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RRP 2021 – Art and Culture
Ready Reckoner
INDEX
Sl. No. Topic Page No.

1. Art and Architecture of Indus Valley 1−7
2. Arts of the Mauryan Period 8 – 13
3. Post Mauryan Trends in Indian Art and Architecture 13 – 23
4. Temple Architecture and Sculpture 23 – 29
5. Indo-Islamic and Colonial Architecture 29 – 37
6. Indian Bronze Sculpture 38 – 39
7. Indian Paintings 40 – 49
8. Indian Music 50 – 51
9. Indian Dance 52 – 55
10. Indian Folk Theatre 56 – 58
11. Puppetry 58 – 59
12. Languages in India 59 – 61
13. Literature 62 – 68
14. Schools of Philosophy 69 – 70
15. Science and Technology 70 – 73
16. Calendars 73 − 74
17. Fairs and Festivals of India 74 − 76
18. Martial Arts 76 − 76
19. Coins 77 – 79
20. Travellers of Ancient and Medieval India 79 – 80
21. UNESCO’s Intangible Cultural Heritage Sites 80 – 82
22. UNESCO’s Tangible Cultural Heritage Sites 82 – 86
23. Terminologies 86 – 91
RRP 2021 – Art and Culture Ready Reckoner
1. Art and Architecture of Indus Valley
1. Arts of IVC
• The arts of Indus Valley Civilization emerged during
second half of third millennium.
• The earliest remains of Indian architecture are to be
found in Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Ropar,
Kalibangan, Lothal and Rangpur, belonging to a
civilization known as the Indus valley culture or the
Harappan culture.
• The forms of art found from various sites of the
civilisation include sculptures, seals, pottery,
jewellery, terracotta figures, etc.,
• The socketed sculptures from Harappa and
socketed eye of a head from Mohenjo-Daro shows
the influence of Mesopotamian art and the high
level of artistic excellence of the Harappans.
STONE STATUES
• The stone statuaries found at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro are excellent examples of handling
three-dimensional volumes.
• In stone are two male figures-one is a torso in red sandstone and the other is a bust of a
bearded man in soapstone.
1. Bearded Man
• Found in Mohenjo-Daro
• Made of steatite
• Interpreted as priest.
• Draped in a shawl coming under the right arm and covering the
left shoulder
• Shawl is decorated with trefoil patterns
• Eyes are a little elongated, and half-closed as in meditative
concentration
• Nose is well formed and of medium size
• Mouth is of average size with close-cut moustache
• A short beard and whiskers
• The ears resemble double shells with a hole in the middle.
• The hair is parted in the middle
www.laexias.com Page 1 https://elearn.laex.in

• A plain-woven fillet is passed round the head.

• An armlet is worn on the right hand and holes around the neck
suggest a necklace.
2. Torso of a Man
• Found in Harappa
• There are socket holes in the neck and shoulders for the
attachment of head and arms.
• The frontal posture of the torso has been consciously adopted.
• The shoulders are well baked and the abdomen slightly
prominent.
• Made of Red sandstone
BRONZE CASTING
• The technique is called LOST WAX technique.

• Lost Wax Technique
o The wax figures were first covered with a coating of clay and allowed to dry
o Then the wax was heated and the molten wax was drained out through a tiny hole made
in the clay cover.
o The hollow mould thus created was filled with molten metal which took the original shape
of the object.
o Once the metal cooled, the clay cover was completely removed.
• Examples: Dancing Girl, buffalo with uplifted head, The copper dog and bird of Lothal and
the bronze figure of a bull from Kalibangan.
1. Dancing Girl
• Four-inch-high copper figure of a dancing girl
• Long hair is tied in a bun
• Bangles cover her left arm, a bracelet and an amulet
or bangle adorn her right arm
• a cowry shell necklace is seen around her neck.
• Her right hand is on her hip and her left hand is
clasped in a traditional Indian dance gesture.
• She has large eyes and flat nose.
2. Bronze Bull
• From Mohenjo-Daro

• Massiveness of the bull and the fury of the charge are

eloquently expressed.
The animal is shown standing with his head turned to the
right and with a cord around the neck.
TERRACOTA
• Important among the Indus figures are those representing the mother goddess.
• Few figurines of bearded males with coiled hair, their posture rigidly upright, legs slightly
apart, and the arms parallel to the sides of the body.
• A terracotta mask of a horned deity
• Toy carts with wheels, whistles, rattles, birds and animals, gamesmen and discs were also
rendered in terracotta.
Mother Goddess
• Crude standing female figures adorned with necklaces hanging over prominent
breasts
• Wearing a loin cloth and a girdle
• The fan-shaped head-dress with a cup-like projection on each side is a distinct
decorative feature.
• The pellet eyes and beaked nose of the figures are very crude, and the mouth is
indicated by a slit.

SEALS
• Mostly made of steatite, and occasionally of agate, chert, copper, faience

and terracotta
• Figures of animals, such as unicorn bull, rhinoceros, tiger, elephant,
bison, goat, buffalo, etc.,
• Purpose was mainly commercial
• Appears that the seals were also used as amulets, carried on the persons
of their owners, perhaps as modern-day identity cards.
• Standard Harappan seal was a square plaque 2 × 2 square inches, made
UNICORN
from steatite.
• Some seals have also been found in gold and ivory.
• Every seal is engraved in a pictographic script which is yet to be deciphered.
• Most often animals - bull, with or without the hump, the elephant, tiger, goat and also
monsters. Sometimes trees or human figures were also depicted.
• Seals with Swastika sign have been found
Pashupathi Seal / Male Deity
• Made of steatite
• Discovered at Mohenjo-Daro
• Human figure seated cross-legged.
• Pasupathi wears a three horned headgear
• An elephant and a tiger - to the right side of the
seated figure
• A rhinoceros and a buffalo- on left side of the
figure.
• Two antelopes are shown below the seat.
POTTERY
• The Indus Valley pottery consists chiefly of very fine wheel made wares,
very few being hand-made.
• Plain pottery is more common than painted ware.
• Plain pottery is generally of red clay, with or without a fine red or grey slip
• The black painted ware has a fine coating of red slip on which geometric and
animal designs are executed in glossy black paint.
• Polychrome pottery - rare and mainly comprises small vases decorated with
geometric patterns in red, black, and green, rarely white and yellow.
• Incised ware is also rare and the incised decoration was confined to the bases of
the pans, always inside and to the dishes of offering stands.

• Perforated pottery includes a large hole at the bottom and small holes all over the wall, and
was probably used for straining beverages.
Painted Earthen Jar
• The shape was manipulated by the pressure of the crafty fingers of
the potter.
• After baking the clay model, it was painted with black colour.
• High polishing was done as a finishing touch.
• The motifs are of vegetal and geometric forms.
BEADS AND ORNAMENTS
• Both men and women wore ornaments.

• Hoards of jewellery found at Mohenjo-Daro and Lothal include
necklaces of gold and semi-precious stones, copper bracelets and
beads, gold earrings and head ornaments.
• A cemetery has been found at Farmana in Haryana where dead
bodies were buried with ornaments.
• The bead industry seems to have been well developed as evident from the factories discovered at
Chanhudaro and Lothal.
• Beads were made of carnelian, amethyst, jasper, crystal, quartz, steatite, turquoise, lapis
lazuli, etc.
• Discovery of a large number of spindles and spindle whorls → spinning of cotton and wool
was very common.
• Brilliantly naturalistic models of animals, especially monkeys and squirrels, used as pin-heads
and beads.
• Cinnabar was used as a cosmetic and facepaint, lipstick and collyrium (eyeliner) were also
known to them.
Appendix – Important IVC Sites and their findings

Site Location Important Features and Findings
Harappa on the bank of river Citadel had 6 granaries
Ravi, Punjab Entrance of the house away from the street
(Pakistan). First town to be excavated
Findings
Cemetery (R-37, H), Coffin burial, Painted Pottery, Clay
figures of mother Goddess, Wheat and Barley in wooden
mortar, Copper scale, Crucible for bronze, Copper made
mirror, Vanity box, Dice, Virgin-Goddess Seal, Bullock
carts, Phallus worship, Granary outside the fort
Mohenjo-Daro On the Bank of river Literal meaning – ‘Mount of dead’
Indus in Larkana Post cremation burial was found
district of Punjab 1398 seals were found here (56% of total seals of the
(Pakistan). civilization)

Findings
Great Bath (the biggest bath ghat), Great granary (largest
building of Mohenjo-Daro), assembly hall, Bronze dancing
girl, Bearded man, terracotta toys, Bull seal, Pashupati
seal, three cylindrical seals of the Mesopotamian type, a
piece of woven cloth, Painted seal (Demi-God)
Lothal Gujarat on Bhogva Only port-town of IVC
river near Gulf of Sluice gate and channel were found to maintain regular
Cambay water levels
Known as Manchester of IVC
Houses were facing the door (Exception is Lothal – All
other sites - Doors away from road)
Findings
Bead making factory, dockyard, button seal, fire altars,
painted jar (Bird and fox), Rice husk, Metal-workers shops,
Double Burial of men and women in single grave,
terracotta model of ship, Persian and Iranian Seal,
Baharainean seal, Measuring scales
Dholavira Gujarat in Rann of Only site to be divided into 3 parts
Kachchh Figure of chariot tied to a pair of bullocks and driven by a
nude human, Water harvesting and number of reservoirs,
use of rocks for constructions, a stadium, Rock – cut
architecture
Chanhudaro Sindh on the Indus Bead making factory, use of lipstick, only Indus site
river without a citadel, Inkpot, Bead maker shops, Bronze
toy cart, Bangle factory
Kalibangan Rajasthan on the Baked/burnt bangles, fire altars, small circular pits
bank of Ghaggar containing large urns and accompanied by pottery, bones
river of camel, Wooden plough, Lower fortified town, Wooden
drainage
Rakhigarhi Haryana, India Evidence of Burial pit, Terracotta wheels, toys, figurines,
pottery. Largest site, partially excavated
Surkotada Gujarat Bones of Horse (Only Site), Oval grave, Pot Burials
Banawali Haryana Barley, terracotta figure of plough, Beads
Evidence of both pre-Harappan and Harappan culture
Daimabad Maharastra A sculpture of a bronze chariot, 45 cm long and 16 cm
wide, yoked to two oxen, driven by a man 16 cm high
standing in it; and three other bronze sculptures.
Southernmost IVC site
Kerala-no- Gujarat Salt production centre, by evaporating sea water
dhoro or
Padri
Manda, Jammu & Kashmir northernmost Harappan site in Himalayan foothills
Jammu
Mehrgarh Balochistan, Earliest agricultural community
Pakistan Pre Harappan-Site
Amri On the bank of Indus Antelope evidence
river

2. Architecture of Indus Valley

• Mostly used burnt bricks
• No large monuments or structures
• Citadels or Acropolis were built for defence and to keep enemies out
• For protections from seasonal floods and polluted waters, the settlement was built on giant
platforms and elevated grounds
• Used English Bond Method
1. Town Planning
• Rectangular Grid pattern
• Usually 2 parts; Upper Town and Lower Town
• Upper town – mostly for ruling class; on citadels
• Lower town – brick houses; inhabited by common people
• Dholavira – had 3 parts; Upper town, Middle town and
Fig: Town of Indus Valley Civilization
Lower town.
• Thick layers of well baked bricks were used.
• Gypsum was used as mortar
• Roads – right angle to one another
2. Houses
• Used burnt mud bricks.
• Doors away from road (except Lothal)
• Well ventilated houses
Fig: Houses of Indus Valley
• Each house had a private well and a private lavatory Civilization
• Some houses had 2 storey – Wooden Stairs
3. Drainage System
• Small drains from houses connected to larger ones along the
main roads
• Drains were covered
• At regular intervals soak pits were constructed for cleaning
purpose
Fig: Drainage of Indus Valley

Civilization

2. Arts of the Mauryan Period
• 6th century BCE marks the beginning of new religious and

social movements in the Gangetic valley in the form of
Buddhism and Jainism which were part of the shraman
tradition.
• By the fourth century BCE the Mauryas established their power
and by the third century BCE, a large part of India was under
Mauryan control.
• Ashoka emerged as the most powerful king of the Mauryan
dynasty who patronised the shraman tradition in the third
century BCE.
• Worship of Yakshas and mother goddesses were prevalent
during that time.
Court Art
Palaces
• Primarily made of Wood – evidence from Megasthenes Indica.
Megasthenes described Chandragupta Mauryas Palace as
Master piece
• Palaces are famous for Central Pillar halls.
• Palaces are seen at Kumrahar and Pataliputra.
• Eg - Ashokan Palace was seen by Fa Hien in 5th Century, Chandragupta
Maurya’s palace.
Pillars
• Rock cut pillars
• Top portion of pillar was carved with capital figures like bull, lion, Fig: Remnants of
elephant etc., standing on a square or circular abacus. Mauryan Palace
• Abacuses are decorated with stylised lotuses.

• Some of the existing pillars with capital figures were
found at Basarah-Bakhira, Lauriya-Nandangarh,
Rampurva, Sankisa and Sarnath.
• Ashokan Pillars – usually made of Chunar sandstone.
• While most Ashoka pillar edicts were in Pali and Prakrit
language, few were written in Greek or Aramaic
language also
• The main purpose was to spread the Buddhist ideology and court orders in the entire
Mauryan empire.
• Erection of pillars was prevalent in the Achaemenian Empire as well.

Examples of Pillar inscriptions

Major Pillar Sarnath Lion Capital: Near Varanasi
Inscriptions Vaishali Pillar, Bihar, single lion, with no inscription.
Sankissa Pillar, Uttar Pradesh
Lauriya-Nandangarth, Champaran, Bihar.
Lauriya-Araraj, Champaran, Bihar
Allahabad pillar, Uttar Pradesh.
Minor Pillar Rummindei Pillar Inscription: Asokha’s visit to Lumbini & exemption of
Inscriptions Lumbini from tax.
Nigalisagar Pillar Inscription, Nepal: It mentions that Asoka increased the
height of stupa of Buddha Konakamana to its double size.
Similarities and differences of Mauryan and Achaemenian Pillars
Similarities Differences
• Polished Stones and Motifs • The Achaemenid pillars were generally part of some
• Idea of inscribing proclamations larger architectural scheme, while the Ashokan pillars
were simple and independent freestanding
• Inscriptions of both empires begin
monuments.
in the third person and then move
to the first person. • Mauryan shafts are built of monolith (single piece of
stone), Achaemenian shafts were built of separate
segments of stones (aggregated one above the other).
• Most of the Persian pillars have a fluted/ ridged
surface while the Mauryan pillars have a smooth
surface.
Lion Capital, Saranath

• Built in commemoration of first sermon or
Dhammachakrapravartana by Buddha
• Built by Ashoka
• Capital originally had 5 parts; the shaft, a lotus bell base, a drum on the
bell base with four animals proceeding clockwise, the figures of four
majestic addorsed lions and the crowning element.
• The capital without the crowning wheel and the lotus base has been
adopted as the National Emblem of Independent India.
• The capital has four lions firmly seated back-to-back on a circular
abacus.
• The abacus has the depiction of a chakra (wheel) having twenty-four
spokes in all the four directions and a bull, a horse, an elephant and a
lion (BEHL) between every chakra is finely carved.
• The circular abacus is supported by an inverted lotus capital. Each petal
of the lotus is sculpted keeping in mind its density.

Stupas
• Stupas are burial mounds
• During the period of Ashoka, the art of stupas reached
its climax.
• Viharas = Residential quarters for Monks.
• Chaityas or Chaityagriha = Worship place
• The stupa consists of a cylindrical drum and a circular
anda with a harmika and chhatra on the top which
Fig: Parts of a Stupa
remain consistent throughout with minor variations
and changes in shape and size.
• Apart from the circumambulatory path, gateways were added.
• Buddha is depicted symbolically on Stupas through footprints,
stupas, lotus throne, chakra, etc.
• The events from the life of the Buddha, the Jataka stories, were
depicted on the railings and torans of the stupas.
• Among the Jataka stories that are frequently depicted are
Chhadanta Jataka, Vidurpundita Jataka, Ruru Jataka, Sibi
Jataka, Vessantara Jataka and Shama Jataka.
Fig: Stupa worship
• After the death of Buddha, 9 stupas were erected. 8 of them had sculpture at Barhut
the relics of Buddha at their medhi while the ninth had the pot in
which the relics were originally kept.
• 9 Stupas were located at Rajagraha, Vaishali, Kapilavastu,
Allakappa, Ramagrama, Vethadipa, Pava, Kushinagar and
Pippalvina.
• Stupas were also constructed at Avanti and Gandhara which are
outside the Gangetic valley.
• Stupa, vihara and chaitya are part of Buddhist and Jaina
monastic complexes but the largest number belongs to the
Buddhist religion. Fig: Panel carvings at
• Other Examples - Bairat in Rajasthan (third century BCE), great Sanchi
stupa at Sanchi
Popular Art
Cave Architecture
• Caves during Mauryan Period were mainly used as Viharas.
• Caves were marked by highly polished finish of interior walls and decorative gateways.
• Lomas Rishi caves and Rock-cut elephant at Dhauli in Orissa is an important examples of
Rock cut architecture of this period.

