CHAPTER: 3 SATELLITES

3.1 Satellite Launching

A satellite is sent into space on top of a rocket. When a satellite is put into space, we say that it is
“launched.” The rocket that is used to launch a satellite is called a “launch vehicle.” This satellite
launching needs the earth stations in order to operate the satellite operation. The satellite
launching can be divided into four stages.
1- First Stage:- The first stage of the launch vehicle contains the rockets and fuel that are
needed to lift the satellite and launch vehicle off the ground and into the sky.

2- Second Stage:- The second stage contains smaller rockets that ignite after the first stage
is finished. The rockets of the second stage have their own fuel tanks. The second stage is
used to send the satellite into space.

3- Third Stage (Upper Stage):- The upper stage of the launch vehicle is connected to the
satellite itself, which is enclosed in a metal shield, called a “fairing.” The fairing protects
the satellite while it is being launched and makes it easier for the launch vehicle to travel
through the resistance of the Earth's atmosphere.

4- Fourth Stage (Firing):- Once the launch vehicle is out of the Earth's atmosphere, the
satellite separates from the upper stage. The satellite is then sent into a “transfer orbit”
that sends the satellite higher into space. Once the satellite reaches its desired orbital
height, it unfurls its solar panels and communication antennas, which had been stored
away during the flight. The satellite then takes its place in orbit with other satellites and is
ready to provide communications to the public.

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 Figure 3.1 Steps of Satellite Launching

The launch process can be divided into two phases: the launch phase and the orbit injection
phase.
1- The Launch Phase
The launch vehicle places the satellite into the transfer orbit. An eliptical orbit that has at
its farthest point from earth (apogee) the geosynchronous elevation of 22,238 miles and at
its nearest point (perigee) an elevation of usually not less than 100 miles.
2- The Orbit Injection Phase
The energy required to move the satellite from the elliptical transfer orbit into the
geosynchronous orbit is supplied by the satellite’s apogee kick motor (AKM). This is
known as the orbit injection phase.
3.2 Earth Station
The earth segment of a satellite communications system consists of the transmit and receive earth
stations. The station’s antenna functions in both, the transmit and receive modes, but at different
frequencies.
An earth station is generally made up of a multiplexor, a modem, up and downconverters, a high
power amplifier (HPA) and a low noiseamplifier (LNA). Almost all transmission to satellites is d
igital, and the digital data streams are combined in a multiplexor and fed to a modemthat modula
tes a carrier frequency in the 50 to 180 MHz range. An upconverter bumps the carrier into the gi
gahertz range, which goes to the HPA and antenna.
For receiving, the LNA boosts the signals to the downconverter, which lowers the freque
ncy and sends itto the modem. The modemdemodulates the carrier, and the digital output goes to

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the demultiplexing device and then to its destinations. See earth station on board vessel and base
station. A detailed block diagram is shown in fig. 3.2.

and dish.
Figure 3.2:- Block diagram of a transmit-receive earth station

3.3 Satellite Sub-systems

A satellite communications system can be broadly divided into two segments—a ground segment
and a space segment. The space segment will obviously include the satellites, but it also includes
the ground facilities needed to keep the satellites operational, these being referred to as the
tracking, telemetry, and command (TT&C) facilities. In many networks it is common practice to
employ a ground station solely for the purpose of TT&C.
In a communications satellite, the equipment which provides the connecting link between
the satellite’s transmit and receive antennas is referred to as the transponder. The transponder
forms one of the main sections of the payload, the other being the antenna subsystems.

