned above may lead to conflicting requirements. For
example, a wing with an airfoil of relatively higher thickness ratio, has lower structural
weight but, at the same time has higher drag. In such situations, optimization techniques are
employed to arrive at the best compromise.

Unit 2 PRELIMINARY DESIGN PROCEDURE
 Data collection
Airplane design is an evolutionary process. The data on existing airplanes,similar to the
proposed design, provide the necessary guidance for arriving atappropriate initial design
values.
It may be mentioned that this format includes information about the
Following aspects.
(a) General features of the airplane.
(b) Geometrical parameters of the major components of the airplane.
(c) Various types of weights of the airplane.
(d) Performance parameters
Suggested airplane data collections are
1. General description of airplane
2. Power Plant
3. Wing
4. Horizontal tail surface
5. Vertical tail surface
6. Fuselage
7. Landing gear
8. Overall dimensions of airplane
9. Weights
10. Performance.
 Preliminary three view drawing

The preliminary three-view drawing of the airplane gives an idea about the possible shape
and size of the proposed airplane and forms the next step after the data collection. To draw
the preliminary three-view drawing, requires the approximate dimensions of the wing,
fuselage, tail and other components. The following steps are used to get these ballpark values.
illustrates the procedure.

1. The payload is the weight of the items for which the airplane is being designed. This would
constitute
(a) the weights of passenger & cargo for a transport airplane,
(b) the weight of the ammunition/special equipment for a military airplane.
Depending on the number of passengers, range etc., the payload can be estimated. For
military airplanes, the payload may be prescribed. Let, the weight of payload be denoted by
Wpay.
2. From the data collection on similar airplanes, the ratio W0 / Wpay, can be chosen; W0
being the design gross weight. Then,
W0 = Wpayx ( W0 / Wpay)
 Weight Estimation
An accurate estimate of the weight of the airplane is required for the design of the airplane.
This is arrived at in various stages. In the last chapter, the procedure to obtain the first
estimate of the gross weight was indicated. This was based on the ratio of the payload to the
gross weight of similar airplanes. This estimate of the gross weight is refined in this chapter,
by estimating (a) the fuel fraction i.e. weight of fuel required for the proposed mission of the
airplane, divided by gross weight and (b) empty weight fraction i.e. empty weight of airplane
divided the gross weight.

 Weight equation method
An estimate of the fuel required for various phases of the mission of the airplane requires a
knowledge of the following items.
a) Methods to estimate the performance of the airplane and
b)The dependence performance on airplane parameters and atmospheric characteristics.
A good estimate of the gross weight (W0) is necessary for further progress in the design
process. Different approaches to estimate the gross weight (W0) is expressed as the sum of
(a) the weight of the crew (Wcrew),
(b) the weight of payload (Wpayload),
(c) the weight of fuel required for the mission (Wf) and (d) the empty weight (We)
= W crew + W payload + W f + W e
(i)The payload W payload is the weight for which the airplane is designed. For a passenger
airplane Wpayload would be the weight of the passengers plus the baggage. For a cargo
airplane Wpayload would be the weight of the intended cargo. For a trainer airplane
Wpayload would be the weight of the trainee plus the instructor. For special purpose
airplanes like agricultural airplane Wpayload would be the weight of the fertilizer etc. For a
fighter airplane Wpayload would be the weight of the missiles, guns and ammunition. For a
bomber airplane Wpayload would be the weight of bombs and associated equipment.
(ii)The crew members are : (a) the flight crew,
(b) cabin crew in passenger airplanes and special crew in airplanes like reconnaissance/patrol
or for scientific measurements.
(iii) In passenger airplanes the number of cabin crew is: (a) one cabin crew for about 30
passengers in economy class and
(b) one cabin crew for about 15 passengers in first class Presently the number of flight crew
would be two for commercial airplanes. On long range airplanes this number could be more
to provide rest period for the pilot.
(iv)As regards the weights of the passengers and baggage are concerned, a value of 110 kgf
per passenger can be taken for long range airplanes (82 kgf for passengers plus the cabin
baggage and 28 kgf for the check-in baggage). The value of 16 kgf for check-in baggage can
be taken for short and medium range airplanes.
(v)For long range airplanes the weight of flight and cabin crew can be taken as 110 kgf. For
short range airplanes it could be 85 kgf
(vi)The weight of the trainee and the instructor in trainer airplanes can be taken of as 80 kgf.
In combat airplanes the weight of the pilot could be 100 kgf due to the additional weight of
protection gear.
(vii)In the approach of the empty weight is the gross weight of the airplane minus the weight
of crew, payload and fuel. In some other approaches, in passenger airplanes the weights of
operational items like food, water etc., are not included in the empty weight of the airplane.
Thus, Wcrew & Wpayload are known from the design specifications. Wf & We depend on
gross weight (W0).

 Evaluation for component weights
Estimation of empty-weight fraction (We/W0)
Empty weights of different types of airplanes. When the data are plotted as (We / W0) vs
log10(W0) the resulting curves are roughly straight lines. This suggests that these curves can
be approximated by an equation of the type:
where, W0 = Take- off gross weight in kgf. The quantities A and c depend on the type of the
airplane.
The values of A and c are presented in Table. The last column refers to the range of W0

Estimation of fuel fraction (Wf/W0)
The weight of fuel needed depends on the following.
I.Fuel required for mission.
II.Fuel required as reserve.
III.Trapped fuel which cannot be pumped out.
The fuel required for the mission depends on the following factors.
a) Mission to be flown.
b) Aerodynamics of the airplane viz. (L / D) ratio.
c) SFC of the engine.
Mission profile
Simple mission: For a transport airplane the mission profile would generally consist of
(a) warm up and take off, (b) climb, (c) cruise, (d) descent, (e) loiter and (f) landing
Sometimes the airplane may be required to go to alternate airport if the permission to land is
refused. Allowance also has to be made for head winds encountered en-route.
Fig shows Typical mission profile of a transport airplane

Weight fractions for various segments of mission
The fuel required in a particular phase of the mission depends on (a) the weight of the
airplane at the start of that phase and (b) the distance covered or the duration of time for the
phase. Keeping these in view, the approach to estimate fuel fraction for chosen mission
profile is, as follows.
i) Let the mission consist of ‗n‘ phases.
ii) The fuel fractions for the phase ‗i‘ is denoted as Wi / Wi-1.
iii) Let W0 be the weight at the start of the flight (say warm up) and Wn be the weight at the
end of last phase (say landing). Then, Wn/Wo is expressed as:
 Fuel fraction for warm up, taxing and take-off (W1 / W0)
For home built and single engined piston airplanes W1/W0 is 0.99. For twin engined
turboprops, jet transports (both civil and military), flying boats and supersonic airplanes
W1/W0 is 0.98. For military trainers and fighters W1/W0 is 0.97.
 Fuel fraction for climb (W2 / W1)
1. The low speed airplanes including the twin-engined airplanes and flying boat cruise at
moderate altitude (say 4 to 6 km) and hence W2/W1 is taken as 0.99.
2. The military and civil transport jets cruise around 11 km altitude and W2/W1 is taken
as 0.98.
3. The fighter airplanes have very powerful engines and attain supersonic Mach number
at the end of the climb. In this case, W2/W1 is between 0.9 to 0.96. Similarly,
4. The supersonic transport airplanes which cruise at high altitudes (15 to 18 km),
W2/W1 is around 0.9.
 Fuel fraction during cruise – outline of approach

The Breguet formulae for range of airplanes with engine-propeller combination and with jet
engine respectively. Consult books on performance analysis for the derivation of these
equations. However, it may be pointed out that while deriving these formulae it is assumed
that the following quantities remain constant during the flight.
(a) Lift coefficient.
(b) Specific fuel consumption (BSFC or TSFC).
(c) Propeller efficiency for airplanes with engine-propeller combination and

(d) Flight altitude. Equations for range can also be derived when the flight velocity remains
constant instead of the lift coefficient.
The derivation is as follows