Lomus Rishi Caves

• The rock-cut cave carved at Barabar hills near Gaya in Bihar
• The facade of the cave is decorated with the semi-circular
chaitya arch as the entrance.
• The elephant frieze carved in high relief on the chaitya arch
shows considerable movement.
• The interior hall of this cave is rectangular with a circular
chamber at the back.
• The entrance is located on the side wall of the hall. Fig: Lomus Rishi cave
entrance
• The cave was donated by Ashoka for the Ajivika sect (Ajivikas
were atheists and rejected the authority of the Vedas as well as Buddhist ideas.)
• An isolated example of this period.
Sculptures
• Mainly for decoration of stupas.
• Famous sculpture of the period is Yaksha and Yakshini.
Yaksha and Yakshini

• Worship of Yakshas and mother goddesses were prevalent
• Yaksha (Pali yakkha) are caretakers of the natural treasures hidden in the earth and tree roots.
• yaksha is the male guard and Yakshini is the female guard of lord kubera and his wealth.
• They safe guard the golds, diamonds, other precious stones that are hidden under the earth i.e.
the core of the earth
• They appear in Hindu, Jain and Buddhist texts
• Large statues of Yakshas and Yakshini are found at many places like Patna, Vidisha and
Mathura.
• One of the finest examples is a Yakshini figure from Didarganj, Patna
Yakshini at Didarganj
• Life-size image
• Holding a Chauri in right hand and left hand is broken.
• Tall, well proportioned, free-standing sculpture
• Made of sandstone with a polished surface.
• Face – round, fleshy cheeks
• Neck- small; eyes, nose and lips are sharp.
• Tightening of garment around belly creates the effect of bulging belly.
• Lower garment – every fold is shown by protruding lines clinging to the
legs which creates a transparent effect
• Thick bell ornaments adorn the feet
• Hair – tied in a knot at back. both the legs

Pottery
• Pottery of the Mauryan period is generally referred to as Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW).
• They were characterised by the black paint and highly lustrous finish and were generally used
as luxury items.
• The main centres of NBPW Pottery were Kosambi and Patliputra
Mudras of Buddha or Hand Gestures of Buddha
DHARMACHAKRA MUDRA: called as the gesture of 'Teaching of the

Wheel of Dharma'. Both the hands which are held against the chest,
the left-facing inward, covering the right facing outward.
DHYAN MUDRA: known as Samadhi or Yoga mudra. Two hands are

placed on the lap and place the right hand on the left hand with
stretched fingers.
BHUMISPARSHA MUDRA: known as “touching the Earth”

which represents the moment of the Buddha's awakening. The right
hand, which is held above the right knee, reaching toward the ground
with the palm inward while touching the lotus throne.
VARADA MUDRA: represents the offering, welcome, charity, giving,
compassion and sincerity. Both the hands in which palm of the right
hand facing forward and fingers extended and left-hand palm placed
near omphalos with extended fingers.
KARANA MUDRA: gesture signifies the warding off evil which is

performed by raising the index and the little finger and folding the other
fingers.
VAJRA MUDRA: gesture denotes the fiery thunderbolt that

symbolizes the five elements, i.e., air, water, fire, earth, and
metal. It is performed with the help of right fist, left-hand forefinger,
which placed by enclosing the erect forefinger of the left hand in the
right fist with the tip of the right forefinger touching (or curled around)
the tip of the left forefinger.
VITARKA MUDRA: signifies the discussion and transmission of the

teachings of the Buddha. It is performed by joining the tips of the
thumb and the index fingers together while keeping the other fingers
straight with thumbs touching the index fingers.

ABHAYA MUDRA: It is a gesture of fearlessness or blessing that

represents the protection, peace, benevolence and dispelling of
fear. It is performed with the help of right hand by raising to shoulder
height with a bent arm and the face of the palm will be facing outward
with fingers upright whereas the left hand hanging down while
standing.
UTTARABODHI MUDRA: This gesture denotes the supreme
enlightenment by connecting oneself with divine universal
energy. It is performed with the help of both the hand, which placed at
the heart and the index fingers touching and pointing upwards and the
remaining fingers intertwined.
ANJALI MUDRA: It is also called 'Namaskara Mudra' or ‘Hridayanjali
Mudra' that represents the gesture of greeting, prayer and adoration.
It is performed by pressing the palms of the hands together in which the
hands are held at the heart chakra with thumbs resting lightly against
the sternum.
3. Post Mauryan Trends in Indian

Art and Architecture
From the second century BCE onwards, various rulers established their control over the vast
Mauryan Empire: the Shungas, Kanvas, Kushanas and Guptas in the north and parts of central
India; the Satavahanas, Ikshavakus, Abhiras, Vakatakas in southern and western India.
ARCHITECTURE
Rock cut caves

• Development of two types of rock cut caves; Chaitya and Vihara.
• Examples:

Karle Chaitya
• By Satavahanas
• Biggest rock cut chaitya hall and most ornamented
• Double storeyed
Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves

• by king Kharavela in 1st-2nd BC
• has both natural and man-made caves
• Udayagiri caves – famous for Hathigumpa Inscription in
Brahmi script.
• According to the inscriptions, the caves were meant for Jain
monks.
• There are numerous single-cell excavations.
• The upper part of the cells is decorated with a series of chaitya
arches.
Kanheri Caves
• group of caves and rock-cut monuments cut into a
massive basalt outcrop
• contain Buddhist sculptures and relief carvings, paintings
and inscriptions, dating from the 1st century CE to the 10th
century CE.
• A congregation hall with huge stone pillars contains
a stupa (a Buddhist shrine).
Stupas
• Became larger and more decorative
• Stone was used instead of wood and brick
• Shungas decorated the toranas using Hellenistic features.
Examples:
Bharhut Stupas
• Famous for its sculptures.
Fig: Barhut stupa
• Bharhut sculptures-
• In the relief panels depicting narratives, illusion of three-dimensionality is shown with tilted
perspective.
• Availability of the space is utilised to the maximum by the sculptors.
• Narrative reliefs at Bharhut show how artisans used the pictorial language very effectively to
communicate stories.
• Example: Queen Mayadevi’s dream, Jataka Panel

Fig: Queen Mayadevi’s Fig: Jataka Panel at

Dream at Bharhut Bharhut
Sanchi Stupas
• Next phase of sculptural development at Sanchi Stupa-1,
Mathura, and Vengi in Andhra Pradesh - stylistic progression.
• There are 3 stupas at Sanchi; Stupa 1 – presumed to have relics
of Buddha, Stupa 2 – Relics of 10 famous arhats and Stupas 3 –
relics of Sariputta and Mahamougalayana. Fig: Sanchi Stupa
• Stupa-1 at Sanchi
• Has upper as well as lower pradakshinapatha or
circumambulatory path.
• The pradakshinapatha around the stupa is covered with the
vedika.
Fig: Torana at Sanchi Stupa.
• Has four beautifully decorated toranas depicting various events
from the life of the Buddha and the Jatakas.
• Ashokan lion capital is found here.
• Buddha is shown symbolically as an empty throne, feet,
chhatri, stupas etc.,
• Toranas are present on all 4 sides. Each torana consists of two
vertical pillars and three horizontal bars on the top.
• Guardian images on pillars are called as Shalabhanjika (i.e., Fig: Shalabhanjika image in torana.
lady holding the branch of a tree)
SCULPTURE
GANDHARA MATHURA AMARAVATI

Greek influence = Indigenous Indigenous
Hellenistic
Early- Bluish Grey stone Spotted Red sandstone White marbles
Later- Mud and Stucco

Mainly Buddhist image All 3 religion images were Mainly Buddhist images
made
Patron – Kushanas Kushanas Satavahanas
Region – North-West Frontier Mathura Region Krishna-Godavari Delta
area
Secular elements Secular + Religious Secular + Religious
Features: Features: Features:
Spiritual Face and head – shaven Natural and erotic figures
Wavy hair Smiling face = delighted Less emphasis on individual
Few ornaments mood features
Yogi posture Tight dress Large number of female figures
Half-closed round eye Padmasana and different Jataka tales
Protuberance on head mudras Standing/sitting Posture
Transparent drapery Protuberance on head Females- different Postures.
Plain Halo Profusely decorated Halo
Elongated ears
Buddha Head, Taxila

• Dates back to 2nd Century CE and belongs to Kushana Period.
• Has Greco-Roman elements
• Has typical Hellenistic features.
• Curly hair of Buddha - thick and covered layer of sharp and linear strokes.
• Plane forehead having Protruding eyeballs
• Eyes are half-closed and face and cheeks are not round
Seated Buddha, Katra Mound, Mathura Seated Buddha, Sarnath

• Image belongs to 2nd century • Late 5th century CE
• Represents Buddha with 2 Bodhisattva • Made of Chunar Sandstone
attendants • Buddha in Padmasana.
• Seated in Padmasana and right hand – • Represents Dhammachakrapravartana
in Abhaya mudra. • Fine example of Sarnath school
• Ushanisha -vertical raised projection of • Slender body. Outlines are delicate, very
hair rhythmic.
• Fleshy body and broad shoulders. • Drapery clings to the body and is transparent
• The sanghati (garment) covers only one • Face is round, eyes are half closed, lower lip
shoulder and has been made is protruding
prominently visible covering the left • The ushanisha has circular curled hairs.
hand. • The back of the throne is profusely decorated

• Seated on a Lion Throne. with different motifs of flowers and creepers

• Bodhisattvas: Vajrapani and Padmapani placed in a concentric circle.
• The halo around the head of the Buddha

is very large and is decorated with
simple geometric motifs.
Buddhist Monuments of South India
• Vengi in Andhra Pradesh has many stupa sites like Jagayyapetta, Amaravati, Bhattiprolu,
Nagarjunkonda, Goli, etc.
• Amaravati has a Mahachaityas and had many sculptures
Fig: Amaravati drum slab Fig: Panel at Nagarjunkonda
• Amaravati Stupa also has pradakshinapatha enclosed within a Vedika on which many
narrative sculptures are depicted.
• Like Sanchi, the early phase is devoid of Buddha images but during the later phase, in the
second and third centuries CE, the Buddha images are carved.
• Figures are slender, have a lot of movement, bodies are shown with three bents.
• The animated movement in the figures gets reduced in the sculptures of Nagarjunkonda and
Goli in the third century CE.
• Guntapalle is a rock-cut cave site near Eluru.
Cave Tradition in Western India
• Mainly three architectural types were executed -

i. apsidal vault-roof chaitya halls (found at Ajanta, Pitalkhora, Bhaja);

ii. apsidal vault-roof pillarless hall (found at Thana-Nadsur in Maharashtra); and
iii. flat-roofed quadrangular hall with a circular chamber at the back (found at Kondivite in
Maharashtra).
• The three main cave tradition in western India are; Ajanta, Ellora and Elephanta.
AJANTA
• In Aurangabad, Maharashtra.
• It was declared as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983
• Has 29 caves. 4 are chaityas
• It is the only surviving example of paintings of 1st Century BC
and 5th century CE (5th century paintings – outward projections)
• The reference of Ajanta caves can be found in the travel accounts
of Chinese Travellers Fa Hien and Hieun Tsang
• Vakataka Kings patronaged Ajanta Caves
• It is situated on river Waghora
• Cave 16, 17, 19 – Guptas
• Early caves = Hinayana
Fig: Ajanta caves
• Later phase = Mahayana
• Theme: Jataka, Buddha, Avadhanas
CAVE PATRON
Cave no. 16 Varahadeva
Cave no. 17-20 Upendragupta
Cave no. 26 Buddhabhadra
Cave no. 4 Mathuradasa
• The chaitya Cave Nos. 19 and 26 are elaborately carved. Their facade is decorated with
Buddha and Bodhisattva images.
• Cave No. 26 is very big and the entire interior hall is carved with a variety of Buddha images,
the biggest one being the Mahaparinibbana image.

Features of Ajanta Paintings

• Only Buddhist painting
• Most designs have heroic proportions
• Centrality – attention drawn to the most important person in the
painting.
• Paintings are spontaneous and unrestrained
• Stories illustrated are continuous and elaborate
• 5th century paintings – outward projections, lines clearly define and
rhythmic. Also, body colour merged with outline.
• One of the striking features of these paintings is the absence of Blue
Colour
Fig: Painting of
Caves and Features Yashodara and Rahula in
cave 17, Ajanta
• Cave no. 1 – Mahajanaka Jataka, Padmapani, Vajrapani
• Cave 1 and 2 – orderly, naturalistic; half-closed, elongated eyes; Natural posture
• Cave no. 9 – limited colours
• Cave no. 10 – Chhadanta Jataka
• Cave no. 16 – Dying Princess painting
• Cave no. 17 – Buddha, Yashodara and Rahula,
• Apsara, Chhadanta removing his tusk.
Fig: Apsara in Fig: Painting in cave Fig: Dying Princess

cave 17, Ajanta 17, Ajanta painting in cave 16,
Ajanta

Padmapani Bodhisattva, Ajanta Cave No. 1

• Dates back to 5th century CE
• Is on backwall of the interior hall.
• He is holding a lotus in his right hand
• Has large shoulders and has 3 bents in the body creating a
movement in the picture.
• Outlines are merged with the body volume creating a 3D effect.
• Figure of Bodhisattva is wearing a big crown. Head is slightly bent
to the left.
• Eyes are half-closed and are slightly elongated. Nose is sharp Fig: Padmapani, Cave 1,
and straight. Ajanta
• Lines are delicate, rhythmic and define the contours of the body.
• The foreshortened right hand of the Boddhisattva makes the
image more solid, and effectively dense.
• Light red, brown, green and blue colours are used.
Mara Vijaya, Ajanta Cave NO. 26

• Only sculptural representation sculpted on the right wall of Cave
No. 26.
• Panel shows the image of the Buddha in the centre surrounded
by Mara’s army along with his daughter.
• The event is part of the enlightenment
• Relief sculptural panel is highly animated and shows a very
matured sculptural style at Ajanta.
• The figure on the right shows Mara coming with his army
consisting of various kinds of people including some with Fig: Mara Vijaya, Cave 26,
grotesque animal faces. Ajanta
• On the left lower end, the image of Mara is shown contemplating
how to disturb Siddhartha, the name of the Buddha before
enlightenment.
ELLORA CAVES
• Located nearly 100 kms away from Ajanta caves in Maharashtra

• The Ellora Complex was designated as UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983
• Total number of caves - 34
• All 3 religion caves are found here. i.e., Buddhist (12), Brahmanical (17) and Jainism (5)
• 12 Buddhist Caves belonging to Vajrayana sect. They are big, (1/2/3 storeyed), with massive
pillars. These caves are plastered and painted.

• Cave 10 – Vishwakarma Cave or Carpenter’s cave is the most famous Buddhist cave at Ellora
• Cave 12- 3 storey
• Cave 14- only double storeyed Brahmanical cave; Ravana ki khai is the theme
• Brahmanical Caves – cave 13-28

• Shaivite themes like Ravana Shaking Kailasa, Andakasuravadha, Kalyanasundara etc.,
• Vaishnavite themes - different avatars of Vishnu
• Cave 15 – Dashavatara temple
• Cave 16 – Kailasanatha Temple – also called as Kailash leni – by Krishna I. It is a monolithic
sculpture. The temple is a remarkable example of Dravidian Architecture with Pallava
influence. It was built by Rastrakuta King Krishna 1 in 8th Century
• The Five Jain Caves at Ellora belong to Digambara Sect
Fig: Kailasanatha Temple,

Ellora Fig: Seated Buddha,
Chaitya hall, Ellora
• The notable Jain caves are Chhota Kailash, Indra Sabha and Jagannath Sabha
ELEPHANTA
• Near Mumbai are dominated by the Shaivite faith.