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PAYLOAD:- The payload comprises of a Repeater and Antenna subsystem and performs the
primary function of communication.
1- REPEATER:- It is a device that receives a signal and retransmits it to a higher level
and/or higher power onto the other side of the obstruction so that the signal can cover
longer distance.
2- Transparent Repeater:- It only translates the uplink frequency to an appropriate
downlink frequency. It does so without processing the baseband
signal. The main element of a typical transparent repeater is a single beam satellite.
Signals from antenna and the feed system are fed into the low-noise amplifier through
a bandpass filter.
3- Regenerative Repeater :- A repeater, designed for digital transmission, in which
digital signals are amplified, reshaped, retimed, and retransmitted.
Regenerative Repeater can also be called as a device which regenerates incoming
digital signals and then retransmits these signals on an outgoing circuit.
4- Antennas :- The function of an antenna of a space craft is to receive signals
and transmit signals to the ground stations located within the coverage area of the
satellite. The choice of the antenna system is therefore governed by the size and shape
of the coverage area. Consequently, there is also a limit to the minimum size of the
antenna footprint.

3.4 Satellite System Link Models

System Link Budget calculations basically relate two quantities, the transmit power and
the receive power, and show in detail how the difference between these two powers is accounted
for. Link-power budget calculations also need the additional losses and noise factor which is
incorporated with the transmitted and the received signals. Along with losses, this unit also
discusses the system noise parameters. Various components of the system add to the noise in the
signal that has to be transmitted.

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3.4.1 EQUIVALENT ISOTROPIC RADIATED POWER
The key parameter in link-power budget calculations is the equivalent isotropic radiated
power factor, commonly denoted as EIRP. Is the amount of power that a theoretical isotropic
antenna (which evenly distributes power in all directions) would emit to produce the peak power
density observed in the direction of maximum antenna gain. EIRP can be defined as the power
input to one end of the transmission link and the problem to find the power received at the other
end.
EIRP = G Ps
Where,
G - Gain of the Transmitting antenna and G is in decibels.
Ps- Power of the sender (transmitter) and is calculated in watts.

[EIRP] = [G] + [Ps] dBW

3.4.2 TRANSMISSION LOSSES:-

As EIRP is thought of as power input of one end to the power received at the other, the problem
here is to find the power which is received at the other end. Some losses that occur in the
transmitting – receiving process are constant and their values can be pre – determined.

3.4.2.1 Free-Space Transmission Losses (FSL)

This loss is due to the spreading of the signal in space. Going back to the power flux
density equation
 m  Ps / 4 r 2
The power that is delivered to a matched receiver is the power flux density. It is multiplied by
the effective aperture of the receiving antenna. Hence, the received power is:
PR   M Aeff
EIRP 2 GR

4 r 2

Where
r- distance between transmitter and receiver, GR - power gain at the receiver
In decibels, the above equation becomes:
 4 r 
2

 PR    EIRP   GR   10 log  

  
 4 r 
2

[ FSL]  10 log  
  
 PR    EIRP   GR   [ FSL]
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3.4.2.2 Feeder Losses (RFL):- This loss is due to the connection between the satellite receiver
device and the receiver antenna is improper. Losses here occur is connecting wave guides, filers
and couplers. The receiver feeder loss values are added to free space loss.

3.4.2.1 Antenna Misalignment Losses (AML):- To attain a good communication link, the earth
station‟s antenna and the communicating satellite‟s antenna must face each other in such a w ay
that the maximum gain is attained.

3.4.2.1 Fixed Atmospheric (AA) and Ionospheric losses (PL):-The gases present in the
atmosphere absorb the signals. This kind of loss is usually of a fraction of decibel in quantity.
Along with the absorption losses, the ionosphere introduces a good amount of
depolarization of signal which results in loss of signal.

3.5 Link Equations

The EIRP can be considered as the input power to a transmission link. Due to the above
discussed losses, the power at the receiver that is the output can be considered as a simple
calculation of EIRP– losses.

Losses = [FSL] + [RFL] + [AML] + [AA] + [PL]

The received power that is P

 PR    EIRP   GR   [ Losses]

Where;
 PR  - Received power in dB, [EIRP] - equivalent isotropic radiated power in dBW.
[ GR ]- Isotropic power gain at the receiver and its value is in dB.
[FSL]-Free-space transmission loss in dB.
[RFL] -Receiver feeder loss in dB.
[AA] -Atmospheric absorption loss in dB.
[AML] -Antenna misalignment loss in dB.
[PL] - Depolarization loss in dB.

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