 Fuel fraction during loiter – outline of approach
The Breguet formulae for endurance of airplanes with engine-propeller combination and with
jet engine, respectively.
The following quantities remain constant during the flight.
(a) Lift coefficient
(b) Specific fuel consumption (BSFC or TSFC)
(c) Propeller efficiency for airplanes with engine-propeller combination and
(d) Flight altitude.
Equation for endurance can also be derived when the flight velocity remains constant instead
of the lift coefficient.
In a flight at velocity V, the time elapse dE (in hr) when a quantity of fuel dWf (in N) is
consumed is given by

Unit 3 POWER PLANT SELECTION
 Aircraft require thrust to produce enough speed for the wings to provide lift or enough
thrust to overcome the weight of the aircraft for vertical takeoff.
 For an aircraft to remain in level flight, thrust must be provided that is equal to and in
the opposite direction of the aircraft drag. This thrust, or propulsive force, is provided
by a suitable type of aircraft heat engine.
 All heat engines have in common the ability to convert heat energy into mechanical
energy by the flow of some fluid mass (generally air) through the engine.
 In all cases, the heat energy is released at a point in the cycle where the working
pressure is high relative to atmospheric pressure
General Requirements
 Power and Weight

 Fuel Economy
 Durability and Reliability
 Operating Flexibility
 Compactness
 Powerplant Selection
Power and Weight
The useful output of all aircraft powerplants is thrust, theforce which propels the aircraft.
Since the reciprocatingengine is rated in brake horsepower (bhp), the gas turbineengine is
rated in thrust horsepower (thp):
Thp = thrust × aircraft speed (mph)
It is necessary to calculate the horsepower for each speed of an aircraft, since the horsepower
varies with speed. Therefore, it is not practical to try to rate or compare the output of a
turbine engine on a horsepower basis. The aircraft engine operate sat a relatively high
percentage of its maximum power output throughout its service life. The aircraft engine is at
full power output whenever a takeoff is made. It may hold this power for a period of time up
to the limits set by the manufacturer. The engine is seldom held at a maximum power for
more than2 minutes, and usually not that long. Within a few second safer lift-off, the power
is reduced to a power that is used for climbing and that can be maintained for longer periods
of time. After the aircraft has climbed to cruising altitude, the power of the engine(s) is
further reduced to a cruise power which can be maintained for the duration of the flight. If the
weight of an engine per brake horsepower (called the specific weight of the engine) is
decreased, the useful load that an aircraft can carry and the performance of the aircraft
obviously are increased. Every excess pound of weight carried by an aircraft engine reduces
its performance. Tremendous improvement in reducing the weight of the aircraft engine
through improved design and metallurgy has resulted in reciprocating engines with a much
improved power-to-weight ratio (specific weight).

Fuel Economy
The basic parameter for describing the fuel economy of aircraft engines is usually specific
fuel consumption. Specific fuel consumption for gas turbines is the fuel flow measured in
(lb/hr) divided by thrust (lb), and for reciprocating engines the fuel flow (lb/hr) divided by
brake horse power. These are called thrust-specific fuel consumption and brake specific fuel
consumption, respectively. Equivalent specific fuel consumption is used for the turboprop
engine and is the fuel flow in pounds per hour divided by a turbo prop‘s equivalent shaft
horsepower. Comparisons can be made between the various engines on a specific fuel
consumption basis. At low speed, the reciprocating and turboprop engines have better
economy than the pure turbojet or turbo fan engines. However, at high speed, because of
losses in propeller efficiency, the reciprocating or turboprop engine‘s efficiency becomes
limited above 400 mph less than that of the turbofan. Equivalent specific fuel consumption is
used for the turboprop engine and is the fuel flow in pounds per hour divided by a
turboprop‘s equivalent shaft horse power. Comparisons can be made between the various
engines on a specific fuel consumption basis.
Durability and Reliability
Durability and reliability are usually considered identical factors since it is difficult to
mention one without including the other. An aircraft engine is reliable when it can perform at
the specified ratings in widely varying flight attitudes and in extreme weather conditions.
Standards of power plant reliability are agreed upon by the Federal Aviation Administration
(FAA),the engine manufacturer, and the airframe manufacturer. The engine manufacturer
ensures the reliability of the product by design, research, and testing. Close control of
manufacturing and assembly procedures is maintained, and each engine is tested before it
leaves the factory. Durability is the amount of engine life obtained while maintaining the
desired reliability. The fact that an engine has successfully completed its type or proof test
indicates that it can be operated in a normal manner over a long period before requiring
overhaul. However, no definite time interval between overhauls is specified or implied in the
engine rating. The time between overhauls (TBO) varies with the operating conditions, such
as engine temperatures, amount of time the engine is operated at high-power settings, and the
maintenance received. Recommended TBOs are specified by the engine manufacturer
.Reliability and durability are built into the engine by the manufacturer, but the continued
reliability of the engine is determined by the maintenance, overhaul, and operating personnel.
Careful maintenance and overhaul methods, thorough periodical and preflight inspections,
and strict observance of the operating limits established by the engine manufacturer make
engine failure a rare occurrence.
Operating Flexibility
Operating flexibility is the ability of an engine to run smoothly and give desired performance
at all speeds from idling to full-power output. The aircraft engine must also function
efficiently through all the variations in atmospheric conditions encountered in widespread
operations.
Compactness

To affect proper streamlining and balancing of an aircraft, the shape and size of the engine
must be as compact as possible. In single-engine aircraft, the shape and size of the engine
also affect the view of the pilot, making a smaller engine better from this standpoint, in
addition to reducing the drag created by a large frontal area. Weight limitations, naturally, are
closely related to the compactness requirement. The more elongated and spread out an engine
is, the more difficult it becomes to keep the specific weight within the allowable limits.
Power plant Selection
Engine specific weight and specific fuel consumption were discussed in the previous
paragraphs, but for certain design requirements, the final power plant selection may be based
on factors other than those that can be discussed from an analytical point of view. For that
reason, a general discussion of power plant selection follows. For aircraft whose cruising
speed does not exceed 250 mph, the reciprocating engine is the usual choice of power plant.
When economy is required in the low speed range, the conventional reciprocating engine is
chosen because of its excellent efficiency and relatively low cost. When high altitude
performance is required, the turbo-supercharged reciprocating engine may be chosen because
it is capable of maintaining rated power to a high altitude (above 30,000feet). Gas turbine
engines operate most economically at high altitudes. Although in most cases the gas turbine
engine provides superior performance, the cost of gas turbine engines is a limiting factor. In
the range of cruising speed of 180 to 350 mph, the turboprop engine performs very
well. It develops more power per pound of weight than does the reciprocating engine, thus
allowing a greater fuel load or payload for engines of a given power. From 350 mph
up to Mach .8–.9, turbofan engines are generally used for airline operations. Aircraft intended
to operate at Mach 1 or higher are powered by pure turbojet engines/after
burning(augmented) engines, or low-bypass turbofan engines.
 Basically the engines are of two types,

(a) External combustion engines and
(b) Internal combustion engines
Based on the type of structural construction and utility of aircraft, different types of power
plants will be selected
(a) Internal combustion engine
Propeller
Types of propeller may include:
1) fixed pitch
2) adjustable pitch
3) constant speed
4) contra-rotating
5) tractor
6) pusher

propeller is also called an airscrew. Converts rotary motion from an engine or other power
source into a swirling slipstream which pushes the propeller forwards or backwards. It
comprises a rotating power-driven hub, to which are attached several radial airfoil-section
blades such that the whole assembly rotates about a longitudinal axis. The blade pitch may be
fixed, manually variable to a few set positions, or of the automatically-variable "constant-
speed" type.
The propeller attaches to the power source's driveshaft either directly or through reduction
gearing. Propellers can be made from wood, metal or composite materials.
Propellers are only suitable for use at subsonic airspeeds mostly below about
480 mph (770 km/h; 420 kn), as above this speed the blade tip speed approaches the speed of
sound and local supersonic flow causes high drag, noise and propeller structural problems.
(b) External combustion engines

1) Turbo jet
2) Turbo prop
3) Turbo fan
4) Turbo shaft etc.,
Turbojet
A turbojet engine was first developed in Germany and England prior to World War II and is
the simplest of all jet engines. The four sections of a turbojet engine are the compressor,
combustion chamber, turbine section and exhaust. The compressor passes air at a high rate of
speed to the combustion chamber which contains the fuel inlet and igniter. Expanding air
drives the turbine and accelerated exhaust gases provide thrust. These engines are limited on
range and endurance and today are mostly used in military aviation. They are known for
being slow to respond to throttle applications at slow compressor speeds