• Contemporary with Ellora, and its sculptures show
slenderness in the body, with stark light and dark effects.
• Known locally as Gharapuri Caves, these were constructed
about the mid-5th to 6th centuries AD.
• The Elephanta Caves in their entirety, and the forested areas
around them, were declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site
way back in 1987.
• Famous sculpture = TRIMURTI / MAHESHMURTI
Fig: Trimurti, Elephanta
• Dates back to 6th century CE
• Image is large in size.

• The central head is the main Shiva figure whereas the other two visible heads are of Bhairava
and Uma.
• Central Face – round face, thick lips and heavy eyelids.
• Each face has a different crown as per its iconographic prescription.
Cave Tradition in Eastern India

• Buddhist caves have also been excavated in eastern India, mainly in the coastal region of Andhra
Pradesh, and in Odisha.
• One of the main sites in Andhra Pradesh is Guntapalle in Eluru district.
• The caves have been excavated in the hills along with the structured monasteries.
• The main vihara caves, despite the small dimensions, have been decorated with chaitya arches
on the exterior. They are rectangular with vaulted roof and are carved single-storeyed or double-
storeyed without a large central hall.
• The Guntapalle chaitya cave is circular with a stupa in the circular hall and a chaitya arch
carved at the entrance. The cave is relatively small when compared to the caves in western India.
• At Anakapalli near Vishakhapatnam, caves were excavated and a huge rock-cut stupa was
carved out of the hillock during the fourth–fifth centuries CE. It is a unique site as it has the
biggest rock-cut stupas in the country.
Some Other Caves in India

Caves Features
Bagh caves Located on the bank of the Bagh river in Madhya Pradesh
It is a group of 9 Buddhist caves developed around 6th Century
A.D.
It is architecturally very similar to the Ajanta caves.
It is among the 2 caves where Gupta cave paintings are seen,
other being Ajanta
Junagadh caves Buddhist caves located in Junagadh district of Gujarat.

There are not actually caves here, but three different sites can be
found.
(1) Khapra Kodiya,
(2) Baba Pyare,
(3) Upar kot.
A unique feature of the Junagadh caves is the presence of a 30-
50 ft high citadel known as “Upar Kot” in front of the prayer hall.
Nasik caves It is a group of 24 Buddhist caves, also known as “Pandav Leni”.

Under hinayana sect, Buddha’s presence is indicated through

the use of motifs and symbols like throne and footprints. And
later, the idols of Buddha were also carved inside these caves
representing influence of Mahayana Buddhism.
The site also depicts an excellent system of water
management indicated through presence of water tanks carved
out of solid rocks.
4. Temple Architecture and Sculpture
EARLY TEMPLES
• Started during the Guptas, with single roomed chamber as a temple.

• 5 stages of temple architecture;
i. Flat roof, square shape
portico on shallow pillars
entire structure on low platforms
Ex: Temple 17 at Sanchi
ii. Higher Platform
2-storeyed
Covered circumambulatory path
Ex: Parvati Temple, MP
iii. Shikara on flat roof
Panchayatana Style
Ex: Dashavatara temple, Deogarh
iv. Main shrine became more rectangular
Ex: Ter temple, Sholapur
v. Circular temples with shallow rectangular projections
Ex: Maniyar Math, Rajgir
Fig: Maniyar Math, Rajgir Fig: Ter Temple, Sholapur

BASIC FORM OF THE HINDU TEMPLE
1. Sanctum = Garbhagriha
2. Mandapa
3. Shikara – in North India
Vimana – in South India
4. Vahana
NAGARA VESARA DRAVIDA

Built on stone platform with Sometimes high platform present No high platform
steps leading to it and sometimes absent
No boundary wall Boundary wall – present in some Elaborate boundary wall
and absent in some present
Shikaras – 3 types; Shikaras – mix of nagara and Huge shikaras –
Latina, phamsana and Rekha dravida pyramidical shape
Deul
Pillars - absent Pillars – present Pillars – Prominent feature
Gopurams - absent Gopurams not present in all Gopurams – Present
No water tank Water tank may or may not Water tank is present
present
Ganga and Yamuna – at the Dwarapalas – on gateway
entrance of garbhagriha of the temples.
Amalaka – present Amalaka – may or may not present Amalaka - absent
Fig: Nagara Temple

Fig: Dravida Temple

KALINGA SCHOOL
Features
• Also called as Odisha Style.
• Broadly comes under Nagara Style
• In Kalinga Architecture, basically a temple is made in two parts, a tower and a hall. The tower
is called deul and the hall is called jagmohan.
• The most repeated form is the horseshoe shape, which has come from the earliest times, starting
with the large windows of the chaitya-grihas.
• Exterior walls – lavish decoration
• Interior walls – plain
• No pillars, iron girders are absent
• Square ground plan
• Boundary walls present
Examples
1. Konark sun temple
2. Jagannath temple
3. Lingaraj temple, Bhubaneshwar
KHAJURAHO SCHOOL
Features
• Also called as Chandela Style
• Built in Central Part of India by Chandela Rulers
• Interior and exterior – lavish decoration
• Erotic sculptures from Vatsyayana’s Kamasutra are used for
decorations
• Sandstone is used Fig: Khajuraho Temple
• 3 chambers;
•
• North / east facing
• Panchayatana style - the main shrine is surrounded by
four subsidiary shrines at four different corners.
• High platform
Examples:
1. Kandariya Mahadeo temple
2. Lakshmana Temple Fig: Lakshmana Temple

SOLANKI SCHOOL
Features:
• Built in North – Western Parts of India including Gujarat and
Rajasthan
• Devoid of carvings
• Garbhagriha connected to mandapa both internally and externally
• Decorative arched gateways = Toranas
• Presence of step tank – suryakund Fig: Dilwara Temple
• Steps of tank – has small shrines made of wood
• Sandstone, black basalt and soft marble is used.
• East facing
Examples:
1. Modhera sun temple
2. Dilwara Temple
VIJAYANAGARA SCHOOL
Features
• Also known as Provida style of architecture. Fig: Modhera Sun Temple
• Influence of Islamic style is seen
• Walls – highly decorated with geometrical patterns
• Hard Stone tradition emerged
• Gopuram on all sides. Larger and taller ones were called
Rayagopuram
• Monolithic rock pillars
• Ornamentation became rich and heavy
• Yali Sthambha, Kalyana Mantapa, Amman shrine, Rayagopuram
• unique features Fig: Hampi Stone Chariot
o Spouse of chief deity was kept in Amman Shrine
o Kalyan Mandap was used for the Union of God and
Spouse on special occasions
o Monolithic Figures of Nandi are seen
o Larger enclosing walls
o Secular buildings
o Examples – Thousand Pillar Mandap
Lepakshi temple Fig: Yali Sthambha
Vittala temple, Karnataka

Hazara Rama Temple
Veerupaksha temple, Karnataka
Lotus Mahal, Hampi Karnataka

HOYSALA SCHOOL
Features
• Developed under the rule of the Hoysala Empire between the
11th and 14th centuries, mostly concentrated in southern
Karnataka.
• Sometimes called hybrid or vesara as their unique style seems
neither completely Dravida nor Nagara
• Multiple shrines, central pillared hall
• Stellate plan - the plan of these temples starts looking like
a star Fig: Hoysala Architecture
• Use of soft soapstone – intricate carvings

• All chambers had shikaras
• No Vimana on Garbhagriha
• High Jagati – 5-6 feet high
• Walls and stairs – zigzag
• Jaali work
• Examples - Hoysaleshvara temple, Karnataka
Chennakeshava temple, Karnataka Fig: Zigzag walls
Kesava temple, Karnataka
PALLAVA ARCHITECTURE
Important Feature = Pillars (Vyali Sthambha)

Mahabalipuram Architecture
• Ancient port city of Mamallapuram under Pallava dynasty.
• Declared as UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1984 by the name
“Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram”.
• They include;
1. Ratha temples or Pancha Ratha: known as Pandava
Rathas, comprising of Dharmaraja Ratha, Bhima Ratha,
Arjuna Ratha, Nakula and Sahadeva Ratha, and Draupadi Fig: Shore temple, Mahabalipuram
Ratha.
2. Rock-cut caves: which include Varaha Cave Temple,
Krishna Cave Temple
3. Open Air Rock Reliefs: which include Descent of the
Ganges which is also known as Arjuna’s Penance or
Bhagiratha’s Penance carved on two huge boulders.
4. Shore Temple complex: has two small and one large
temple enclosed within a two-tier compound wall studded
with images of Nandi. Fig: Ratha temple, Mahabalipuram
Note: Chola Architecture is also known as Dravida Architecture.
NAYAKA SCHOOL OF
ARCHITECTURE
Nayaka rulers ruled between 16-18 century.

• Also known as MADURAI SCHOOL.
• Has Islamic influence.
Features:
• Presence of Prakarms or huge corridors.
• Gopurams are largest under them.
• Example: Madurai Meenakshi Temple Fig: Madurai Meenakshi Temple
• Gopuram reached its climax
• Intricate carvings.
Pala School of Architecture
• In Bengal region
• Period between 8th and 12th century A.D.
• Palas were primarily Buddhist rulers following Mahayana tradition,
• Pala Kings built lots of Viharas, Chaityas and Stupas
Example: Universities of Nalanda, Jagaddala, Odantapuri and Vikramshila

Sena School of Architecture

• In Bengal region
• Period between 8th and 12th century A.D.
• Senas were Hindus and built temples of Hindu gods, and also sustained Buddhist
architectures
Example: Dhakeshwari temple in Bangladesh
Features of Architecture of Bengal Region:
• Curved / Sloping roof = BANGLA ROOF
• Burnt bricks and clay = TERRACOTA BRICKS –
principle building material
• Tall, curving shikhara crowned by a large amalaka
• Figures were unique in their highly lustrous finish.
Fig: Terracotta Temple, Vishnupur
KASHMIR SCHOOL OF
ARCHITECTURE
Features
• Unique features suited to local geography
• Renowned for its exquisite stone carvings.
• Temple making reached a great height under the rulers of Karakota dynasty and Utpala
dynasty.
• Trefoil arches (Gandhara influence)
• Cellular layout and enclosed courtyard
• Straight-edged pyramidal roof
• Column walls (Greek influence)
• Triangular pediments (Greek influence)
• Relatively a greater number of steps.
5. Indo-Islamic and Colonial Architecture
• By the twelfth century, India was already familiar with monumental constructions in grandiose
settings.
• Certain techniques and embellishments were prevalent and popular, such as trabeation,
brackets, and multiple pillars to support a flat roof or a small shallow dome.
• A noteworthy aspect of these migrations and conquests was that Muslims absorbed many
features of local cultures and traditions and combined them with their own architectural
practices.

• Hence architectural entities or categories showcasing multiple styles are known as

Indo-Saracenic or Indo-Islamic architecture.
Features of Indo-islamic Architecture:
• True Arch style
• Minarets
o Mortar usage
o No human / animal figurines
o Spaciousness and massiveness
o Kufi / Calligraphy on plaster and stone
Fig: Kufi
o Pietra Dura Fig: Jaali work
o Arts of Arabesque
o Foreshortening
o Jaali works
o Decorative patterns were symmetric
o Use of water - Chaharbagh
Typologies of Structures
• Jama Masjids, tombs, dargahs, minars, hammams, formally laid out gardens, madrasas,
sarais or caravan sarais, Kos minars, etc., were constructed over a period of time.
• In spite of the obvious Saracenic, Persian and Turkish influences, Indo-Islamic structures were
heavily influenced by prevailing sensibilities of Indian architectural forms.
• Although religion and religiosity were very important to people of medieval India, as elsewhere,
they borrowed architectural elements liberally.
Decorative forms
• The lotus bud fringe was used to great advantage in the
inner curves of the arches.
• Walls were also decorated with cypress, chinar and
other trees as also with flower vases.
• Many complex designs of flower motifs decorating the
ceilings were also to be found on textiles and carpets.
• Popular colours were blue, turquoise, green and yellow.
• Subsequently the techniques of tessellation (mosaic designs) and pietra dura were made use
of for surface decoration particularly in the dado panels of the walls.
• At times lapis lazuli was used in the interior walls or on canopies.
• Other decorations included arabesque, calligraphy and high and low relief carving and a profuse
use of jalis.
• The roof was a mix of the central dome and other smaller domes, chatris and tiny minarets.
• The central dome was topped with an inverted lotus flower motif and a metal or stone pinnacle.

Materials for Construction

• The walls in all buildings were extremely thick and were largely constructed of rubble
masonary.
• Walls were cased over with chunam or limestone plaster or dressed stone.
• Stones used - quartzite, sandstone, buff, marble
• Polychrome tiles were used to great advantage to finish the walls
• From the beginning of the seventeenth century, bricks were also used for construction
Sarai’s
• A hugely interesting feature of medieval India was the sarais which ringed cities and dotted
the vast space of the Indian sub-continent.
• For temporary accommodation to Indian and foreign travellers, pilgrims, merchants, traders, etc.
• Led to cross-cultural interaction, influences and syncretic tendencies in the cultural sphere
Categorization of Indo-Islamic Architecture
IMPERIAL STYLE (DELHI SULTANATE)
• Includes Slave dynasty, Khiljis and Tughluqs.

Slaves:
Exhibit elements of confrontation between the Hindus and Muslim world.
a. Qutb Minar
• Associated with the much-revered saint of Delhi, Khwaja Qutbuddin

Bakhtiyar Kaki.
• 4 projecting balconies and 5 storeys tapering as they go up
• Built by Iltutmish
• Uppermost 2 storeys of this minar is round rather than with alternating
flute and flanges and is of later addition by Firoz Shah Tughlaq
Fig: Qutb MInar

• Symmetry and rich ornamentation

• British later added railings to the projecting balconies
b. Adhai Din-ka-Jhopra: Ajmer
c. Quwat-ul-Islam Mosque: in Qutub Minar.
Fig: Adhai Din-ka-Jhopra Fig: Quwat-ul-Islam
Khiljis
• Seljuk style
• Used Red Sandstone
• Prominence of Arcuate Style
• Use of Mortar
1. Alai Darwaja
• Near Qutb Minar

Fig: Alai Darwaja
• Excellent calligraphy and intricate designs
2. Siri Fort
Tughluqs
• Used grey sandstone and plaster
• Minimum decoration
• Sloping walls = batter
• Tall gateways and towers
• Arch, lintel and beam Combination
1. Tughlaqabad
2. Jahanpanah Fig: Hauz Khas
3. Hauz khas
Lodhis
• Use of double dome
• use of thick walls
• Enamelled tiles - used for decoration.
• Octagonal shaped tombs introduced by them which
were later adopted by the Mughals
E.g Lodhi garden Fig: Lodhi garden

PROVINCIAL STYLE
• Influence of local traditions.

1. Bengal
• Use of bricks and black marble
• Delicate decorations
• Convex roofs = Bengal Roofs
2. Gujarat
• Use of limestone carvings and geometrical designs
Fig: Bengal roof
• Richly decorated buttresses.
• Patrons borrowed elements from regional temple traditions such as toranas, lintels in mihrabs,
carvings of bell and chain motifs, and carved panels depicting trees, for tombs, mosques
and dargahs.
3. Malwa
• European Influence
• Different colour stones
• No minars
• Large windows Fig: Hindola Mahal
• Artificial Reservoirs = Baolis
1. Roopamathi Pavilion
2. Jahaz mahal: is a 2-storey ship palace between 2 reservoirs,
with open pavilion
3. Hindola Mahal: looks like a railway viaduct bridge.
4. Jaunpur:
• Also called as Sharqi Style
• Avoided use of minars
Atala Mosque
Fig: Atala Mosque, Jaunpur
MUGHAL STYLE
Mughal architecture, building style that flourished in northern and central India from the mid-
16th to the late 17th century.
Features:
• Symmetry
• Red sandstone
• Geometrical ornamentation
• Bulbous domes with constricted necks

• The slender minarets with cupolas at the four corners

• Baked bricks for domes
• Broad gateways
• Gardens for relaxation (Charbagh style)
• Persian, Turkish and Hindu influence
• Types of buildings - majestic gates (entrances), forts, mausoleums, palaces, mosques, sarais,
etc.
• Building material - Red sandstone and white marble
• Arabesque, and geometric patterns on pillars and walls, and palace halls
• Mughals produced many masterpieces in mausoleums than in mosques.
Mughal Rulers and their Architectural Contributions

RULER ARCHITECTURAL CONTRIBUTIONS
BABUR Short reign – No significant Contributions
• Mosque of Kabuli Bagh at Panipat
• Jama Masjid at Sambhal near Delhi.
• Ram Bagh, the first Mughal Garden in India (1528) in Charbagh Style located in
Agra.
HUMAYUN • Persian style became prominent
• Laid foundation for city named Dinpanah
Humayun’s Tomb
• Built by his widow Hamida Begum
• Declared as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1993.
• Mix of Indian and Persian artistry using red sandstone and white marble.
AKBAR • Used Red sandstone
• The buildings lack domes but there is extensive use of Chhatris. (Akbar Style)
• Introduced Tudor Arch
• Built Secular Buildings
Examples 7. Tomb of Saint Salim Chisthi
1. Humayun’s Tomb 8. Jama Masjid
2. Agra fort 9. Diwan-i-aam
3. Fatehpur Sikri (city) 10. Diwan-i-khaas
4. Panch Mahal 11. Govind Dev temple in Vrindavan
5. Buland Darwaja
6. Jodha Palace

JAHANGIR • Special appreciation for the paintings over architecture

Examples
1. Akbar’s Tomb
2. Moti Masjid
3. Shalimar Bagh in Srinagar
SHAH • Called ‘The Prince of Builders’ as the Mughal architecture reached its zenith
JAHAN under his reign.
• Made extensive use of white marble as opposed to red sandstone
• Built Shahjahanabad City
• Superior and Lavish buildings
1. Red Fort
2. Taj Mahal
3. Peacock throne
AURANGZEB • Preferred simplicity over the grandeur
• Mughal architecture saw a decline in his reign
Examples
1. A beautiful pearl mosque in the Red Fort, Delhi
2. Bibi ka Maqbara in Aurangabad for his wife
DECCANI STYLE
Rulers in the Deccan largely ignored the local art and produced an independent style of their own.
Influences in this style come from two main sources:
1. Delhi style: Due to the forced migration of Muhammad Tughlaq from north to the south.
2. Persian Style: Due to the migration of Persians to southern India via sea.
Golgumbaz – BIJAPUR Karnataka

• Mausoleum of Sultan Adil Shah.
• Square building with a circular drum on which the dome rests.
• Used dark grey basalt and decorated with plaster work.
• Amazing acoustical system = Whispering gallery
Charminar – Hyderabad
• It is an impressive structure of four lofty minars
• Built by Mohammad Quli Qutab Shah to celebrate his victory
over an outbreak of plague in 1591.
• The roof has a double screen of arched openings and bulbous
cupolas

Qutb Shahi Tombs – Hyderabad

• Other splendid specimens of Deccan archi-tecture are the tombs
of the Qutb Shahi Rulers of Golconda and the Charminar at
Hyderabad.
• The tombs are perfect examples of the Qutb Shahi style.
Colonial Architecture
PORTUGUESE
• Also called as IBERIAN style.

• Introduces the concept of Patio Houses and Baroque Style.
• Use of contrast colours.
Examples:
1. Se’ Cathedral, Goa
2. Basilica of Bom Jesus, Goa – World Heritage Site
3. Diu fort
Fig: Se’ Cathedral, Goa

FRENCH
• Concept of urban planning was developed by them

• Built using Cartesian grid plans.
Examples:
1. Church of Sacred Heart of Jesus in Puducherry,
2. The Sacred Heart Church of Chandernagar

BRITISH
INDO-GOTHIC
Features:
• Indian+Persian+Gothic
• Thin walls, large structures
• Pointed arches
• Crucified ground plan
• Large windows Fig: Victoria Memorial, Calcutta
• Use of red sandstone.
Examples:
1. Victoria memorial
2. Gateway of India
3. Laxmi Vilas Palace
NEO-ROMAN Fig: Gateway of India
Features:
• Confluence of all styles
• Simplicity and Modernity – compromised
• Focus on circular buildings
• Upturned dome
• Overuse of oriental motifs
Fig: Rashtrapathi Bhavan
• Congested style
Examples:
1. Parliament
2. Rashtrapathi Bhavan
3. Supreme Court
Fig: Supreme Court of India

6. Indian Bronze Sculpture
• Indian sculptors had mastered the bronze medium and the casting process.
• Bronze sculptures and statuettes of Buddhist, Hindu and Jain icons have been discovered
• The cire-perdu or ‘lost-wax’ process for casting.
• Present-day tribal communities also utilise the ‘lost-wax’ process for their art expressions.
North India
• Perhaps the ‘Dancing Girl’ from Mohenjo-Daro is the earliest bronze sculpture datable to 2500
BCE. The limbs and torso of this female figurine are simplified in tubular form.
• Chariot – Daimabad (Maharashtra). datable to 1500 BCE
• Interesting images of Jain Tirthankaras have been discovered from Chausa, Bihar, belonging to
the Kushana Period during second century CE.
• Many standing Buddha images with right hand in Abhaya Mudra were cast in the North India,
particularly in UP and Bihar, during the Gupta and the Post-Gupta periods.
• Sarnath style bronze have fold less drapery E.g. Sultanganj, Bihar, which is a quiet
monumental bronze figure.
• Vakataka bronze images of Buddha from Phophnar, Maharashtra are contemporary with the
Gupta period bronzes.
• The additional importance of the Gupta and Vakataka bronze is that they were portable and
monks carried them from place to place.
• Himachal Pradesh and Kashmir regions also produced bronze images of Buddhist deities as
well as Hindu gods and goddesses.
• In Buddhist Centres like Nalanda, a school of bronze casting emerged around the 9th century,
during the rule of the Pala dynasty
• Worship of female goddesses was adopted which is a part of the growth of the Vajrayana phase
in Buddhism. Images of Tara became popular.
• A famous hoard of Jain bronzes was found at Akota, Gujarat.
Fig: Chola Bronze Fig: Ganesh, seventh Fig: Nataraja, Chola

Sculpture century CE, Kashmir period, twelfth century CE

South India
• Reached a high stage of development in south India during the medieval period.
• Among the Pallava period bronze of the 8th century, the best one is the icon of Shiva seated in
Ardhaparyanka asana (one leg kept dangling). The right hand is in the Achamana Mudra
gesture, suggesting that he is about to drink poison.
• Most beautiful and exquisite statues were produced during the Chola Period in Tamil Nadu from
the tenth to the twelfth century.
• The distinguished patron during the tenth century was the widowed Chola queen, Sembiyan
Maha Devi.
• The well-known dancing figure of Shiva as Nataraja was evolved and fully developed during the
Chola period
• The 9th century Kalyanasundara Murti is highly remarkable for the manner in which
panigrahana (ceremony of marriage) is represented by two separate statuettes.
• During the 16th century known as the Vijayanagara period in Andhra Pradesh, the sculptors
experimented with portrait sculpture. E.g Lifestyle sculpture of Krishna Devaraya at Tirupathi
Nataraja
• In this Chola period bronze sculpture he has been shown
balancing himself on his right leg and suppressing the
apasmara, the demon of ignorance or forgetfulness, with the foot
of the same leg.
• At the same time, he raises his left leg in bhujangatrasita
stance, which represents tirobhava, that is kicking away the
veil of maya or illusion from the devotee’s mind.
• His four arms are outstretched and the main right hand is
posed in abhaya hasta or the gesture suggesting.
• The upper right holds the damaru his favourite musical
instrument to keep on the beat tala.
• The upper left hand carries a flame while the main left hand is
held in dola hasta and connects with the abhaya hasta of the
right hand.
• His hair locks fly on both the sides touching the circular jvala
mala or the garland of flames which surrounds the entire dancing
figuration.

7. Indian Paintings
• We will study Indian Paintings in two parts; Pre-historic paintings and other paintings in India
(includes Folk Painting, Murals, Mughul paintings, Miniature Paintings, Company Paintings and
regional schools of Painting)
1. Pre-Historic Paintings
Limbs/ Principles of Painting:
Given by Vatsyayana in his book KAMASUTRA, in 3rd Century A.D.
SADRISYAN
Portrayal of likeliness
RUPABHEDA of the subject
BHAVA
Variety of form
Creation of
lustre and gleam
with the colours
LIMBS OF
PAINTING
(SHADANGA)
VARNIKABHANG
LAVANYAYOGANAM A Mixing of colours
Immersion of emotions PRAMANAM to resemble the
Proportion of the effects of modelling
object or subject
Prehistoric Paintings: 3 phases
Lakhudiyar
• Place in Uttarakhand.
• Lakhudiyar literally means one lakh caves.
• 3 categories of paintings are seen; man, animal and geometrical
patterns.
• Humans are represented in stick like form Fig: Hand linked dancing
• There is superimposition of paintings Figures, Lakhudiyar
• Earliest are in black. Over these are red ochre paintings and last
comprises of white paintings.

UPPER PALEOLITHIC PERIOD
Features Images
• Linear Representation
• Green and dark red colours are used.
• They are few wash paints
• Green colour used for dancers and Red for hunters
• Huge animal Figures like tigers, rhinos and bison are drawn.
Also, geometric patterns are used.
Figure – Upper Paleolithic

paintings in BIMBEKTA
MESOLITHIC PERIOD
Features Images
• Largest number of paintings belonged to this.
• The themes multiplied while paintings are smaller in size.
• Hunting scenes are predominant.
• Hunters are shown wearing simple clothes and ornaments.
• Some pictures depict hunters chasing men while in others they
are being chased.
• Animals were painted in naturalistic style.
• Humans were depicted only in a stylistic manner. Figure – Mesolithic paintings
in BIMBEKTA
• Community dances provide a common theme.
• There are paintings of people gathering fruit or honey from
trees, and of women grinding and preparing food.
• Some of the pictures of men, women and children seem to
depict a sort of family life.

CHALCOLITHIC PERIOD
Features Images
• Paintings of this period reveal association, contact and mutual
exchange of requirements of cave dwellers.
• Common motifs were cross-hatched squares and lattices.
PAINTINGS OF BHIMBEKTA
Features
• Variety of colours like shades of white, yellow, orange,
red ochre, purple, brown, green and black.
• Paints were made by grinding various rocks and
minerals.
• Red from haematite (geru)
• Green from a stone called chalcedony
• White from limestone.
Figure – Painting of BIMBEKTA
• Brushes made of plant fibre
• Paintings are on walls and ceilings.
2. Other Indian Paintings:
a. Later mural traditions:
• Site in Karnataka.
• Capital of early Chalukyan dynasty.
• King Mangalesha patronised the excavation of Badami
Caves.
• Only a fragment of the painting has survived on the
vaulted roof of the front mandapa.
• Paintings in this cave depict palace scenes.
Fig: Queen and attendants,
• The sinuously drawn lines, fluid forms and compact Badami
composition exemplify the proficiency and maturity the
artists had achieved in the sixth century CE.
• Their eye-sockets are large, eyes are half-closed, and lips are protruding.

MURALS UNDER PALLAVA, PANDYA AND CHOLAS
• Tradition of painting extended towards Tamil Nadu during Pallava,

Pandya and Cholas.
• Mahendravarma I who ruled in the seventh century was responsible
for building temples at Panamalai, Mandagapattu and Kanchipuram.
• The inscription at Mandagapattu mentions Mahendravarma I with
titles such as Vichitrachitta, Chitrakarapuli, Chaityakari, which
show his interest in art activities. Fig: Paintings at
Sittanavasal
• Paintings at the Kanchipuram temple were patronised by the
Pallava king, Rajsimha.
• Faces are round and large.
• Lines are rhythmic with increased ornamentation when compared with the paintings of an
earlier periods.
• Pandyas too patronised art. Tirumalaipuram caves and Jaina caves at Sittanavasal are some of
the surviving examples.
• Sittanavasal, the paintings are visible on the ceilings of shrines, in verandas, and on the
brackets.
• On the pillars of the veranda are seen dancing figures of celestial nymphs.
• The body is rendered in yellow with subtle modelling.
• Supple limbs, expression on the faces of dancers, rhythm in their swaying movement.
• Their eyes are slightly elongated and at times protrude off the face.
• The paintings of Brihadeswara temple exemplify the stylistic maturity.
• Sinuous pre-determined flow of lines, supple modelling of figures, elongation of the
physiognomic features of human figures— all these represent the perfection the Chola artist.
VIJAYANAGARA MURALS
• Many paintings survive in a number of temples. The paintings at Tiruparakunram, near Trichy,
done in the fourteenth century represent the early phase of the Vijayanagar style.
• In Hampi, the Virupaksha temple has paintings on the ceiling of its mandapa narrating
events from dynastic history and episodes from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.
• The faces of the figures are shown in profile, with large frontal eyes. The figures have narrow
waists.
• In keeping with the tradition, the Vijayanagar painters evolved a pictorial language wherein the
faces are shown in profile and figures and objects two-dimensionally. Lines become still but
fluid, compositions appear in rectilinear compartments.
• Lepakshi is another example for Vijayanagar murals

Fig: Dakshinamurty,
Fig: Murals of Vijayanagar
Vijayanagara, Lepakshi
KERALA MURALS
• The painters here evolved a pictorial language and technique of their

own.
• The painters evolved a language taking cues from contemporary
traditions, like Kathakali and kalam ezhuthu, using vibrant and
luminous colours, representing human figures in three-dimensionality.
TANJORE PAINTINGS
• famous for the special style of decorative paintings.

• The Maratha rulers patronized them during the 18th century.
• These paintings are unique as they are mostly created on glass and
Fig: Krishna playing
board instead of cloth and vellum preferred in north India. flute, accompanied by
Gopikas, Krishna temple,
• They are unique because of the use of brilliant colour patterns and the
Pundareekapuram
liberal use of gold leaf.
• They used many types of gemstones and cut glasses for embellishments to create larger than
life images.
• Most of the paintings depicted smiling Krishna in various poses and
various major events in his life.
• These paintings reached their zenith under the patronage of Sarfoji
Maharaj who was a great patron of arts.
• Currently, this school is still operational but they have moved towards
experimenting with diverse subjects like birds, animals, buildings etc.
b. Mughal paintings
• The origin of the Mughal School of Painting is considered to be a
landmark in the history of painting in India. Fig: Tanjore Painting

Under Akbar
• With the establishment of the Mughal empire, the Mughal School of
painting originated in the reign of Akbar in 1560 A.D.
• Emperor Akbar was keenly interested in the art of painting and
architecture. While a boy he had taken lessons in drawing.
• In the beginning of his rule an atelier of painting was established under
the supervision of two Persian masters, Mir Sayyed Ali and Abdul Samad
Khan, who were originally employed by his father Humayun.
• A large number of Indian artists from all over India were recruited to work
under the Persian masters.
• The Mughal style evolved as a result of a happy synthesis of the
Fig: Mughal Painting
indigenous Indian style of painting and the Safavid school of Persian from Ain-i-Akbari
painting.
• The Mughal style is marked by supple naturalism based on close observation of nature and fine
and delicate drawing.
• It is of a high aesthetic merit. It is primarily aristocratic and secular.
Examples:
• An illustrated manuscript of the Tuti-nama appears to be the first work of the Mughal School.
• Between 1564-69 A.D. was completed a very ambitious project in the form of Hamza-
nama illustrations on cloth, originally consisting of 1400 leaves in seventeen volumes.
o In this miniature one can observe that the architecture is Indo-Persian, the tree types are
mainly derived from the Deccani painting and female types are adapted from the earlier
Rajasthani paintings, Women are wearing four cornered pointed skirts and transparent
Muslim veils. Turbans worn by men are small and tight, typical of the Akbar period.
o The Akbar-Nama (circa 1600)
Under Jahangir:
• Under Jahangir, painting acquired greater charm, refinement and
dignity. He had great fascination for nature and took delight in the
portraiture of birds, animals and flowers.
• Besides a number of durbar scenes, portraits, bird, animal and
flower studies were also executed during his period.
• The portrait of Jahangir illustrated is a typical example of
miniature executed during the period of Jahangir.
Examples:
• Popular Mughal painting are a series of the Razm-Nama dated
1616 A.D.
Fig: Portrait Painting of Jahangir
• A series of the Rasikapriya (1610-1615)
• A series of the Ramayana of circa 1610 A.D.