Turboprop
Between 1939 and 1942, a Hungarian designer, GyorgyJendrassik designed the first
turboprop engine. However, the design was not implemented into an actual aircraft until
Rolls Royce converted a Derwint II into the RB50 Trent which flew on September 20, 1945
as the first turboprop jet engine. A turboprop engine drives a propeller through a reduction
gear, allowing optimum propeller performance to be achieved at much slower speeds than the
operating RPM. With their ability to perform well at slow airspeeds and fuel efficiency,
turboprop engines are often used in small, commuter aircraft and agricultural applications due
to their greater reliability offsetting their higher initial cost. One of the most reliable
turboprop engines is the Pratt & Whitney PT6A.
Turbofan

Turbofan jet engines were designed to merge the best features of the turbojet and turboprop.
By diverting a secondary airflow around the combustion chamber, additional thrust was
created. Two separate streams of air pass through a turbofan engine. One passes through the
engine core while the second bypasses the core. The Gloster E28/39 which flew for the first
time on May 15, 1941 was one of the first times a turbofan engine was used for military or
commercial aircraft.
Turboshaft
The fourth type of jet engine is known as the turboshaft. Most of the energy produced by the
expanding gases drives a shaft connected to a turbine through a single stage of reduction
gearing rather than producing jet thrust. Turboshaft engines are predominantly used by
helicopters. The first turboshaft engine was built by the French firm, Turbomeca in 1949.

Turbine engines have several advantages over reciprocating engines, including less vibration,
increased aircraft performance and reliability. In addition, each type of turbine engine has its
own advantages and disadvantages. For more information about the types of turbine engines
 Location of Power plants

Engine location
The engine output required is already known from the performance requirements like Vmax,
(R/C)max, Hmax and take-off distance (section.4.10.6). The number of engines and their
location need to be chosen. Airplanes have been designed with one, two, three, four and eight
engines. The following considerations decide the number of engines used in the airplane.
(a) The ratings of the available engines.
(b) Cost of the engine.
(c) Ease of maintenance
(d) Performance and stability of the airplane with one engine being inoperative.
The low speed general aviation aircraft usually have a single engine. Similarly, military
airplanes in light weight and medium weight category also have a single engine. The
transport airplanes have two or more engines from the considerations of safety in the event of
failure of one engine. Early jet transport airplanes (Boeing 707,747) had four engines as the
reliability of the engines was not as high as the latest engines and large size engines were not
available. Subsequently, twin engine configuration became popular for airplanes with
medium range and 100 to 200 passenger seating capacity (Boeing 727,737; Airbus 320,340).
Economic considerations and reliability of the engines reinforced this choice. However, the
available thrust would reduce to half with one engine inoperative and hence, these airplanes
generally have higher thrust to weight ratio and a large vertical tail. As a compromise
between two and four engines some airplanes have three engines (e.g. McDonnell Douglas
DC-10, Lockheed Tristar).
Location of engines on different airplanes

The locations of engines in case of one, two, three and four engines are briefly dealt with in
this subsection. The airplanes with engine-propeller combination and jet engines are
considered.
 Single engine-propeller combination
In this case, three arrangements are mainly used. These are :
(a) tractor propeller ahead of engine located in nose of fuselage
(b) pusher propeller behind the engine located at the rear end of the fuselage and
(c) pod mounted engine with tractor or pusher propeller.
In a tractor configuration the propeller is in front of the engine and is driven by a shaft in
tension.
In a pusher configuration the propeller is mounted behind the engine so that the drive shaft is
in compression. Fig shows an example of a pusher airplane.

Fig Shows pusher aircraft
An amphibian airplane can land and take-off both on land and on water. In such airplanes the
propeller should be away from the surface of water In some amphibian airplanes the propeller
is mounted on a pod above the fuselage.Figure below shows the image of an amphibian
airplane.
Fig shows Amphibian airplane
The relative advantages and disadvantages of tractor and pusher propeller

configurations are as follows.
For obvious reasons a tractor installation moves the c.g. of the airplane forward and a pusher
installations moves the c.g. rear words.
(a) The contribution of a tractor propeller is destabilizing to longitudinal, directional and
lateral stability. Whereas, the contribution of a pusher propeller is stabilizing
(b) A pusher propeller is in the wake of the wing and fuselage. Consequently, it is slightly
less efficient than a tractor propeller
Many military airplanes have a single jet engine. In these cases the engine is located in the
rear part of the fuselage. The air intakes are generally located on the sides of fuselage. The
images of single engined military airplanes like Mirage 2000, ADA Light Combat Aircraft
(LCA) and SAAB Gripen, can be viewed on Internet.
The location of engine, in military airplanes, inside the fuselage has two advantages.
(a) The engine is less vulnerable to enemy attack.
b) The fuselage is elongated which results in slender fuselage and provides longer tail arms
for horizontal and vertical tails.
 (B) Twin engine configuration

Twin engine configurations with propellers may be driven by piston engines or turboprop
engines. The engines are commonly mounted on the wings with tractor propellers as in the
case ATR-72-200. The configuration with pusher propellers mounted on rear fuselage has
also been used
In the twin engine passenger airplanes with jet engines, the engines are located on pylons on
the wings or mounted on rear fuselage. Figure below shows a typical configuration with wing
mounted engines. The pictures of Airbus 318, 319, 320 and 321 and those of Boeing 737 and
777 are examples of airplanes of this type. Figure below shows the image of an airplane with
two engines mounted near rear end of fuselage.
Fig shows jet airplane with engines mounted on pylons near the rear end of fuselage
 (C)Configurations with three engines

Some jet airplanes have 3 engines. In this case two engines are located with pylons on the
wing. The third engine is located at the rear end of fuselage. Figure shows image of DC-10
airplane. Lockheed Tristar is another airplane in this category.
Fig shows Image of a jet airplane with three engines
 (D) Four engined airplanes

There have been four engined airplanes with piston engines. Presently, the four engined
airplanes are either with turboprop engines or jet engines. the turboprop engines are more
economical than the turbofan engines. Hence, the turboprop engines are utilised on airplanes
flying at Mach numbers from 0.5 to 0.7. Figure 1.4 shows the Lockheed C-130 Hercules
airplane with four turboprop engines mounted in nacelles attached to the wing. In the case of
jet transport airplanes the engines are mounted in nacelles attached through pylons to the
wings Figures or near the rear end of fuselage. In a few cases like HS Nimrod the engines are
burried in the wing root.

Fig shows a jet airplane with engines buried in wing root
Fig shows jet airplane with four engines mounted on pylons near the rear end of
fuselage
The configuration with engines under the wing seems to be the most preferred one.
the advantages and disadvantages of the above three configurations are pointed out below.
a) Engines held by pylons on wing :
The Advantages are as follows.

I) The engines act as a relieving load on the wing and the weight of the wing structure could
be decreased by about 15 percent.
II) The space inside the wing can be fully utilized for fuel.
III) Easy access for maintenance, inspection and replacement of engines.
The disadvantages are as follows.

I) Smaller ground clearance increases the possibility of foreign objects being ingested in the
engines.

II) Failure of outboard engine creates a large yawing moment. To counteract this moment
requires larger vertical tail area and rudder deflection as compared to other locations of
engines. These result in higher structural weight and drag. III) Noise level in the cabin is
higher as compared to airplanes with engines mounted on rear fuselage.
b) Engines located in the wing root
The Advantages are as follows.

I)There is very little increase in frontal area of the airplane due to installation of power plants.
II) Almost the entire wing span can be utilized for ailerons and high lift devices.

I) The space in the root section of the wing cannot be used for accommodating fuel.
II) The intake is located at a place where the boundary layer on the fuselage affects the flow
in it (intake).
III) The weight of the wing structure is increased due to presence of the cuts in wing spars.
c) Engines located on the rear fuselage
The advantages are as follows.

I) There is less engine noise in the cabin.
II) The entire wing space can be used for storing fuel and for high lift devices.
III) The flow over the wing is clean due to absence of pylons.