Under Shahjahan
• The Mughal painting maintained its fine quality.
• But the style, however, became over-ripe during the later period of his rule.
• Portraiture was given considerable attention by his painters.
• The well-known artists of his period are Bichiter, Chaitaraman, Anup Chattar, Mohammed Nadir
of Samarquand, Inayat and Makr.
• Apart from portraiture, other paintings showing groups of ascetics and mystics and a number of
illustrated manuscripts were also executed during his period.
Aurangzeb was a puritan and therefore did not encourage art. Painting declined during his period
and lost much of its earlier quality. A large number of court painters migrated to the provincial
courts.
c. Miniature Paintings
• The word ‘miniature’ is derived from the Latin word ‘Minium’, which means red lead paint.
• This paint was used in the illuminated manuscripts during the Renaissance period.
• Miniatures are small and detailed paintings.
• 2 prominent schools; Pala School of Art and Apabhramsa School of Art
Pala School of Art

• It was flourishing during 750-1150 AD. These paintings are
generally found as a part of manuscripts and were generally
executed on palm leaf or vellum paper.
• These are characterised by sinuous lines and subdued tones of the
background imagery.
• There are lonely single figures in the paintings and one rarely finds
group paintings.
Fig: Painting of Pala School
• They have simple compositions and were patronised by some of
those rulers who promoted Buddhism.
• The proponents of the Vajrayana school of Buddhism also used and patronised these paintings.
Apabhramsa School of Art

• This school traces its origin to Gujarat and Mewar region in
Rajasthan.
• It was the predominant school of painting in western India
during 11th to 15th century.
• The most common themes of these paintings were Jain and
in the later period the Vaishanava School appropriated them. Fig: Painting of Apabhramsa School

• The features of the human figures depicted in the paintings have fish-shaped bulging eyes; a
pointed nose and a double chin.
• They tried to begin the trend to make angular faces in the third and fourth profile.
• The figures are usually stiff and even the ornamentation is
carefully done.
Company Paintings
• In the colonial period, a hybrid style of painting emerged that
combined the elements of Rajput, Mughal and other Indian styles
of painting with European elements.
• They mixed their employers European tastes with their Indian Fig: Company Painting
training. This was called the ‘Company Paintings’.
• They were distinguished by the use of water colour and in technique by the appearance of
linear perspective and shading.
• This style of painting originated in Kolkata, Chennai, Delhi, Patna,
Varanasi and Thanjavur.
d. Bazaar Paintings
• They were different from the Company paintings as that school mixed
European techniques and themes with Indian ones.
• The Bazaar school did not take any Indian influence but took the
Roman and Greek influence.
• This school was prevalent in the Bengal and Bihar region.
• They made paintings on everyday bazaar that showed Indian bazaars
with European background. Fig: Bazaar Painting
e. Regional Schools of Painting
School Details
More or less synonymous to the Rajput school of paintings. Many sub schools;
Rajasthani
1. Mewar school: focuses on Sahibdin’s depiction of literary texts – the
schools
Rasikapriya, the Ramayana and the Bhagavata Purana. The unique point of
this period is the extraordinary ‘tamasha’ paintings that show court
ceremonial and city views in unprecedented detail.
2. Kishangarh school: associated with the most romantic legends – Sawant
Singh and his beloved Bani Thani, and of the intertwining of lives and
myths, romance and bhakti. They also made many paintings on the devotional
and amorous relations between Radha and Krishna.
3. Bundi school: Bundi and Kota’s kings were devout devotees of Krishna and in
the 18th century. Their Krishna–bhakti plays a role in painting. Human faces

were round with pointed nose in the paintings. Colour of sky is painted in
different colours and mostly a red ribbon is visible in the sky.
4. Marwar school: it includes Jodhpur and Bikaner. They followed the Mughal
patterns but after the 18th century, the Rajput element became predominant
Pahari styles Style of painting developed in the sub-Himalayan states that were also under the
umbrella of Mughal over lordship.
1. Basholi school: 17th century paintings. expressive faces with a receding
hairline and big eyes that are shaped like lotus petals characterise it. These
paintings use a lot of primary colours. The contrast of colours is associated
with this school and they are borrowed from the Malwa paintings.
2. Kangra school: After the decline of the Mughal empire, many artists trained
in the Mughal style migrated to the Kangra region as they got patronage by
Raja Govardhan Singh in 1774.
Folk Paintings
Folk Painting Description

Paitkar Painting • By the tribal people of Jharkhand
• Paitkar paintings or scroll paintings are considered one of the
ancient schools of painting
• Common theme of Paitkar paintings is ‘What happens to
human life post death’.
Kalamakari Painting • The pen used is made of sharp pointed bamboo, used to
regulate the flow of colours.
• The base is cotton fabric while the colours used are vegetable
dyes.
• It originated at Kalahasti and Machilipatnam in Andhra
Pradesh
• Art includes both printing and painting
• Machilipatnam Kalamkari paintings have been given GI tag
Warli Painting • Warlis are indigenous people that occupy mainly the Gujarat-
Maharashtra border.
• These paintings have close resemblance to the mural
paintings of Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh
• These ritualistic paintings have a central motif of a chaukat
or chauk, which is surrounded by scenes portraying fishing,
hunting, farming, dances, animals, trees and festivals
• Paintings are done on the walls

• The base is made of a mixture of mud, branches and cow

dung that gives it a red ochre colour.
• For painting only white pigment is used, which is made of a
mixture of gum and rice powder.
Phad Painting • Found in Rajasthan
• It is a type of scroll Painting
• It is religious in nature and comprises of drawings of local
deities, Pabuji and Devnarayan.
• Painted with vegetable colours on a long piece of cloth called
phad, they are 15 feet or 30 feet long.
• The subjects have large eyes and round faces.

8. Indian Music
• Source – Natyashastra of Bharata

• Post 13th century – classical Music was split into 2 divisions
Hindustani and Carnatic
Hindustani Music Carnatic Music
Practiced in North India Practiced in South India
Ragas are divided into ‘thaat’ as per this system Ragas are divided into ‘Melakarta’ as per this
system
The time of singing each raga is strictly observed No time theory is followed and any raga can
and ragas are sung only according to their time be sung at any time
There are various gharanas in the system of music There is no gharana classificationin this
system
It is equally divided between vocal and instrumental It is more inclined towards vocal music but
music instrumental music is also practiced
Improvisations are given more imporatnce Compositions are given more important
The shruti concept is not practised in detail Shruti concept is practiced in detail and a lot
of emphasis is given
SCHOOLS OF HINDUSTANI MUSIC
Dhrupad • Oldest and grandest of the Hindustani Music

• Reached its zenith under Akbar. Other patrons were Raja Mansingh of Gwalior
and Raja Ramchandra Bhagela of Rewa
• Music is more important than lyrics
• Lacks flexibility
• Details about it is found in Ain-i-Akbari
• Proponents – Haridas and Tansen
• 4 major Gharanas; Dagari, Darbanga, Bettiah and Talwandi
Khayal • It is Persian word which means idea/imagination
• Origin – Amir Khusrao
• Greater scope for improvisation
• Particular raga and tala with brief text
• Gharanas; Gwalior, Kirana, Patiala, Agra and Bhendi Bazaar
Thumri • Origin – eastern UP
• Romantic and erotic and hence called as Lyric of Indian Classical Music
• Themes: Love, separation and devotion

• Lyrics in Brij Bhasha

Tarana • Rhythm plays crucial role
• Fast tempo
Ghazal • Expression of both pain / separation and beauty of love in spite of pain
• Reached its zenith during Mughals.
FOLK MUSIC
Baul It is a type of religious sect in Bengal. Their music represents a long heritage of
preaching mysticism through songs in Bengal
Pandavani Type of folk music that is based on Mahabharata, with Bhima as hero. Tambura is
the main instrument used
Lavani from Maharashtra. It is a combination of traditional dance and song that is
performed usually on the beats of the Dholki, which is a percussion instrument.
Maand from Rajasthan. developed in the royal courts and hence is also recognised in the
classical circles. It is near to Thumri or Ghazal.
Mando popular in Goa. Unique blend of Indian and Western Musical traditions
Musical Instruments
Instrument DESCRIPTION
Tata vadya Sound produced by vibration of
chords
String tightening determines the pitch
Example: Veena, Violin and Sarangi
Sushira vadya Sound is produced by blowing wind

Pitch is determined by controlling air
passage
Examples: Flutes, reeds etc.,
Avanadha vadya Sound is produced by striking animal
skin stretching across an earthen /
metal pot.
Earliest evidence is in Vedas.
Examples: Tabla, Dholak etc.,
Ghana vadya Earliest instrument by man.
No need of special tuning.
Example: Manjira, Ghungroo etc.,

9. Indian Dance
• The culture of dance in India dates back to ancient times

• Vedas talk about the dance.
• Bharata’s Natyashastra is considered as 5th Veda
• As per Natya Shastra, there are two basic aspects of Indian classical dance.
• Lasya – It denotes grace, bhava, rasa and abhinaya. It is symbolic to the feminine features of
dance as an art form.
• Tandava – This is symbolic to the male aspects of dance and has more emphasis on rhythm and
movement.
• As per Abhinaya Darpan, Nandikeshwara’s famous treatise on dance, an act has been broken
into three basic elements:
• Nritta – It refers to the basic dance steps, performed rhythmically but devoid of any
expression or mood.
• Natya - It means dramatic representations and refers to the story that is elaborated through
the dance recital.
• Nritya - Nritya refers to the sentiment and the emotions evoked through dance. It includes the
mime and the different methods of expression including mudras in the dance.
• There are nine rasas or emotions that are expressed through the dance.
1. Shringaara for love
2. Roudra for anger
3. Bibhatsa for disgust
4. Veera for heroism
5. Shaant for peace and tranquillity
6. Haasya for laughter and comedy
7. Karuna for tragedy
8. Bhayanak for horror
9. Adbhuta for wonder
CLASSICAL DANCES
• Presently, Sangeet Natak Akademi, there exists eight classical dance forms in India.
Bharatanatyam • Prominent in Tamil Nadu
• Also called as Ekharya i.e., one dancer many roles
• Source: Abhinaya Darpana of Nandikeshwara
• Person reciting the dance is called as Nattuvanar.
• Elements of Bharatanatyam recital are; Alarippu, Jatiswaram,
Shabdam, Varnam, Padam, Jawali and Thillana
• It is also referred as Fire dance.

Kuchipudi • Practiced in Andra Pradesh

• Known under generic name Yakshagana
• Theme: Stories of Bhagavatapurana
• Shringara – dominant element
• It is performed as dance drama i.e. performance in groups and
also as solo items.
• It is a combination of Natya, Nritta and Nritya
• Involves difficult foot movements
Kathakali • Practiced in Kerala
• Blend of dance, drama and music
• Heavy makeup and stunning costumes.
• It is related to Koodiyattam.
• Essentially male troupe
• Minimal properties
• Called as Ballad of east
• Use of Percussion instruments and Manipravalam language
• Hand gestures, facial expressions and eye movements are
important.
• Weight of the body is on the outer edges of the feet which are
slightly bent and curved.
Mohiniattam • Practiced in Kerala
• Source: Vyavaharamala by Kunjan Nambiar
• Dance of Mohini (an incarnation of Lord Vishnu)
• Solo performance by girls with circular movements
• Simple dressing
• Gentle foot work
• Lasya is dominant
• It has elements of Bharatanatyam (grace & elegance) and
Kathakali (vigour)
Odissi • Odisha
• Similar to Bharatanatyam
• Hand gestures are important
• Themes: Lores of incarnation of Vishnu
• Tribhanga and Chowk postures.
• The dance form symbolises the element of water
• Elaborate hairstyle, silver jewellery, long necklace etc., are
worn
• A soft dance backed by soothing lyrics
• Major Subjects - incarnations of Lord Vishnu and verses of
Jayadeva’s Gita Govinda.

Manipuri • Manipur
• It emphasises on devotion.
• Lai Haroba is its earliest form.
• Face is covered with thin veil
• Facial expression is given less prominence.
• Naga Bhanda mudra – body connected through curves in the
shape of 8
• Associated with rituals and traditional festivals
• Principal performers are the maibas and maibis (priests and
priestesses)
Kathak • North India
• Foot works are important
• Kathak derived its name from the ‘Kathika’ or the story-tellers
who recited verses from the epics, with gestures and music.
• Primarily a temple or village performance wherein the dancers
narrated stories from ancient scriptures.
• Different Gharanas; Lucknow, Jaipur, Raigarh and Banaras
• Usually a solo performance, the dancer often pauses to recite
verses
Sattriya • Assam
• Introduced by the Vaishnava saint Shankaradeva in the 15th
century A.D in Assam.
• It finds mention in the ancient text ‘Natya Shastra’ of sage
Bharat Muni.
• It is inspired from Bhakti Movement.
• Performed in group by male monks known as ‘Bhokots’
• Ankia Naat: a type of Sattriya, it involves play or musical
drama.
• Hastamudras, footworks, aharyas, music are prominent
FOLK DANCES
CHHAU • Three styles of Chhau dance - Saraikela Chhau in Jharkhand,

Mayurbhanj (the mask is not used in this) in Odisha and Purulia
Chhau in West Bengal
• A form of mask dance that uses vigorous martial movements to
narrate mythological stories.
• In 2010, UNESCO inscribed Chhau in the Representative List of
Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.

GARBA • Folk dance of Gujarat, held at the time of Navaratra.

• A lamp is lit and women dance around it in circular movements
with rhythmic clapping.
DANDIYA RAAS • An energetic, lively dance form in which polished sticks or dandiyas
are used.
KALBELIA • Folk dance performed by the women of the Kalbelia community of
Rajasthan.
• UNESCO has inscribed Kalbelia folk songs and dances in the
Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity
in 2010.
JHUMAR • Harvest dance, performed by the tribal people of Jharkhand and
Odisha.
THANG TA • Exclusive martial dance form of Manipur.
• The dance performance is a unique display of skill, creativity and
agility in which the performers enact a mock fight sequence –
leaping to attack and defend.
VEERANATYAM • Popular in the eastern and western region of river Godavari

• Means 'Dance of the Brave'
• It consists of hand gestures, flaming tridents, and spears.
DOLLU KUNITA • Dynamic folk art of Karnataka.
• Confined to males with good physique
MATKI DANCE • Madhya Pradesh
• Dhol is the musical instrument used
• Women perform it during marriages and festivals.
OOTAM THULLAL • Kerala
• Solo performance
• Accompanied by chorus singer, drummer, and cymbal player.
KOLATTAM • Originated in Tamil Nadu and popular throughout India
• 'Kol' means stick and 'Aatam' means dance.
• Dance performance by young girls with little stick (On Lord RAM
Birthday)
ROUFF • Jammu and Kashmir
BIHU • Assam
BHANGRA • Punjab
PADAYANI • Kerala
PATA KUNITA • Karnataka
GHOOMAR • Rajasthan

10. Indian Folk Theatre
RITUAL THEATRE
Ritual Theatre Features

Ankia nat • One-act play of Assam.
• Started by Shankaradeva.
• Depicts incidents from life of Krishna
• Use of masks to depict special expressions.
Kala • Ancient Folk theatre of Vaishanvite tradition.
• Mainly based around the lives and incarnations of Vishnu.
Ramlila • Popular folk theatre in the region of Uttar Pradesh
• It is an enactment of Ramayana using songs, dances and dialogues,
• It is generally performed by male actors, who perform the role of Sita as
well.
Raslila • A dance drama enactment of the adolescent love stories of Krishna and
Radha
• Popular in the region of Gujarat.
Ramman • Ritualistic theatre of Garhwal region of Uttarakhand
• It is dedicated to Bhumiyal Devta, the local deity.

THEATRE FOR ENTERTAINMENT
Theatre Features
Bhavai • Popular folk theatre form of Gujarat and Rajasthan
• Incorporates an extensive use of dance to narrate a series of small plays,
known as Vesha or Swanga
• Theme of the play is generally romantic.
• The play is accompanied by a semi-classical music.
• Instruments such as Bhungala, Jhanjha and tabla.
• The sutradhara is known as Nayaka in the Bhavai theatre.
Jaatra • A popular folk theatre of Eastern India
• Generally, an open-air performance that was initiated by Vaishnava saint Sri
Chaitanya.
• In Odisha, a popular form of street theatre known as Sahi Jatra is prevalent.
Nautanki • An offshoot of Swang, Nautanki is the most popular form of theatre in North
India.
• Finds mention in Abul Fazl’s Ain-e-Akbari.
• Theme: historical, social and folk tales
• Dialogues are delivered in a lyrical fashion, accompanied by the beats of a
drum called Nagara.
Swang • Region of Punjab and Haryana.
• They are mainly musical dramas, sung through verses.
• Accompanied by the music of ektara, harmonium, sarangi, dholak and
khartal.
Tamasha • Folk theatre in the region of Maharashtra
• The unique feature of Tamasha is the presence of female actors, who play the
even the male roles.
Bhand pather • Folk theatre of Jammu and Kashmir.
• It involves contemporary social satire or even mythical stories.
• It is secular in outlook
Bhaona • A folk theatre of Assam, especially the Majuli Island.
• The idea is to spread religious and moral messages to people through
entertainment and drama.
• It is a presentation of Ankia Naat.
• Sutradhar (Narrator) narrates the play and sings verses from holy texts.
Dashavatar • Popular form of drama by the farmers of Konkan region.
• It is to honour the ten incarnations of Lord Vishnu.

SOUTH INDIAN THEATRE
Theatre Features
Yakshagana • It is perhaps the oldest theatre traditions prevalent in Karnataka and Andhra
Pradesh
• Originated in the royal courts of the Vijayanagar empire
• Largely a descriptive dance-drama enacted by a single artist.
Burra katha • A popular dance-drama tradition of Andhra Pradesh.
• It derives its name from Burra – the percussion instrument used extensively
during the performance.
Bayalata • It is an open-air theatre tradition of Karnataka that is performed during the
worship of the local deity.
• The stories are based on the love of Radha-Krishna.
Theyyam • Performed in Kerala.
• It is similar to a practice in Karnataka, called Bhuta Kola.
• It is an open theatre and is performed in front of the local temples to
mainly honour the spirit of the ancestors besides gods.
• The actors wear elaborate headgear and colourful costumes.
11. Puppetry
Puppetry Features
1. STRING PUPPETRY Wooden miniature
Oil colours
Strings are used for control
Example:
Katputli – Rajasthan; bright dresses, no legs
Kundhei – Odisha; More number of joints
Gombeyata – Karnataka; more than one puppeteer is present
Fig: Kundhei Bommalatam – Tamil Nadu; largest and heaviest of the string
puppets.
2. SHADOW Flat figures of leather
PUPPETRY Painted identically on both sides
White screen with light from behind
Example:
Togalu Bommalata – Karnataka; puppet size is based on social
status of puppet like king, attendants etc.,
Ravanachaya – Odisha; deer skin is used, no joints, non-human
Fig: Ravana Chaya puppets
Tholu Bommalata – Andhra Pradesh; Mythology based

3. GLOVE PUPPETRY Made of cloth and wood

Two hands manipulated using thumb and middle finger
Example:
Pavakoothu – Kerala; influence of Kathakali
Fig: Paavakoothu
4. ROD PUPPETRY It is a variation of glove puppetry
Controlled using rods
Mainly played in Eastern India
Example:
Yampuri – Bihar; no joints, made from single piece of wood
Putul Nach – Bengal, Odisha and Assam; 3 joints are present
Fig: Yampuri
12. Languages in India
Language Group Examples

Indo-Aryan group of Prakrit, Pali, Apabhramsa, Hindi, Gujarati, Marathi, Punjabi etc.,
languages
Dravidian Group Brahui, Malto, Khond, Manda, Gadaba, Telugu, Kannada, Tamil,
Malayalam, Tulu, Kodagu etc.,
Sino-Tibetan Group Tibeto-Burman languages like Sikkimese, Sherpa, Ladhaki, Limbu,
Abor, Miri Bodo, Naga
Negroid
Austric Santhali, Khasi etc.,
Official Languages in India

• Article 343 (1) of the Constitution of India states that “The Official Language of the Union
Government shall be Hindi in Devanagari script.”
• Over a period of fifteen years since the commencement of the Indian Constitution, Hindi will
replace English as the official language. However, Parliament can decide whether to use
English as the official language or not.

• Initially 14 languages were selected under Eighth Schedule. They were:

1. Assamese 8. Marathi • Sindhi – added through 21st Amendment Act,
2. Hindi 9. Sanskrit 1967 as 15th language.
3. Malayalam 10. Urdu • 71st Amendment Act, 1992 – Konkani, Manipuri
4. Punjabi 11. Gujarati and Nepali were added.
5. Telugu 12. Kashmiri • 93rd Amendment act, 2003 – added Bodo,
6. Bengali 13. Odia Maithili, Santhali and Dogri
7. Kannada 14. Tamil
Classical Languages in India:
• Criteria:
o High antiquity of its early texts/recorded history over a period of 1500–2000 years;
o A body of ancient literature/texts, which is considered a valuable heritage by
generations of speakers;
o The literary tradition be original and not borrowed from another speech community;
o The classical language and literature being distinct from modern, there may also be a
discontinuity between the classical language and its later forms or its offshoots.
Languages so far declared to be Classical language are:
National Translation Mission

• Government of India scheme to facilitate higher education by making knowledge texts
accessible to students and academies in Indian languages.
• NTM aims to disseminate knowledge in all Indian languages listed in the Eighth Schedule of
the Constitution through translation.
• Tamil in the year 2004

• Sanskrit in the year 2005
• Kannada in the year 2008
• Telugu in the year 2008
• Malayalam in the year 2013
• Odia in the year 2014
Scripts In India:
Script Description
Indus script • Most inscriptions are extremely short. It is not clear if these symbols
constitute a script used to record a language.
Brahmi script • Brahmi is the oldest writing systems used in the Indian subcontinent and in
Central Asia during the final centuries BCE and the early centuries CE.
• Brahmi is usually written from left to right.
• Brahmi is an abugida, meaning that each letter represents a consonant,
while vowels are written with obligatory diacritics called matras in Sanskrit,
except when the vowels commence a word.

Gupta script • It was used to write Sanskrit.

• Gupta script descended from Brahmi and gave rise to the Nagari, Sharada
and Siddham scripts.
Kharoshti • An ancient script used in ancient Gandhara (present Afghanistan and
script Pakistan) to write the Gandhari Prakrit and Sanskrit.
• It is a sister script of Brahmi
• It was deciphered by James Princep again.
Vatteluttu • The Vatteluttu alphabet is an abugida writing system originating in South
script India.
• Developed from Tamil-Brahmi
Kadamba script • The Kadamba script marks the birth of a dedicated script for writing
Kannada.
• It is also a descendant of the Brahmi script and developed during the reign of
the Kadamba dynasty in the 4th-6th centuries.
• This script later became Kannada-Telugu script
Grantha script • The Grantha script was widely-used between the sixth century and the 20th
centuries by Tamil speakers in South India
• The Malayalam script is a direct descendant of Grantha as are the Tigalari
and Sinhala alphabets.
Sarada script • It is an abugida writing system developed during 8th Century.
• It was used for writing Sanskrit and Kashmiri
Gurumukhi • Developed from the Sarada script and was standardised during the 16th
script century by Guru Angad.
• The whole of the Guru Granth Sahib is written in this script
Devanagari • Devanagari is an abugida alphabet of India and Nepal. It is written from left
script to right.
• The Devanagari script is used for over 120 languages
Urdu script • The Urdu alphabet is the right-to-left alphabet used for the Urdu language.
• It is a modification of the Persian alphabet, which is itself a derivative of the
Arabic alphabet and has its origins in 13th century

13. Literature
Literature in Ancient India:

• Vedas – Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda, Atharva Veda.
Rig Veda Yajur Veda
• Oldest • Concentrates on rites and mantras

• 1028 hymns • 2 types; Shukla Yajur and Krishna Yajur
• Brahmanas: Aitareya and • Brahmanas: Taittirya and Shatpatha
Kaushitaki • Priest = Advaris
• Priest = Hotris • Upaveda = Dhanurveda
• Upaveda = Ayurveda
Sama Veda Atharva Veda
• Concentrates on melody or • It is mostly concerned with peace and prosperity of the

songs human society
• called the ‘book of chants’ • Also called as Brahma Veda
• Brahmanas: Tandya and • Brahmanas: Gopatha, Jaiminiya and Panchvish
Sadvimsha • Upaveda = Shilpa Veda
• Priest = Udgaris
• Upaveda = Gandharva Veda
Brahmanas: are part of Hindu Sruti Literature. They are the prose texts that contains details about
Vedic hymns, their applications, stories of origin etc.,
Aranyakas: are texts attached to Vedas that describes rituals and sacrifices. They embody
philosophy. It mentions sati as voluntary.
Upanishads: means to sit down nearby. It is the last part of Vedas. There are 108 Upanishads =
MUKTIKA canon. Upanishads criticized the rituals and laid stress on value of right belief and
knowledge.
Puranas: These are ancient Indian mythological texts, which consist of the narrative stories about
the creation of the universe and illustrate its history till the supposed destruction of the universe.
There are 18 major Puranas (Mahapuranas) and each gives prominence to a particular deity and
expound on the philosophical and religious concepts related to them
Upa-Puranas: Sub-genre of Puranas. They are 19 in number and are based on 5 major subjects;
(Sarga – Creation of Universe, Pratisarga – Periodic cycle of destruction and re-creation, Manvantra
- Period of Manu’s lifetime, Vamsa – Genealogies of Solar and Lunar dynasties of Gods and Sages &
Vamshanucharita – Dynastic histories of king.

Sanskrit Classics of Ancient India:

a. Sanskrit Drama:
Drama Description
Malavikagnimitra By Kalidasa
The love story of Malavika a maiden of Queen and Agnimitra the
son of Pushyamitra Shunga
Vikramorvasiya By Kalidasa
Love story of Vikram and Urvasi
Abhigyana Shakuntala By Kalidasa
The recognition of Shakuntala
Mricchakatika By Sudraka
(The Little Clay Cart) Love affair of young brahmin Charudatta with a wealthy
courtesan
Mudra Rakshasa By Vishakhdutta
It is a political drama and narrates ascent of king
Chandragupta Maurya to power in India
Devi Chandraguptam By Vishakhdutta
Swapnavasavadatta By Bhasa
(Vasavadatta in dream)
Urubhanga By Bhasa
Story of Duryodhana during and after his fight with Bhima
Ratnavali By Harsha
About the love story of princess Ratnavali, daughter of the king
of Ceylon and king Udayana.
We find here, the mention of celebration of Holi for the first time
Nagananda By Harsha
Story of how prince Jimutavahana gives up his own body to
stop a sacrifice of serpents to the divine Garuda.
One unique character in this drama is invocation to lord
Buddha in the Nandi verse
Priyadarsika By Harsha
Union of Udayana and Priyadarshika, daughter of King
Dridhavarman
b. Sanskrit Poetry
Poetry Description
Kumara Sambhava (the birth of Kumar)
Raghuvamsa (the dynasty of the Raghus) By KALIDASA
Meghaduta (the cloud messenger)

Ritusamhara (medley of seasons)

Gita Govinda Jayadeva
Kiratarjuniyam Bharavi
Shishupalavada Magha
Buddhist Literature
Literature Description
Tripitakas Buddhist Canonical literature. Consists of Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka and
Abhidhamma Pitaka
Jatakas Are compilation of the stories from the previous births of Buddha. The stories of
the Bodhisattva or the (future) would-be Buddha are also discussed in these
Jatakas.
Dipavamsa Literally means “Chronicle of the Island”. It mentions about the visit of Buddha to
Sri Lanka and the relics of Buddha
Milinda Contains a dialogue between King Meander (or Milinda) and Buddhist monk
Panho Nagasena. It means “Questions of Milinda”. These are one of the highest
philosophical enquiries.
Mahavamsa Is an epic poem written in Pali language. It is a historical account of various
kingdoms of South Asia.
Mahavastu It contains Jakata and Avadana tales. It is written in mixed Sanskrit, Pali and
Prakrit.
Lalitasara It is an important Mahayana text. It contains various stories associated with the
life of Buddha till his first sermon at Sarnath.
Jain Literature
Agamas They are the sacred texts and are said to be the teachings of the
Jain tirthankars.
They are said to be originally compiled by the Gandharas who
were immediate disciples of Mahavira.
These texts are important for Svetambaras.
Kalpa sutra and By Bhadrabahu
Uvasaggaharam Stotra Kalpasutra contains biographies of Jain Tirthankaras.
Ratna Karanda Sravakachara By Samanta Bhadra.
It talks of life of a Jain householder
Mahapurana and By Jinasena
Harivamsapurana

Sikh Literature
Adi Granth Compiled by Bhai Gurdas under the aegis of the fifth guru, Guru Arjan Dev in
1604.
It is written in Gurumukhi script
The book contains the teachings of the Sikh Gurus and fifteen Bhagats of
Bhakti and Sufi traditions.
Guru Granth Adi Granth was further expanded in 1678 under the tenth guru Guru Gobind
Sahib Singh.
It is regarded as the Eleventh and final spiritual authority of the Sikhs.
It is written in Gurumukhi script and is in a language called ‘Sant Bhasa’.
The book contains the teachings of thirteen Bhakti saints, called ‘Bhagats’
Janamsakhis These books contain the mythological and exaggerated stories of the first
guru, Guru Nanak.
Sangam Literature
• ‘Sangam’ means fraternity and this literature was very popular amongst the masses.
• This literature is a collection of works that contains approximately 2381 poems that have been
attributed to 473 poets
• The literary tradition was so popular that the period between 300 BC and 300 AD, during
which most of these were composed
• This literature bears the name ‘Sangam’ because the kingdom of Pandya organised assemblies
where poets, bards and writers would flock from various parts of South India.
• These assemblies were called ‘Sangams’ and the literature produced in the duration of these
assemblies was called Sangam literature.
• There were three Sangams organized over a period of 600-700 years.
• However, the conclusive historical account of the first two Sangams are not available.
Place of
Sangam Kingdom Chairman Books
organisation
First Pandyas Madurai Agastya No book survived.
It used Agattiyam as grammar
Second Pandya Kapatapuram Initially Around 2000 poems were collected
Agastya. and complied into Tolkappiyam
Later Tolkappiyam – Tamil grammar
Tolkappiyar book
Third Pandya Madurai Nakkirar Most of the existing corpus of
Sangam literature was written
• In the extant Sangam literature, around 30,000 lines of poetry, has been arranged in eight
anthologies called ETTUTTOKOI.