I) The fuel is located far from the engines, therefore the length of the pipeline is increased
and special fuel pumps are needed.
II) Due to engines being located at rear, the c.g. of the airplane moves aft. Consequently, the
tail arms of the horizontal and vertical tails are reduced.
Extra information Regarding Engine mounting

Following are the power plant locations(Engines) for aircraft
1. Under the wings
2. Mounted in the wing root

3. Mounted in pods under the wing
4. Mounted inside the tail or on pods on the rear fuselage
5. On the tail
6. On the fuselage
 Functions dictating the locations

Under the wings
1. Well centered with the center of gravity, allows for more weight shifting in the cabin,
and with the bags.

2. The fuel is also kept away from the cabin, and the noise is better spread out through
the cabin. In the event that something goes wrong, debris is also less likely to enter
the cabin
Mounted in the wing root

1. low asymmetric yaw on engine failure, less rudder required: less drag
2. no engine pods: less parasitic drag
3. engines closer to CG, less downforce needed from the tail: less drag
4. very little reverse thrust available
5. Little space for high-bypass-ratio engines
Mounted inside the tail or on pods on the rear fuselage
1. low asymmetric yaw on engine failure, less rudder required: less drag
2. wing design is freed from the need to accommodate engines, allows for more complex
wing designs: better performance throughout the flight envelope
3. heavy engines so far aft of the fuselage require wings mounted further aft, and a
higher tail to support that: more drag
4. Lower landing gear required, especially in case of short fuselages
On the fuselage
1. Helps to prevent debris from entering the engine
2. Allows for more room for flaps on the wing, and lighter
3. More aerodynamic wings since they are not holding up engines, generally allowing
for slower approach speeds, also the thrust is closer to the center of the aircraft.

Unit 4 DESIGN OF WING, FUSELAGE AND
EMPHANAGE
 Selection of aero foil
Large airplane companies like Boeing and Airbus may design their own aerofoils. However,
during the preliminary design stage, the usual practical is to choose the air foil from the large
number of aerofoils whose geometric and aerodynamic characteristics are available in the
aeronautical literature. To enable such a selection, it is helpful to know the aerodynamic,
geometrical characteristics of aerofoils and their nomenclature.
Airfoil shape and ordinates
The aerofoil shape Fig.cis obtained by combining the camber line and thethickness
distribution in the following manner.
a) Draw the camber line shape and draw lines perpendicular to it at variouslocations along the
chord Figc.
b) Lay off the thickness distribution along the lines drawn perpendicular to themean line
Fig.5.2 c.
c) The coordinates of the upper surface (xu, yu) and lower surface (xl, yl) of theairfoil are
given by the four equations presented in Eq. shown below
x = x - y sinθ
y = y + y cosθ
x = x + y sinθ
y = y - y cosθ
where yc and yt are the ordinates, at location x, of the camber line and thethickness
distribution respectively; tan θ is the slope of the camber line atlocation x (Figc &d).
d)The leading-edge radius is also prescribed for the aerofoil. The center of the leading-edge
radius is located along the tangent to the mean line at the leadingedge (Fig.c).
e)Depending on the thickness distribution, the trailing edge angle may be zero orhave a finite
value. In some cases, thickness may be non-zero at the trailingedge.

Presentation of aerodynamic characteristics of air foils
The features of the three plots in this figure can be briefly described as follows.
(I) Lift coefficient ( l C ) vs angle of attack (α). This curve, shown in Fig a has four important
features viz. (a) angle of zero lift ( 0l α ), (b) slope of the lift curve denoted by d l C / dα or a0
or lα C , (c) maximum lift coefficient ( lmax C ) and (d) angle of attack (αstall) corresponding
to Clmax
(II) Drag coefficient (Cd) vs l C . This curve, shown in Fig.5.1b, has two important features
viz. (a) minimum drag coefficient (Cdmin) and (b) lift coefficient ( lopt C )corresponding to
Cdmin. In some air foils, called laminar flow airfoils or low-drag airfoils, the minimum drag
coefficient extends over a range of lift coefficients(Fig.b). This feature is called ‗Drag
bucket‘. The extent of the drag bucket and the lift coefficient at the middle of this region are
also characteristic features of the airfoil. It may be added that the camber decides lopt C and
thickness ratio decides the extent of the drag bucket.
(III) Pitching moment coefficient about quarter-chord Cmc/4 vs α . This curve is shown in
Figc. Sometimes this curve is also plotted as Cmc/4 vs l C . From this curve, the location of
the aerodynamic center (a.c.) and the moment about it(Cmac) can be worked out. It may be
recalled that a.c. is the point on the chord about which the moment coefficient is independent
of l C .
(IV) Stall pattern : Variation of the lift coefficient with angle of attack near the stallan
indication of the stall pattern. A gradual pattern as shown in Fig a is a desirable feature. Some
airfoils display abrupt decrease in l C after stall. This behaviour is undesirable as pilot does
not get adequate warning regarding impending loss of lift. Airfoils with thickness ratio (t/c)
between 6 – 10% generally display abrupt stall while those with t/c more than 14% display a
gradual stall. It may be added that the stall patterns on the wing and on the airfoil are directly
related only for high aspect ratio (A > 6) un swept wings. For low aspect ratio highly swept
wings three-dimensional effects may dominate.
Figure shows Aerodynamic characteristics of an aerofoil

 Selection of Wing parameters
In this section, the selection of aspect ratio (A), sweep (ʌ) and taper ratio (λ) arec onsidered.
 Choice of sweep (ʌ)

 Choice of aspect ratio(A)
Aspect ratio affects the slope of the lift curve , the induced drag the structural
weight of the wing and the wing span.
(a) Effect of aspect ratio on slope of the lift curve

The slope of lift curve of a wing in subsonic flow for A > 4, is given by :

(d) Effect of aspect ratio on span
For a chosen wing area, the aspect ratio decides the span of the wing b = ( ) . In turn
the span decides the hanger space needed for the airplane. Hence, for personal airplanes, a
moderate aspect ratio of 6 to 7 is generally chosen. Further, the ride in turbulent weather is
poor for a high aspect ratio wing. Hence, agricultural and other airplanes, which fly in
proximity of ground, are subjected to air turbulence and have moderate aspect ratio of 6 to 7.
 Airworthiness requirements
Airworthiness has a number of aspects which relate to the legal and physical state of an
aircraft. According to the FAA (1998), the term Airworthy ―is when an aircraft or one of its
component parts meets its type design and is in a condition for safe operation.‖
A definition used by the UK MOD includes a wider definition, which includes people on the
ground (third parties) – ―Airworthiness is the ability of an aircraft or other airborne
equipment or system to be operated in flight and on the ground without significant hazard to
aircrew, ground crew, passengers or to third parties.
Additionally, an aircraft must be operated within the limits laid down in the Flight Manual;
an aircraft which exceeds any limit may compromise its airworthiness. In service, an aircraft
must also be maintained according to its Approved Maintenance Schedule for it to remain
airworthy; through-life maintenance would be included in the term continuing Airworthiness.
The connection between airworthiness and flight safety is an obvious but complex one. The
design activity, besides meeting the applicable certification code, often seeks to improve the
aircraft‘s economics and cost benefit to both the manufacturer and the operator. Certification
authorities will therefore examine all aspects of the design and construction of an aircraft,
even when there is apparent improvement to minimum standards. When an aircraft type is
first judged to meet all the certification requirements it will be issued with a Type Certificate
(TC).
Deficiencies in airworthiness may be indicated following an in-service incident or accident.

These may relate to unknown failures, errors or limitations of the Type design and/or failure
to meet the conditions for safe operation. In 2002, a cross-party, international study group
analysed a series of accidents in an attempt to learn lessons for the certification process.
Known as the Commercial Airplane Certification Process Study, their work is a useful meta-
analysis of interfaces between certification, operations and maintenance, and produced 15
findings and two observations for suggested improvements [FAA, 2002]
 Overload
 Operation outside the certificated limits such as those laid down for flight in ice or
snow conditions.
 Component degradation due to fatigue, creep, fretting, wear or corrosion,
depending on the system or component
 Accidental Damage (AD) and Environmental Damage (ED)
 Procedural (Design, Manufacturing, Maintenance or Supply) error and Human
Factors
 Inadequate or incomplete maintenance.