• These were further divided into two groups; the older and the more historically relevant group is
called the Patinenkil Kanakku (eighteen lower collections) and the second is Pattupattu (the
ten songs).
• The very famous and revered Tamil saint Thiruvallurar had contributed the ‘Kural’ to the
Sangam literature.
• Silappadikaram (story of an anklet) which was written by Ilango-Adigal. The second text is
Manimekalai (the story of Manimekalai) written by Sattanar. These texts focus on the Tamil
society and the economic and political changes it was experiencing.
• Besides these, in the secular Tamil writing, two major poets called Periya Puranam and
Kambaramayanam, were very popular.
Malayalam Literature:
• Major literary work in Malayalam is Ramacharitam, an epic poem written by Cheeraman in
13th century.
• Ezhuthachan, a strong proponent of Bhakti movement, is known as the father of Malayalam
literature.
Telugu Literature:
• Several great works have been written in Telugu but it reached its zenith during the
Vijayanagara period that is also known as the golden age of Telugu literature.
• Uttaraharivamsam which was composed by Nachana Somanatha, a well-known court poet of
King Bukka I. – One of the most successful works of the period.
• During Krishnadevaraya’s reign, eight learned literary personages were attached to his court.
They were called ashtadiggajas.
• Krishnadevaraya himself was a poet and has written Amuktamalyada, a treatise stating the
instance of Lord Vishnu in his dream.
• Krishnadevaraya has also written Sanskrit treatises which include Madalasa Charita,
Satyavadu Parinaya and Rasamanjari and Jambavati Kalyana
Works of Ashtadiggajas:
Poet Work
Allasani Peddanna (also known as Manucharitam
Andhra kavita pitamaha)
Nandi Thimmana Parijathapaharanam
Tenali Ramakrishna Panduranga Mahatmayam
Ramaraja Bhushanudu (also known • Vasucharitram
as Bhattumurti) • Narasabhupaliyam
• Harishchandra Nalopakhyanam
Madayyagari Mallana Rajashekharacharitra (about the love and war of the King
Rajasekhara of the kingdom of Avanti)
Ayyalaraju Ramabhadrudu • Ramabhyudayam
• Akalakathasara

Kannada Literature:
• One of the first recorded texts in Kannada is called Kavirajamarga, which was written by
Nripatunga Amoghavarsha I, in the tenth century. He was also a very powerful Rashtrakuta
king.
• Kannada language has many great scholars but the ‘ratnatraya’ or ‘the three gems’ were
unparalleled. The ratnatraya consisted of three poets called Pampa, Ponna and Ranna
• Pampa – Adipurana and Vikramarjuna Vijaya
• Ponna – Shanti Purana
• Ranna – Ajithanathapurana and Gadhayuddha
Medieval Literature:
1. Sultanate Period
Work Language Ruler Description

Tabakat-i- Persian Iltutmish By Minhaj-us-Siraj
Nasiri Has details of early life of Slave dynasty
Miftah-ul- Persian Jalal-ud-din By Amir Khusrau
Futuh Khilji Early life of Jalal-ud-din Khilji
Tariq-i-Alami Persian Allauddin khilji By Amir Khusrau
16 years rule of Allauddin Khilji
Padmavat Awadi Allauddin Khilji By Malik Mohammed Jayasi
Talks about Rani Padmini and rattan Singh,
the Raja of Chittor’s love story
Tughlaq Nama Persian Giyaz-ud-din By Amir Khusrau
Tughlaq History of Giyaz-ud-din Tughlaq
Kitab-ul-Rihala Arabic Mohammad-bin By Ibn Battuta
Tughlaq (MBT) Mentions about Hindus, postal system of MBT
and Sati system
Tariq-i- Persian Firoz shah By Zia-ud-din Barani
Firozshahi Tughlaq History from Balban to Firozshah Tughlaq
Fatwa-i- Persian By Zia-ud-din Barani
Jahandari containing the political ideals to be pursued by
a Muslim ruler in order to earn religious merit
and the gratitude of his subjects.
Inayat Nama-i- Persian By Zia-ud-din Barani
Ilahi (Book of Gods Gifts) contains political affairs of
the sultanate period
Tibb-i- Firoz shah By Shah Quli
Firozshahi Tughlaq Talks about generic medicine
It is an extract of Ayurveda

Futuhat-i- Persian Firoz shah Autobiography of Firoz shah Tughlaq

Firozshahi Tughlaq
Tariq-i- Mubarak Shah By Yahya-bin-Ahmed
Mubaraqshahi (SYEDS) Deals with architecture
2. Mughals:
Work Language Ruler Description

Tuzuk-i- Turkish Babar Autobiography of Babar that gives us important
Babari information about the Mughal conquest of India.
Humayun Persian Humayun By Humayun’s sister Gulbadan Begum
nama Talks of his life and struggle to get the throne
Ain-i-Akbari Akbar By Abul Fazl
And
Akbarnama
Razmnama Persian Akbar Translation of Mahabharata
Hamzanama Persian Akbar Based on the character of Amir Hamza, an uncle of
the Prophet Muhammad.
Tuzuk-i- Persian Jahangir Autobiography
Jahangiri details the first nineteen years of his reign
Padshahnama Persian Shah By Abdul Hamid Lahori
Jahan It is the biography of Shah Jahan
Zik-i- Persian Shah By Mulla Fareed
Shahjahani Jahan It is compilation of Astrological works that were
translated into Persian
Fatwa-i- Arabic and Aurangzeb sharia based compilation on statecraft, general ethics,
Alamgiri Persian military strategy, economic policy, justice and
punishment, that served as the law and principal
regulating body of the Mughal Empire during
Aurangzeb’s rule

14. Schools of Philosophy
Sankhya Yoga
• By Kapila • By Patanjali
• Everything stems from Purusha • Union of 2 principal entities
and Prakriti • Self-control = YAMA; observation of rules = NIYAMA;
• Presence of divine energy is not postures = ASANAS; breath control = PRANAYAMA; fixing
essential for creation of the of mind = DHARNA; concentrate = DHYANA; basic
world. principles = TATVA.
• Does not believe in existence of
God
• Person can attain salvation by
acquiring knowledge through
perception, inference and hearing
Nyaya Vaisheshika
• By Gautama • By Kanada
• Technique of Logical thinking • All objects in physical universe are reducible to a finite
• Like Sankhya number of atoms – Atomic Theory
• Mentions 4 proofs/Pramanas; • Believes that universe is made of 5 elements
Perception, inference, • God is the guiding principle
comparison and testimony • It tells that creation and destruction of universe is a
• Believes in god and sustaining cyclical process.
universe
Purva Mimamsa Vedanta
• By Jaimini • By Badarayana
• Emphasis on knowledge • Also called as Uttara Mimamsa
• Salvation is possible through • Contains teachings of Upanishads
ritual performance • It has 6 sub-schools; Advaita, Dvaita, Vishishtadvaita,
• It argues that Vedas contain Dvaitadvaita, Shuddhadvaita and Achintya Bhedabedha
eternal truth • Advaita – by Shankaracharya – says that Atma and God
are same
• Dvaita – by Madhvacharya – Atma and God are different
• Vishishtadvaita – by Ramanujacharya - It is non-
dualism of the qualified whole, in which Brahman alone
exists, but is characterized by multiplicity. It can be
described as qualified monism

• Dvaitadvaita – by Nimbarka - The categories of

existence, according to him, are three, i.e., cit, acit,
and Isvara. Cit and acit are different from Isvara
• Shuddhadvaita – by Vallabhacharya - purely non-dual
philosophy
• Achintya Bhedabedha – by Chaitanya - philosophy
of inconceivable one-ness and difference.
15. Science and Technology
The spiritual development at the corners of the Indian sub-continent has been prevailing since
ancient times and many foreign nations have been enamoured of it.
Mathematics
• Also called as Ganita and includes;
• Arithmetic = Anka Ganita
• Algebra = Bija Ganita
• Geometry = Rekha Ganita
• Astronomy = Khagolashastra
• Astrology = Jyotisha
• The technique of algebra and the concept of zero originated in India.
• The earliest book on mathematics was Sulvasutra written by Baudhayana in the 6th century
BC. There is a mention of ‘Pi’ and even some concepts very similar to Pythagoras theorem in
the Sulvasutra.
• Apastamba, in the second century BC, introduced the concepts of practical geometry
involving acute angles, obtuse angles and right angles.
Aryabhatta
• Aryabhattiya in which the concepts of mathematics as well as astronomy were explicitly
mentioned.
• He stated that the earth is round and rotates on its own axis.
• He formulated the area of a triangle and discovered algebra.
• In his book, the reasons for the eclipses given.
Brahmagupta
• Book Brahmasputa Siddhantika, mentions Zero for the first time as a number.
• Also introduced negative numbers

Bhaskaracharya
• Book Siddhanta Shiromani is divided into four sections;
o Lilavati (dealing with Arithmetic)
o Beejganita (dealing with Algebra)
o Goladhyaya (about spheres)
o Grahaganita (mathematics of planets.)
Medicine
• Dhanvantari was the God of medicine.
• Atharva Veda was the first book where we find mention about the diseases, its cure and
medicines.
• The two important treaties during this time were:
• Charak Samhita (deals with Ayurveda) by Charak –
o Deals with use of plants and herbs for medicinal purposes.
o Note on digestion, metabolism and immune system is written.
o Charaka emphasises that the functioning of a human body depends on three doshas:
1. Bile, 2. Phlegm and 3. Wind.
• Sushruta Samhita (deals with Surgery) by Sushruta – Ceals with practical problems of Surgery
and Obstetrics.
Physics
• Kanada explained that material world is made up of kana which cannot be seen through
human organ.
• They cannot be further subdivided and are indestructible as even said by the modern atomic
theory.
Chemistry
Metallurgy
Started in India from the bronze age.
Indians had an expertise in extraction of metals form ore and its casting
The best evidences of Indian metallurgy are Iron pillar of Mehrauli in Delhi and an idol of
Gautama Buddha in Sultanganj
• Chemistry was called Rasayan Shastra, Rasatantra, Rasa Vidya and Rasakriya, all of which
means science of liquids.
• Chemical laboratories were called Rasakriya Shala and chemist was referred to as Rasadanya.

• The famous alchemist of ancient times was Nagarjuna. - blessed with this power of changing
base metals into gold and extraction of “Elixir of life’’ as per the beliefs of the people.
o He wrote a treatise Rasaratnakara, a book on chemistry. Mainly deals with preparation of
liquids. Also emphasised on the survey of metallurgy and alchemy.
o Nagarjuna also wrote Uttaratantra which is a supplement to Sushruta Samhita and deals
with preparation of medicinal drugs.
• Another treatise Rasarnava is a sanskrit text written in medieval period (12th century) and
deals with Tantrism. Its work on tantra deals with metallic preparations and alchemy under
chemistry.
• Ain-i-Akbari discusses the “regulation of perfume office” of Akbar.
Varahamihira - The earth cloud theory was also propounded by him in his book Brihat Samhita.
He related earthquake to the influence of plants, behaviour of animals, underground water,
undersea activities and the unusual cloud formation.
Universities of Ancient India

University Place
Odantapuri • Bihar
• By Pala king Gopala I
• Destroyed by Bhaktiyar Khilji
Vikramshila • Bihar
• By King Dharmapala of Pala dynasty
• The Vajrayana sect flourished here and Tantric teachings were taught.
Jaggadala • A centre of learning for the Vajrayana sect of Buddhism, in Bengal.
• It was probably established by King Ramapala of Pala dynasty.
Vallabhi • Gujarat
• Important Centre of learning for Hinayana Buddhism
• It was visited by the Chinese scholar, Hseun Tsang.
• It was supported by the grants of rulers of Maitraka Dynasty of Gujarat.
Nalanda • In existence during Gupta period
• It gained prominence under Harshavardhana’s reign and Pala kings.
• All three Buddhist doctrines were taught here
• It had eight separate compounds and even had dormitories for students.
• It attracted scholars from Central Asia, South-East Asia and other parts
of the world.
• The teachings in the university deeply influenced Tibetan Buddhism.
• Famous scholars of Nalanda are Nagarjuna a(Madhyamika Shunyavad)
and Aryabhatta the astronomer.
• Hsuan Tsang spent two years at the university.
• Another Chinese scholar I-Tsing, spent ten years at Nalanda in late 7th
century.

Takshashila • Modern day Pakistan

• It is estimated to exist around 5th century BC.
• It is believed that Chanakya composed the Arthashastra at this place.
• Both Buddhist and Hindu theologies were taught here.
• Noted teachers and students from Takshashila include Chanakya,
Charaka, Panini, Jivaka, Prasenajit, etc.
Kanchi • Centre of learning for Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism from 1st century
A.D.
Nagarjunakonda • It is situated 160 km from Amaravathi in Andhra Pradesh and it was a
major Buddhist centre with scholars from Sri Lanka, China, etc coming
for higher-education.
16. Calendars
The system adopted to frame calendars across various regions of India belong to any of the following
three types:
1. Solar system
2. Lunar system
3. Luni-Solar system
It is these systems which provide names as;

• Solar Year: represents the time taken by the Earth while revolving in its orbit around the Sun.
The solar year consists of 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes and 46 seconds. The solar year has 12
months in total.
• Lunar Year: Consists of 12 months. Since a lunar month varies from 29.26 to 29.80 days, it
gives a period of 354 days, necessarily short of 11 days to the solar year. An intercalary month is
introduced every 2.5 years in the lunar year to adjust it to the solar year. This extra month or
intercalary month is called Adhik Masa.
• Luni-Solar Year: The year is calculated by the solar cycle and the months by the lunar divisions
as in the Hindu calendars.
Classification of Indian Calendar Forms

1. Vikram Samvat
• Started 56 years before the Christian era, i.e., around 56 BC

• Said to have been established by King Vikramaditya of Ujjain to commemorate his victory
over the Saka rulers.
• It is a lunar calendar based on ancient Hindu calendar.
• The new year begins with the first day after the new moon, in the month of Chaitra

• It has 354 days in a year divided into 12 months namely Chaitra, Vaisakha, Jyeshtha,
Ashadha, Sravana, Bhadrapada, Asvina, Kartika, Margasirhsa, Pausha, Magha and Phalguna
• Each month is divided into two halves (fortnight) – the bright half and the dark half
• The zero year under Vikram Samvat is 56 BC.
2. Saka Samvat
• Initiated by King Shalivahan in 78 AD.

• The Saka Calendar is both solar and lunar with lunar months and solar year and has the same
number of months as the Vikram era has.
• Saka Calendar begins on 22nd March every year except in gregorian leap years when it starts on
21st March.
• Saka calendar has a year with a fixed number of days in each month.
• It is the National calendar of India. It is used, through notification in the Official Gazette by the
Government of India.
17. Fairs and Festivals of India
Hindu Diwali,
Sharad Poornima - 15 days before Diwali and is related to harvest season.
Festivals
Holi
Makar Sankranthi
Janmashtami
Dussehra
Rain Navami
Durga Pooja
Ganesh Chaturthi
Karva Chauth - celebrated by Hindu women on the fourth day after the full moon
in the month of October or November. Also known as Karthikki Chauth
Rath Yatra of Lord Jagannath
Mahashivaratri
Chhath - dedicated to Sun God. State festival of Bihar celebrated on the sixth day of
the lunar fortnight of Kartik month i.e. six days after
Diwali.
Muslim Eid-ul-Fitr:- On the last day of the holy month of Ramadan, which is the ninth
month of the Islamic calendar. According to the Muslim traditions, the Holy Quran
Festivals
was revealed on one of the odd nights during the last days of the holy month of
Ramadan.
Id-ul-Azha:- known as Bakr-Eid. Celebrated on the tenth day of the Dhu-al-Hijjah
that is the twelfth month of the Islamic calendar. This Eid also marks the
beginning of the sacred period when many people undertake the pilgrimage to Mecca,
which is called Hajj.
Milad-Un-Nabi:- Also known as the Barah-wafat and is the birth anniversary of the
Prophet Muhammad.

Muharram:- It is associated with the death of Hussain son of Ali. The festival falls
in the first month of the Islamic calendar that is called Muharram.
Christian Christmas: Celebrated all across the world as the birth anniversary of Jesus Christ.
25th of December every year.
festivals
Easter and Good Friday: The day celebrated for the resurrection of Jesus Christ.
According to the Bible, three days after Jesus was crucified, he was resurrected
and hence. Easter is supposed to signify the triumph of life over death.
The festival of Good Friday is to commemorate the day of crucifixion of Jesus
Christ. It falls in the month of April each year.
Festivals of North-East India

Festival Description
Saga Dawa Celebrated in the Buddhist Communities in Sikkim.
celebrated on the full moon day that falls in the middle of the Tibetan lunar month
called the Saga Dawa.
Celebrated to commemorate the birth, enlightenment and death (parinirvana)
of the Buddha.
Losoong Celebrated in honour of the Sikkimese New year during the month of December
every year.
it is the celebration of the harvest season by the farmers
The unique point of the festival is that people drink the locally brewed wine,
called Chaang
Bihu Assamese New Year.
The three Bihu’s are:
• Bohag or Rongali Bihu
• Kati or Kongali Bihu
• Maagh or Bhogali Bihu
Hornbill One of the major agricultural festivals celebrated in the State of Nagaland.
Its a week-long festival that begins on 1st December every year.
Kharchi Puja Tripura.
Began as a festival of the royal family of Tripura, currently even the common
households celebrate this festival.
Celebrated over a period of 10 days and takes place in the month of July each
year. Celebrated in the honour of Lord Shiva
Cheiraoba Manipur new year
Celebrated in the month of April
Ambubachi In Kamakya Temple, Assam
Mela It has been dubbed as the ‘Mahakumbh of the East’
The festival falls in the month of June
Fairs of India
Khumbh Mela: largest religious gathering in the world. The mela (gathering) is held on a
rotational basis at four auspicious Hindu pilgrimage sites-Allahabad, Haridwar, Nashik-
Trimbak and Ujjain
Allahabad Confluence of Ganga, Yamuna and Saraswati
Haridwar Ganga
Nashil-Trimbakeshwar Godavari
Ujjain Shipra

Sonepur Mela: One of the largest cattle fairs in Asia. Held at Sonepur, Bihar at the confluence of
river Ganga and Gandak. Usually takes place in November on the Kartik Poornima.
Pushkar Fair: Annual fair in Rajasthan starting on Karthika Poornima Day. It is one of the largest
camels and cattle fairs in the world.
Surajkund Crafts Mela: an international crafts fair held annually for a fortnight from 1st February
onwards near Faridabad, Haryana.
18. Martial Arts
Martial Arts Features