 Errors in maintenance which may result in a fault becoming obvious a long period
after the error was originally made.
 Ageing components
 Change of usage or unmonitored operation
 Lack of configuration control
 Obsolescence and/or legislation change
 Fuel and fuel system hazard
 Lack of adequate oversight of the operator, its practices and policies including
training, operation and maintenance by the regulator.
 Deficiencies in the process which led to the issue of the original aircraft Type
Certificate.
 Vn diagram
The operating flight strength limitations of an airplane are presented in the form of a V -n
diagram. This chart is usually included in the aircraft flight handbook in the section
dealing with operating limitations. The V-n diagram presented [in the figure] is intended
to present the most important general features of such a diagram and does not necessarily
represent the characteristics of any particular airplane. Each airplane type has its own
particular V-n diagram
The flight operating strength of an airplane is presented on a graph whose horizontal

scale is airspeed (V) and vertical scale is load factor (n). The presentation of the airplane
strength is contingent on four factors being known: (1) the aircraft gross weight, (2) the
configuration of the aircraft (clean, external stores, flaps, and landing gear position,
etc.), (3) symmetry of loading (since a rolling pullout at high speed can reduce the
structural limits to approximately two-thirds of the symmetrical load limits), and (4) the
applicable altitude. A change in any one of these four factors can cause important
changes to operating limits

The [second figure] provides supplementary information to illustrate the significance
of the V-n diagram [shown earlier]. The lines of maximum lift capability are the first
points of importance on the V-n diagram. The subject aircraft is capable of developing
no more than one positive "g" at 100 knots, the wing level stall speed of the airplane.
Since the maximum load factor varies with the square of the airspeed, the maximum
positive lift capability of this airplane is 4 "g' at 200 knots, 9 g at 300 knots, 16 g at
400 knots, etc. Any load factor above this line is unavailable aerodynamically, i.e., the
subject airplane cannot fly above the line of maximum lift capability
The limit airspeed (or redline speed) is a design reference point of the airplane the subject
airplane is limited to 575 knots. The airplane must be operated within this "envelope" to
prevent structural damage and ensure that the anticipated service life of the airplane is
obtained. The pilot must appreciate the V-n diagram as describing the allowable
combination of airspeeds and load factors for safe operation.
There are two points of great importance on the V-n diagram of [the figure]. Point B is
the intersection of the negative limit load factor and line of maximum negative lift
capability. Any airspeed greater than point B provides a negative lift capability s ufficient
to damage the airplane; any airspeed less than point B does not provide negative lift
capability sufficient to damage the airplane from excessive flight loads. Point A is the
intersection of the positive limit load factor and the line of maximum positive lift
capability. The airspeed at this point is the minimum airspeed at which the limit load
factor can be developed aerodynamically. Any airspeed greater than point A provides a
positive lift capability sufficient to damage the airplane; any airspeed less than point A
does not provide positive lift capability sufficient to cause damage from excessive flight
loads. The usual term given to speed at point A is the "maneuver speed," since

consideration of subsonic aerodynamics would predict minimum usable turn radius to
occur at this condition. The maneuver speed is a valuable reference point since an
airplane operating below this point cannot produce a damaging positive flight load. Any
combination of maneuver and gust cannot create damage due to excess airload when the
airplane is below the maneuver speed.
 Elements of fuselage design

The aim of fuselage design, at this stage of preliminary design, is to obtain the
following.
(a) Lengths of nose, cockpit, payload compartment, tail cone and the overall
length.
(b) Cross section shape and the heights and widths of nose, cockpit, payload
compartment and tail cone.
The desirable features of the design can be listed as follows.
(a) The flight crew, cabin crew and the passengers should have an environment
of comfort. The crew should be able to perform their duties effectively. The
journey should be pleasant for the passengers.
(b) Loading and unloading of passengers‘ luggage and cargo should be
efficient.The regulating agencies like FAA, prescribe the size, number and
locations of emergency exits and equipment for emergency evacuation.
(c) Fuselage drag should be low. The lift produced by the wing – fuselage
combination should be close to that possible under ideal conditions.
(d) The tail arms for the horizontal and vertical tails should be long.
(e) The structural weight of fuselage should be low.
In this the procedure to obtain the internal and external dimensions of the fuselage are
discussed. Subsequently, the procedure to obtain an initial estimate of the sizes of the tail
surfaces is dealt with. These two aspects and the dimensions of wing obtained in the previous
chapter would later enable preparation of a revised layout of the airplane. With this layout an
approximate location of the centre of gravity (c.g.) of airplane can be obtained.
 Fuselage sizing
The primary purpose of the fuselage is to house the payload.
The payload is the part of useful load from which the revenue is derived or for which the
airplane is designed. In transport airplanes the payload includes the passengers, their luggage
and cargo. In military airplanes it is the ammunition and /or special equipment.
In addition to the payload, the fuselage accommodates the following.
(a) The flight crew and the cabin crew in the transport airplane and the specialist crew
members in airplanes used for reconnaissance, patrol and remote sensing.
(b) Fuel, engine and landing gear when they are housed inside the fuselage.
(c) Systems like air-conditioning system, pressurization system, hydraulic system, electrical
system, pneumatic system, electronic systems, emergency oxygen, floatation vests and
auxilliary power unit.
 Features of General Aviation and passenger aircrafts

 Tail sizing
The horizontal and vertical tails are designed to provide stability; the movable surfaces on
tails namely elevator and rudder provide control. The complete design of tail surfaces
requires information on (a) location of the centre of gravity(c.g.)of airplane, (b) shift in c.g.
location during flight and (c) the desirable level of stability. However, to obtain the c.g.
location, the weights of horizontal and vertical tails are needed which depend on their size.
Hence, preliminary sizing of the two tails are carried out with the help of the following steps.
1) Choose the tail arrangement from the various types
(i)Nearly 70% of the airplanes have conventional tail i.e. horizontal tail is behind the wing
and located on the fuselage

 Determination of tail surface areas
 Choice of aspect ratio for horizontal tail
The aspect ratio affects
(a) slope of lift curve (C Lα ),

(b) induced drag coefficient (CDi) and
(c) the structural weight.
The purpose of the horizontal tail is to provide stability
about Y-axis and the elevator provides control about the Y-axis. The lift and drag produced
by the horizontal tail are much smaller than those produced by the wing. Consequently, while
choosing aspect ratio of the horizontal tail, the reduction of structural weight is accorded
more importance than the reduction of drag. Further, the structural weight decreases as aspect
ratio decreases. Hence, the aspect ratio of the horizontal tail is lower than that of the wing. A
value of aspect ratio between 3 to 5 is commonly used for subsonic airplanes. The actual
value of the aspect ratio would be a compromise between effects of aspect ratios on C Lα,
CDi and the structural weight.
 Choice of taper ratio for horizontal tail
The taper ratio influences

(a) induced drag,
(b) structural weight and
(c) ease of fabrication.
The induced drag is low for λ between 0.3 and 0.5, structural
weight decreases as λ decreases and fabrication is easier for un tapered wing ( λ=1.0 ).
Keeping these factors in view, a tail with λ=1 is used for the low subsonic airplanes where
cost of fabrication is the prime consideration. For the general aviation aircraft and the
medium speed airplanes, the taper ratio of the horizontal tail is lower than that of the wing.
For the high subsonic airplanes with swept wings having λ around 0.2, the horizontal tail has
a taper ratio between 0.3 to 0.6.
 Choice of sweep for horizontal tail
sweep has adverse effect of (a) lower C Lα ,

(b) lower Lmax C ,
(c) higher CDi and
(d) higher structural weight.
The advantage of sweep is to increase the drag divergence
Mach number (MD). At flight Mach number less than 0.7, drag divergence Mach number is
not a consideration. Hence, airplanes flying at low and medium subsonic Mach numbers
generally have unswept wing and horizontal tail. However, some airplanes in these categories
have tails with moderate quarter chord sweep. This would increase the tail arm slightly and
may be resorted to, if such an increase is required at a later stage of design. In the case of
high subsonic airplanes the tail should have a value of drag divergence Mach number (MD)
equal to higher than that of the wing. Hence, the sweep angle of the horizontal tail is equal to
that of the wing or slighter higher
 Airfoil section for horizontal tail
The elevator and rudder have deflections on both sides of the undeflected positions. Hence,
horizontal and vertical tails invariably have symmetric airfoil section. National Advisory
Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) generated a large amount of data on the aerodynamic
characteristics (Cl vs α , Cα vs Cl and Cm vs Cl ) at different Reynolds numbers, flap settings
etc. for NACA 0009 and NACA 0012 airfoils. Hence, these airfoils are commonly used for
tails of airplanes flying at low and medium subsonic Mach numbers. For airplane flying at

high subsonic Mach numbers, the drag divergence Mach number of the tail should be higher
than that of the wing. A symmetrical airfoil with (t/c) of 90 % of the (t/c) of the wing can be a
rough guideline for preliminary design purpose.
 Choice of aspect ratio for vertical tail

Fig shows Effective vertical tail geometry
(a) Fuselage with horizontal upper surface
(b) Fuselage with curved upper surface

Unit 5 DESIGN OF LANDING GEAR AND CONTROL
SURFACE
Introduction:
 Landing gear is designed to support the load of the aircraft for surface operations
 several types exist, designed for the intended operation or desires performance
 The landing gear typically consists of three wheels:
1. Two main wheels (one located on each side of the fuselage)

2. A third wheel positioned either at the front or rear of the airplane
3. When the third wheel is located on the tail, it is called a tail-wheel, and the design is
referred to as conventional gear
4. When the third wheel is located on the nose, it is called a nose-wheel, and the design
is referred to as a tricycle gear
5. Aircraft can also be equipped with floats for water operations or skis for landing on
snow
Types of Landing Gear:
There are several types of landing gear which fall into four main categories
 Tail-wheel (Conventional)
 Tricycle
 Conventional Gear:
1. Landing gear employing a rear-mounted wheel is called conventional or a tail
wheel/dragger
2. Tail-wheel landing gear aircraft have two main wheels attached to the
airframe ahead of its Center of Gravity (CG) that support most of the weight of the
structure
Advantages:
1. Allows adequate ground clearance for a larger propeller
2. More desirable for operations on unimproved fields
Disadvantages:
1. With the CG located behind the main gear, directional control of this type aircraft
becomes more difficult while on the ground
2. If the pilot allows the aircraft to swerve while rolling on the ground at a low speed, he
or she may not have sufficient rudder control and the CG will attempt to get ahead of
the main gear which may cause the airplane to ground loop
3. Lack of good forward visibility when the tail-wheel is on or near the ground
4. These inherent problems mean specific training (FAR 61.31) is required in tail-wheel
aircraft
 Tricycle Gear:
1. Landing gear employing a front-mounted wheel is called tricycle landing gear
2. Tricycle landing gear aircraft have two main wheels attached to the
airframe behind its CG that support most of the weight of the structure
3. Additionally, a nose wheel will typically provide some sort of nose wheel steering
control
Advantages:
1. It allows more forceful application of the brakes during landings at high speeds
without causing the aircraft to nose over
2. It permits better forward visibility for the pilot during takeoff, landing, and taxiing
3. It tends to prevent ground looping (swerving) by providing more directional stability
during ground operation since the aircraft's CG is forward of the main wheels
4. The forward CG keeps the airplane moving forward in a straight line rather than
ground looping
 Pontoons:
One or more pontoons, or floats, are mounted under the fuselage to provide buoyancy
By contrast, a flying boat such as the Consolidated PBY Catalina, uses its fuselage for
buoyancy
Either type of seaplane may also have landing gear suitable for land, making the vehicle an
amphibious aircraft
 Landing Gear Design:
Depending on an aircraft's intended operation landing gear may be designed as either:
I. Fixed Gear
II. Retractable Gear
I. Fixed Gear:
Fixed gear is designed to simplify design and operation

Advantages:
1. Always deployed
2. Low cost
Disadvantages:
Creates constant drag
II. Retractable Landing Gear:

1. A retractable gear is designed to streamline the airplane by allowing the landing gear
to be stowed inside the structure during cruising flight
2. The primary benefits of being able to retract the landing gear are increased climb
performance and higher cruise airspeeds due to the resulting decrease in drag
3. Retractable landing gear systems may be operated either hydraulically or electrically,
or may employ a combination of the two systems
4. Warning indicators are provided in the cockpit to show the pilot when the wheels are
down and locked and when they are up and locked or if they are in intermediate
positions
5. Systems for emergency operation are also provided
Disadvantages:
1. Increased weight
2. Increased cost
3. Limited to high performance aircraft
 Operating Retractable Landing Gear:

The landing gear, if retractable, may function with either electrical or hydraulic power
 Electrical:
1. An electrical landing gear retraction system utilizes an electrically driven motor for
gear operation
2. When a switch in the cockpit is moved to the UP position, the electric motor operates
a. Through a system of shafts, gears, adapters, an actuator screw, and a torque
tube, a force is transmitted to the drag strut linkages
b. The gear retracts and locks
c. The struts that open and close the gear doors are also activated
3. If the switch is moved to the DOWN position, the motor reverses and the gear moves
down and locks
4. Once activated the gear motor will continue to operate until an up or down limit
switch on the motor's gearbox is tripped
 Hydraulic:
1. A hydraulic landing gear retraction system utilizes pressurized hydraulic fluid to
actuate linkages to raise and lower the gear
2. When a switch in the cockpit is moved to the UP position, hydraulic fluid is directed
into the gear up line
3. The fluid flows through sequenced valves and down-locks to the gear actuating
cylinders
4. A similar process occurs during gear extension

5. The pump which pressurizes the fluid in the system can be either engine driven or
electrically powered
6. If an electrically powered pump is used to pressurize the fluid, the system is referred
to as an electro-hydraulic system
7. The system also incorporates a hydraulic reservoir to contain excess fluid, and to
provide a means of determining system fluid level
8. Regardless of its power source, the hydraulic pump is designed to operate within a
specific range
9. When a sensor detects excessive pressure, a relief valve within the pump opens, and
hydraulic pressure is routed back to the reservoir
10. Another type of relief valve prevents excessive pressure that may result from thermal
expansion
11. Hydraulic pressure is also regulated by limit switches
12. Each gear has two limit switches-one dedicated to extension and one dedicated to
retraction
13. These switches de-energize the hydraulic pump after the landing gear has completed
its gear cycle
14. In the event of limit switch failure, a backup pressure relief valve activates to relieve
excess system pressure
Landing gear design is a specialized topic. A brief outline is given here for the sake of
completeness. The landing gear is also called undercarriage or alighting gear.
The following three types of landing gears are mainly used on airplanes.
(i) Tricycle or nose wheel type

(ii) Tail wheel type
(iii) Bicycle with outtrigger wheels on wings
(i)Tricycle type or nose wheel landing gear

This is the most commonly used landing gear fig below shows an airplane with this type of
landing gear. The nose wheel is near the nose of the fuselage and the two wheels located on
the wings, in this case, form the tricycle arrangement. Sometimes the rear wheels may be
attached to the fuselage. ATR-72-200 airplane, has such a configuration. The main wheels
and nose wheel are located such that they share roughly 90% and 10% of the airplane weight.
The nose wheel is generally steerable. In Fig all the three parts of landing gear have a single
wheel. However, as the size of the airplane increases, multiple wheels are used. This is called
bogie.
Retractable and non-retractable landing gear

In low speed airplanes the landing gear is fixed to the airplane. Such a landing gear
configuration is called non-retractable. This type of landing gear is simple. However, it is
exposed to the airstream throughout the flight and increases the drag of the airplane. The drag
of the landing gear is proportional to the square of flight speed and when the cruising speed
of the airplane exceeds about 250 kmph the drag of landing gear becomes excessive. Then a
retractable landing gear is used. In this case all the wheels of the landing gear are retracted
in the respective wheel wells. The nose wheel has the wheel well in the nose Fig. The wheel
wells for the main wheels are either (i) in the wing or
(ii) in the nacelle attached to wing or
(iii) in special pods attached to fuselage
The last alternative for wheel well is used in airplanes with high wing configuration. In this
case, retracting the main landing gear in wings or nacelles attached to wing would require
long landing gear legs and relatively large wheel well. A retractable landing gear is heavy and
increases the complexity of the airplane. As a compromise the airplanes below cruising speed
of about 250 kmph have non-retractable landing gear and above that speed they have
retractable gear. Sometimes, airfoil shaped fairing is attached to the main wheels of the non-
retractable landing gear(Fig.6.17). This fairing reduces the drag coefficient to some extent.
Tail wheel type landing gear

In this type of landing gear main wheels are ahead of c.g. and the tail wheel is at the rear end
of fuselage above Fig. This type of landing gear is mainly used on low speed air-planes and is
non-retractable. Simplicity in the advantage of this type of landing gear. Tail dragger is an
aircraft with tail wheel or tail skid
Bicycle type landing gear

In this type of landing gear the front and rear wheel(s) are located on the fuselage centre line.
Outrigger wheels are provided on wing tips to prevent the airplane from toppling sideways.
Harrier Airplane with vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) capability, built by Hawker
Siddley of UK is an example of this type of airplane. Figure below shows an image of this
airplane.
 Landing gear design

 Loads on landing gear

 Preliminary landing gear design
There are three wheel positions, as shown in Fig. The application logic for the various types
of aircraft is the same. The three positions are as follows:
1. Normal Position. This is when the aircraft is on the ground and the undercarriage
carries the aircraft weight with tires deflected and the spring compressed.
2. Free Position. When an aircraft is airborne, the undercarriage spring is then relieved of
aircraft weight and extends to its free position at its maximum length. Stowage space is based
on the undercarriage in a free but articulated position.
3. Failed/Collapsed Position. This is the abnormal case when the spring/oleo collapsed as a
result of structural failure, as well as tires deflated with loss of air pressure. This is the
minimum undercarriage length.
The failed position of the aircraft on the ground is the most critical design driver in
determining the normal length of the undercarriage strut. Following are design considerations
for the failed positions:

Fig 7.9 shows position of main wheel and strut length
1. Nose Wheel Failed. The nose will drop down and the length of the collapsed nose wheel
should still prevent the propeller from hitting the ground with adequate clearance.
2. Main Wheel Failed. There are two scenarios:
(a) When one side fails, the wing tilts to one side and it must not touch the ground.
(b) If both sides collapse (the most critical situation is when the aircraft rotates for liftoff at
the end of the takeoff ground run), it must be ensured that the fully extended flap trailing
edges have adequate ground clearance. Figure 7.9 depicts an important design consideration
for fuselage clearance angle γ , at aircraft rotation for liftoff, when the CG should not go
behind the wheel contact point. Both civil and military aircraft types are shown in the figure.
The angle β is the angle between the vertical and the line joining the wheel contact point with
the ground and the aircraft CG. Ensure that β is greater than γ ; otherwise, the CG position
will go behind the wheel contact point. Keep β greater than or equal to 15 deg. The fuselage
clearance angle, γ , must be between 12 and 16 deg to reach CLmax at aircraft rotation. The
fuselage upsweep angle for clearance is discussed in Section 4.7.3 and it is revised here after
the undercarriage layout is completed. Figure 7.9 corresponds to the worked-out examples.
 Elements of Computer Aided and Design

Computer-aided design (CAD) is the use of computers (or workstations) to aid in the
creation, modification, analysis, or optimization of a design. CAD software is used to increase
the productivity of the designer, improve the quality of design, improve communications
through documentation, and to create a database for manufacturing. CAD output is often in
the form of electronic files for print, machining, or other manufacturing operations.
 Computer Aided Analysis. The main limitation of human intervention in certain task is,
monotonous activities leading to errors and certain tough tasks leading to inaccuracy. ...
 Computer Aided Visualization. Visualization is the key element to any design. ...
 Computer Aided Synthesis.

Computer-aided design is one of the many tools used by engineers and designers and is used
in many ways depending on the profession of the user and the type of software in question.
CAD is one part of the whole digital product development (DPD) activity within the product
lifecycle management (PLM) processes, and as such is used together with other tools, which
are either integrated modules or stand-alone products, such as:
 Computer-aided engineering (CAE) and finite element analysis (FEA)

 Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) including instructions to computer numerical
control (CNC) machines
 Photorealistic rendering and motion simulation.
 Document management and revision control using product data management (PDM).
CAD is also used for the accurate creation of photo simulations that are often required in the
preparation of environmental impact reports, in which computer-aided designs of intended
buildings are superimposed into photographs of existing environments to represent what that
locale will be like, where the proposed facilities are allowed to be built. Potential blockage of
view corridors and shadow studies are also frequently analyzed through the use of CAD.
CAD has been proven to be useful to engineers as well. Using four properties which are
history, features, parametrization, and high-level constraints. The construction history can be
used to look back into the model's personal features and work on the single area rather than
the whole model. Parameters and constraints can be used to determine the size, shape, and
other properties of the different modeling elements. The features in the CAD system can be
used for the variety of tools for measurement such as tensile strength, yield strength,
electrical or electromagnetic properties. Also its stress, strain, timing or how the element gets
affected in certain temperatures, etc.
 Performance estimation
After carrying out the stability analysis, the major dimensions of the airplane have been
arrived at. This will enable preparation of the revised three view drawing. Using this drawing
and the flight conditions, a drag polar of the airplane can be estimated.
The information about power output at various speeds and altitudes is known from chapter 4.
With this information the performance analysis can be carried out
The performance analysis includes the following:
1)The variation of stalling speed (Vs) at various altitudes.
2) Variations with altitude of maximum speed (Vmax) and minimum speed from power output
consideration (Vmin)power. The minimum speed of the airplane at an altitude will be the higher
of Vs and (Vmin)power. The maximum speed and minimum speed will decide the flight
envelope.
3) Variations with altitude of the maximum rate of climb ((R/C)max) and maximum angle of
climb (γmax) ; the flight being treated as steady climb. Variations with altitude of V(R/C)max and
Vγmax. To arrive at these quantities choose a set of altitudes and at each of these altitudes,
obtain the R/C and γ at different flight velocities. From the plot of (R/C)max vs. h, the values
of absolute ceiling and service ceiling can be obtained. At absolute ceiling (R/C)max is zero

and at service ceiling (R/C)max is 30 m/min. For multi-engined airplanes, the rate of climb
with one engine inoperative must satisfy the airworthiness regulations.
4) To arrive at the cruising speed and altitude, choose a range of altitudes around the cruising
altitude mentioned in the specifications. At each of these altitudes obtain the range in
constant velocity flights choosing different velocities. The information on appropriate values
of specific fuel consumption (SFC) can be obtained from the engine charts.
The values of range obtained at different speeds and altitudes be plotted as range vs velocity
curves with altitude as parameter. Draw an envelope of these curves.The altitude and velocity
at which the range is maximum can be considered as the cruising speed (V cruise) and cruising
altitude (hcruise). These curves also give information about the range of flight speeds and
altitudes around Vcruise and hcruise at which near optimum performance is obtained.
5) The maximum rate of turn ( ) and the minimum radius of turn (rmin) in steady level turn
depend on the thrust available, CLmax and the permissible load factor (nmax). The value of
CLmax used here is that without the flaps. For high speed airplanes the value of C Lmax
depends
also on Mach number. The value of nmax depends on the weight and the type of airplane.
Reference 3.3, subsection 9.4.3 be referred to for discussion on V- Choose
a set of altitudes and at each of these altitudes obtain the values of Vand V rmin. From plots of
these quantities obtain variations, with altitude, of rmin, and Vrmin
6) Take - off run and take - off distance: During take-off an airplane accelerates on the
ground. For an airplane with nose wheel type of landing gear, around a speed of 85% of the
take-off speed, the pilot pulls the stick back. Then, the airplane attains the angle of attack
corresponding to take-off and the airplane leaves the ground. The point at which the main
wheels leave the ground is called the unstick point and the distance from the start of take-off
point to the unstick point is called the ground run. After the unstick, the airplane goes along a
curved path as lift is more than the weight. This phase of take-off is called transition at the
end of which the airplane climbs along a straight line. The take-off phase is said to be over
when the airplane attains screen height which is generally 15 m above the ground. The
horizontal distance from the start of the take off to the where the airplane attains screen
height is called take off distance (Fig.3.4). The take off run and the take-off distance can be
estimated by writing down equations of motion in different phases.

Fig shows operating envelope of military aircraft
 Stability aspects on the design of control surfaces

 Aircraft control deals with the ability to change the flight direction and attitude of an
aircraft.
 Both these issues must be investigated during the preliminary design process Stability
and control are collectively referred to as flight mechanics
The study of the mechanics and dynamics of flight is the means by which :
 We can design an airplane to accomplish efficiently a specific task
 We can make the task of the pilot easier by ensuring good handling qualities
 We can avoid unwanted or unexpected phenomena that can be encountered in flight
Aircraft control is accomplished through control surfaces and power
 Ailerons
 Elevators
 Rudder
 Throttle
Control deflections were first developed by the Wright brothers from watching birds

 Primary control surfaces
The primary group of flight control surfaces includes ailerons, elevators, and rudders.
 The ailerons attach to the trailing edge of the wings. They control the rolling (or
banking) motion of the aircraft. This action is known as longitudinal control. The
elevators are attached to the horizontal stabilizer and control the climb or descent
(pitching motion) of the aircraft. This action is known as lateral control.
 The rudder is attached to the vertical stabilizer. It determines the horizontal flight
(turning or yawing motion) of the aircraft. This action is known as directional control.
 The ailerons and elevators are operated from the cockpit by a control stick on single-
engine aircraft. A yoke and wheel assembly operates the ailerons and elevators on
multiengine aircraft, such as transport and patrol aircraft. The rudder is operated by
foot pedals on all types of aircraft.

 Secondary control surfaces
The secondary group includes the trim tabs and spring tabs. Trim tabs are small airfoils
recessed into the trailing edges of the primary control surface. Each trim tab hinges to its
parent primary control surface, but operates by an independent control. Trim tabs let the pilot
trim out an unbalanced condition without exerting pressure on the primary controls. Spring
tabs are similar in appearance to trim tabs but serve an entirely different purpose. Spring tabs
are used for the same purpose as hydraulic actuators. They aid the pilot in moving a larger
control surface, such as the ailerons and elevators.
Auxiliary Group
The auxiliary group includes the wing flaps, spoilers, speed brakes, and slats.
WING FLAPS.—Wing flaps give the aircraft extra lift. Their purpose is to reduce the
landing speed. Reducing the landing speed shortens the length of the landing rollout. Flaps
help the pilot land in small or obstructed areas by increasing the glide angle without greatly
increasing the approach speed. The use of flaps during takeoff serves to reduce the length of
the takeoff run. Some flaps hinge to the lower trailing edges of the wings inboard of the
ailerons. Leading edge flaps are used on the F-14 Tomcat and F/A-18 Hornet.
Four types of flaps are shown in figure below
The plain flap forms the trailing edge of the airfoil when the flap is in the up position. In the
split flap, the trailing edge of the airfoil is split, and the lower half is hinged and lowers to
form the flap. The fowler flap operates on rollers and tracks, causing the lower surface of the
wing to roll out and then extend downward. The leading edge flap operates like the plain
flap. It is hinged on the bottom side. When actuated, the leading edge of the wing actually
extends in a downward direction to increase the camber of the wing. Landing flaps are used
in conjunction with other types of flaps.

SPOILERS.—Spoilers are used to decrease wing lift. The specific design, function, and use
vary with different aircraft. On some aircraft, the spoilers are long narrow surfaces, hinged at
their leading edge to the upper surfaces of the wings. In the retracted position, they are flush
with the wing skin. In the raised position, they greatly reduce wing lift by destroying the
smooth flow of air over the wing surface.
SPEED BRAKES.—Speed brakes are movable control surfaces used for reducing the speed
of the aircraft. Some manufacturers refer to them as dive brakes; others refer to them as dive
flaps. On some aircraft, they're hinged to the sides or bottom of the fuselage. Regardless of
their location, speed brakes serve the same purpose—to keep the airspeed from building too
high when the aircraft dives. Speed brakes slow the aircraft's speed before it lands.
SLATS.—Slats are movable control surfaces that attach to the leading edge of the wing.
When the slat is retracted, it forms the leading edge of the wing. When the slat is open
(extended forward), a slot is created between the slat and the wing leading edge. High-energy
air is introduced into the boundary layer over the top of the wing. At low airspeeds, this
action improves the lateral control handling characteristics. This allows the aircraft to be
controlled at airspeeds below normal landing speed. The high-energy air that flows over the
top of the wing is known as boundary layer control air. Boundary layer control is intended
primarily for use during operations from carriers. Boundary layer control air aids in catapult
takeoffs and arrested landings. Boundary control air can also be accomplished by directing
high-pressure engine bleed air across the top of the wing or flap surface.
 Aircraft stability deals with the ability to keep an aircraft in the air
in the chosen flight attitude.

References
1.NPTEL lectures on Aircraft Design from IIT Madras

2.D.P Raymer Aircraft Design Textbook
3.Different journals and text books available in internet

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AE8604 AIRCRAFT DESIGN TPC3003

1 Aircraft Design B.Ramesh Chandra (AeSI, MTech)

 Purpose and scope of airplane design

The design of an airplane is a complex engineering task. It generally involves the

2 Aircraft Design B.Ramesh Chandra (AeSI, MTech)

(a) Classification of Airplanes based on purpose

Passenger airplane should have

A bomber airplane should have

An interceptor airplane should have

(b) Classification of aircraft based on configuration.

3 Aircraft Design B.Ramesh Chandra (AeSI, MTech)

4 Aircraft Design B.Ramesh Chandra (AeSI, MTech)

2) Classification of airplanes based on fuselage

3) Classification of airplanes based on horizontal stabilizer

5 Aircraft Design B.Ramesh Chandra (AeSI, MTech)

4) Classification of airplanes based on number of engines and their location

 Factors affecting configuration

 Merits of different plane layouts

6 Aircraft Design B.Ramesh Chandra (AeSI, MTech)

7 Aircraft Design B.Ramesh Chandra (AeSI, MTech)

8 Aircraft Design B.Ramesh Chandra (AeSI, MTech)

9 Aircraft Design B.Ramesh Chandra (AeSI, MTech)

 Stages in airplane design

10 Aircraft Design B.Ramesh Chandra (AeSI, MTech)

i. Performance: Maximum speed, maximum rate of climb, range, endurance, rate of

11 Aircraft Design B.Ramesh Chandra (AeSI, MTech)

Interaction of various factors (Interactive designs)

12 Aircraft Design B.Ramesh Chandra (AeSI, MTech)

 Preliminary three view drawing

13 Aircraft Design B.Ramesh Chandra (AeSI, MTech)

14 Aircraft Design B.Ramesh Chandra (AeSI, MTech)

15 Aircraft Design B.Ramesh Chandra (AeSI, MTech)

16 Aircraft Design B.Ramesh Chandra (AeSI, MTech)

Fig shows Typical mission profile of a transport airplane

17 Aircraft Design B.Ramesh Chandra (AeSI, MTech)

 Fuel fraction for climb (W2 / W1)

 Fuel fraction during cruise – outline of approach

18 Aircraft Design B.Ramesh Chandra (AeSI, MTech)

The derivation is as follows

19 Aircraft Design B.Ramesh Chandra (AeSI, MTech)

20 Aircraft Design B.Ramesh Chandra (AeSI, MTech)

 Power and Weight

Thp = thrust × aircraft speed (mph)

22 Aircraft Design B.Ramesh Chandra (AeSI, MTech)

Durability and Reliability

23 Aircraft Design B.Ramesh Chandra (AeSI, MTech)

Power plant Selection

 Basically the engines are of two types,

24 Aircraft Design B.Ramesh Chandra (AeSI, MTech)

(b) External combustion engines

25 Aircraft Design B.Ramesh Chandra (AeSI, MTech)

26 Aircraft Design B.Ramesh Chandra (AeSI, MTech)

27 Aircraft Design B.Ramesh Chandra (AeSI, MTech)

 Location of Power plants

Location of engines on different airplanes

28 Aircraft Design B.Ramesh Chandra (AeSI, MTech)

Fig shows Amphibian airplane

The relative advantages and disadvantages of tractor and pusher propeller

 (B) Twin engine configuration