Kalaripayattu • One of the oldest martial arts in India
• Originated in state of Kerala in 4th century AD
• Kalari in Malayalam refers to a specific school of gymnasium
• Not accompanied by drums or songs
• Its most important key is footworks
• Women also practice this
Silambam • Tamil Nadu
• A kind of staff fencing
• Chera, Chola and Pandyas had promoted this
• It’s reference can be seen in Silappadikaram
Thang-ta • Created by the Meitei people of Manipur
• It is an armed martial art
• Thang=sword and Ta=spear
Thoda • Origin – Himachal Pradesh
• Mixture of martial arts, sports and culture
• Takes place during Baisakhi
• Relies on player’s skill of archery
• Can be traced to Mahabharata
Gatka • It is a weapon based martial art performed by Sikhs of Punjab
• It features skillful use of weapons.
• Attack and defence in this is determined by various positions of hands and
feet
Mardani Khel • Traditional Maharashtrian armed martial art
• Practiced widely in Kolhapur
• Focus primarily on skills of weaponry
Mushti Yuddha • Origin - Varanasi
• Unarmed martial art resembling boxing
Malla Yuddha • South India
• Traditional combat wrestling related to other South East Asian wrestling styles
Malla Khamb • 12th century in Maharashtra
• Use of pole and rope
• Requires great concentration

19. Coins
Coinage of India began anywhere between early 1st millennium BCE to the 6th century BCE, and
consisted mainly of copper and silver coins in its initial stage.
Coins Features
Punch Marked Coins • Issued by various Mahajanapadas (around 6th century BC)
• The first Indian Punch marked coins were called Puranas,
Karshapanas or pana
• Irregular shapes, standard weight and were made up of
silver
• Magadha had generally five symbols.
• Magadhan punch-marked coins became the most circulated
coins in South Asia.
• During Mauryans - rupyarupa (silver), suvarnarupa (gold),
tamrarupa (copper) and sisarupa (lead)
• From 180 BC to 10 AD
• The legends on their Indian coins were mentioned in two
languages – in Greek on one of the side and in Kharosthi on
the otherside of the coin
• These coins are significant because they carried detailed
Indo-Greek Coins information about the issuing monarch, the year of issue
• Coins were mainly made of silver, copper, nickel and lead.
• Kushan’s kings adopted Greek custom of engraving Portrait
heads on coins.
• Coins by Kanishka included only Greek Characters
• 232 BC to 227 AD
• Mostly used Lead as a material for their coins. Rarely used
silver.
• They used an alloy of silver and copper called ‘Potin’
• They constitute a valuable source-material for the dynastic
Satavahana Coins history of the Satavahanas.
• Most of the Satavahana coins had on one side, the figure of
an elephant, horse, lion or chaitya. The other side showed the
Ujjain symbol.

Indo-Scythian Coins • 35-405 AD

• The coins of Western Satraps are of great historical importance.
They bear dates in the Saka era
• The coins of the Western Satraps have the head of the king on
one side and on the other side, they carry the device of the
Buddhist chaitya or stupa
• 319 AD – 550 AD
• Mainly made of gold, although they issued silver and copper
coins too.
• Silver coins were issued only after Chandragupta II overthrew
the western satraps.
• On one side of these coins, we find the king standing and
making oblations before an altar, playing the veena,
Gupta Coins performing Ashvamedha, riding a horse or an elephant, slaying
a lion or a tiger or a rhinoceros with a sword or bow, or sitting
on a couch.
• On the other side is the goddess Lakshmi seated on a throne
or a lotus seal, or the figure of the queen herself
• The inscriptions on the coins were all in sanskrit (brahmi
script)
• Late 6th Century

• The silver coins of the Vardhanas had on one side the head of
the king and on the other side, the figure of a peacock.
Vardhana Coins
Western chalukyan coins • 6th century AD
• One side of the coin had image of a temple or a lion and
legends. The other side was left blank.
• The coins of Eastern Chalukyan dynasty (7th century AD) had
symbol of the boar at the centre, round which, each letter of
the king’s name was inscribed by a separate punch. The other
side here also was left blank.
Turkish and delhi • Contained Kings name, title and the date
sulthanate coins • It did not contain any Kings image
• Silver Tanka and Copper Jital was introduced by Iltutmish
• Md bin Tughlaq issued token coins but failed
• Sher Shah Suri – Silver coins (Rupaiah) and Copper (Dam)
• Akbar issued both round and square coins.
• In 1579, he issued gold coins called Ilahi coins to propagate
his new religious creed ‘Din-i-Illahi’
• Jahangir showed the legend in a couplet in the coins. In
Mughul coins some of his coins, he added the name of his beloved wife

Noorjahan. The most famous of his coins had images of Zodiac

signs.
Vijayanagar Empire • 14-17th Century – Mostly gold coins
• Pagodas – Higher denomination gold
• Fanams – Fractional gold units
• Taras – Silver Fractional units
• Copper coins were also issued
20. Travellers of Ancient and Medieval India
Traveller Country Ruler Details

Megasthenes Greece; 302– Chandragupta wrote a book Indica which explains the
298 BC Maurya reign of Chandragupta Maurya.
Fa-hien China; 405– Chandragupta II First Chinese pilgrim to visit India. He
411 AD compiled a travelogue “Record of
Buddhistic Kingdoms”.
Hieun Tsang China; 630– Harshavardhana He wrote his experiences in his book Si-
(Xuanzang) 645 AD yu-ki or the ‘Records of Western World
I-Tsing (Yijing) China; 671– — He translated a large number of Buddhist
695 AD texts from Sanskrit into Chinese. He
studied in Nalanda for 10 years.
Al-Masudi Arab; 957 — Explained about India in his book Muruj-
AD ul-Zehab
Al-Biruni Persia; Came to India along His book was ‘Tahqiq-i-Hind’ which is an
1024– 1030 with Mahmud of encyclopedic work on India.
AD Ghazni He also wrote Kitab-ul-Hind
Marco Polo Italy; 1254– Rudramadevi Visited Kakatiya Kingdom under
1324 AD (Kakatiya Dynasty) Rudramadevi. Wrote his experiences in
the book ‘The Book of Sir Marco Polo’
which explains the economic history of
India.
Ibn Batuta Morocco; Muhammad-bin- He wrote the book ‘Rehla’. which
1333– 1347 Tughlaq explained the dynasty of Muhammad-bin-
AD Tughlaq
Nicolo Conti Italy; 1420– Devaraya I of He referred Telugu language as ‘Italian of
1421 AD Vijayanagara empire the East’.
Abdur Razzaq Persia; Devaraya II of Ambassador of Shahrukh of Timurid

1443– 1444 Vijayanagara empire Dynasty, he stayed at the court of the

AD Zamorin at Calicut. He gave a clear
account of the Vijayanagara empire in his
book.
Athanasius Russia; Muhammad III He explained the living conditions of the
Nikitin 1470– 1474 (Bahmani Kingdom) Bahmani kingdom which is under
AD Muhammad III
Dominigo Paes Portugul; Sri Krishna Deva He visited the court of Sri Krishnadeva
1520– 1522 Raya Raya of Vijayanagara of Tuluva Dynasty.
AD
William Britain; Jahangir Ambassador of British King James-I and
Hawkins 1608– 1611 was sent to court of Jahangir.
AD
Sir Thomas Britain; Jahangir Ambassador of British King James-I and
Roe 1615– 1619 was sent to court of Jahangir.
AD
21. UNESCO’s Intangible Cultural Heritage Sites
Intangible site Description

2008, Kerala
Women from Nambiar caste and Men of chakyars perform this.
Neta abhinaya (eye expression) and hasta abhinaya (the
language of gestures) are prominent.
KOODIYATAM Theme: Hindu Mythology
2008, Uttar Pradesh
Theme: the Ramayana (based on the Ramacharitmanas by
Tulsidas)
Performed during Dussera especially in Northern India
RAMLILA
TRADITIONAL VEDIC 2008
CHANTING Known for the rich content of its oral literature and the
ingenious techniques employed by the Brahmin priests.
2009, Uttarakhand (Garhwal Himalayas)
Ritual theatre Performed at the twin villages of Saloor-Dungra,
Uttarakhand.
Jagar – musical rendition of local legends
RAMMAN

2010, Kerala
Theme: Battle between goddess Kali and demon Darika.
Performed in temples during February and May
MUDIYETTU
2010, Rajasthan
Movements resemble that of serpents.
Performed by Kalbelia tribe
Mythological songs are used.
KALBELIA
2010, Odisha, Jharkhand and West Bengal
Martial art and dance form
Performed during spring festival
Performed by males during nights.
CHHAU
BUDDHIST CHANT IN LADHAK 2012
Recitation of sacred Buddhist texts by major sects viz. Nyngma,
Kagyud, Shakya and Geluk
2013, Manipur
By Vaishnavites at temples
Cymbals and drums are used
Theme: lives and deeds of Krishna
SANKIRTANA
2014, Punjab
By Thatera community
Used in Langars of Gurudwar
TRADITIONAL BRASS AND

COPPER CRAFTS
2016
Parsi new year (March 21st)
Also celebrated in Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, Iran, Iraq,
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Turkey,
NAVROZ Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan

2016
Yoga consists of a series of poses, meditation, controlled
breathing, word chanting and other techniques
YOGA
2017
Largest congregation of pilgrims on the earth
Pilgrims will take dip in the Ganga River.
It takes place every third year at one of the four places by
rotation: Haridwar, Allahabad, Nasik and Ujjain
KUMBHMELA
22. UNESCO’s Tangible Cultural Heritage Sites
• UNESCO World Heritage site is the one which is of special cultural or physical significance.
• The list is maintained by the international World Heritage Programme administered by the
UNESCO World Heritage Committee
• India has 38 world heritage sites
1. Cultural Sites – 30
2. Natura Sites – 7
3. Mixed Site – 1
NATURAL SITES and MIXED SITE
Year Natural Site

1985 Manas Widlife Sanctuary
Kaziranga National Park
Keoladeo National park
1987 Sunderbans
1988 Nanadadevi National Park
2005 Valley of Flowers
2012 Western Ghats
2014 Great Himalayan National Park
2016 Khangchendzonga National Park (MIXED SITE)

CULTURAL SITES
Year Sites
1983 Ajanta: first Buddhist cave monuments at Ajanta date from the 2nd and 1st centuries
B.C. During the Gupta period (5th and 6th centuries A.D.), many more richly decorated
caves were added
Ellora: These 34 monasteries and temples, extending over more than 2 km, were dug side
by side in the wall of a high basalt cliff.
Taj Mahal: An immense mausoleum of white marble, built in Agra between 1631 and
1648 by order of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his favourite wife, Mumtaz
mahal.
Agra fort: Near the gardens of the Taj Mahal stands the
important 16th-century Mughal monument known as the
Red Fort of Agra. This powerful fortress of red sandstone
encompasses, within its 2.5-km-long enclosure walls.
1984 Konark Sun Temple: On the shores of the Bay of Bengal,

bathed in the rays of the rising sun, the temple at Konark is a
representation of the sun god Surya's chariot; its 24 wheels
are decorated with symbolic designs and it is led by a team of
six horses. Built in the 13th century.
Monuments at Mahabalipuram: founded by the Pallava kings, was carved out of rock in
the 7th and 8th centuries. It is known especially for its rathas, mandapas, giant open-air
reliefs such as the famous 'Descent of the Ganges'
1986 Churches and Convents of Goa: The Church of Bom Jesus,

which contains the tomb of St Francis-Xavier – illustrate the
evangelization of Asia.
Khajuraho: built during the Chandela dynasty. They strike a

perfect balance between architecture and sculpture. The
Temple of Kandariya is decorated with a profusion of
sculptures that are among the greatest masterpieces of Indian
art.

Fatehpur Sikri: Built during the second half of the 16th

century by the Emperor Akbar, Fatehpur Sikri (the City of
Victory) was the capital of the Mughal Empire for only some
10 years
Monuments at Hampi: The austere, grandiose site of Hampi

was the last capital of the last great Hindu Kingdom of
Vijayanagar. Its fabulously rich princes built Dravidian
temples and palaces. Conquered by the Deccan Muslim
confederacy in 1565, the city was pillaged over a period of
six months before being abandoned.
1987 Great Living Chola Temples: built by kings of the Chola

Empire. The site includes three great 11th- and 12th-century
Temples: the Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur, the
Brihadisvara Temple at Gangaikondacholisvaram and the
Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram.
The Temple of Gangaikondacholisvaram, built by Rajendra
I. The Airavatesvara temple complex, built by Rajaraja II, at
Darasuram.
Monuments at Pattadakal: In the 7th and 8th centuries under the Chalukya dynasty. An
impressive series of nine Hindu temples, as well as a Jain sanctuary, can be seen there.
Elephanta Caves: The 'City of Caves', on an island in the Sea
of Oman close to Bombay, contains a collection of rock art
linked to the cult of Shiva
1989 Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi: most of the monuments date

back to the 2nd and 1st centuries B.C. It is the oldest
Buddhist sanctuary in existence and was a major Buddhist
centre in India until the 12th century A.D.
1993 Humayun’s Tomb: built in 1570, is of particular cultural

significance as it was the first garden-tomb on the Indian
subcontinent.

Qutb Minar: Built in the early 13th century a few kilometres south of Delhi, the red
sandstone tower of Qutb Minar is 72.5 m high. The surrounding archaeological area
contains funerary buildings, notably the magnificent Alai-Darwaza Gate, the masterpiece of
Indo-Muslim art
1999 Darjeeling Himalayan Railway
2002 Mahabodhi Temple Complex, Bodh Gaya: The site consists of
the main temple and six sacred places within an enclosed
area, and a seventh one, the Lotus Pond, just outside the
enclosure to the south.
2003 Rock shelters, Bhimbekta

2004 Champaner-Pavagadh Archaeological Park: is in
Panchmahal, Gujarat. It is located around the historical city of
Champaner, a city which was founded by Vanraj Chavda, the
most prominent king of the Chavda Dynasty, in the 8th
century.
Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus: Also known as Victoria

terminus, is a terminal train station. Designed by British born
architectural engineer Frederick William Stevens, in an
exuberant Italian Gothic style. Completed in 1887, the year
marking 50 years of Queen Victoria's rule
2005 Nilgiri Mountain Railway

2007 Red Fort Complex: Constructed in 1639 by the fifth Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan as the
palace of his fortified capital Shahjahanabad, the Red Fort is named for its massive
enclosing walls of red sandstone.
2008 Kalka Shimla Railway: was built under the direction of Herbert Septimus Harington
between 1898 and 1903 to connect Shimla, the summer capital of India during the British
Raj, with the Indian rail system. Known for dramatic views of the hills and surrounding
villages.
2010 Jantar Mantar: is an equinoctial sundial, with the hypotenuse
parallel to the Earth's axis. The largest Jantar Mantar is in
Jaipur. Maharaja Jai Singh II of Jaipur constructed 5 in total;
New Delhi, Jaipur, Ujjain, Mathura and Varanasi

2013 Hill Forts of Rajasthan: includes six majestic forts in

Chittorgarh; Kumbhalgarh; Sawai Madhopur; Jhalawar;
Jaipur, and Jaisalmer. Enclosed within defensive walls. The
forts use the natural defences offered by the landscape.They
also feature extensive water harvesting structures
2014 Rani ki Vav: It is a stepwell in the town of Patan, Gujarat. It is

located on the banks of river Saraswathi. Its construction is
attributed to Udayamati, daughter of Khengra of Saurashtra,
queen of Solanki Bhima I
2016 Archaeological site of Nalanda: An ancient Mahavihara, a

revered Buddhist monastery which also served as a renowned
centre of learning, in the ancient kingdom of Magadha
2017 City of Ahmedabad: It is the largest city and former capital of

the Indian state of Gujarat on river Sabarmati. Also known as
the 'Manchester of India' along with Kanpur
2019 Jaipur Jaipur was founded in 1727 by the Rajput ruler Jai
Singh II, the ruler of Amer, after whom the city is named.
23. Terminologies
TERM MEANING
Agate A fine-grained variegated chalcedony, its colours arranged in stripes,
blended in clouds, or showing moss like forms
Amalaka Ribbed, lenticular or globoid part resembling the amala (Indian

gooseberry fruit) crowning the top of the North Indian style shikhara
Anda Semi-circular structure typically used for Buddhist stupa
Arabesque An ornamental design consisting of intertwined flowing lines, leaves
and flowers, a feature of the Indo-Islamic architecture

Ardhmandap Semi-hall in front of garbhagriha of the temple

Ashtadikpalas Guardians of the eight directions
Ayudhas Weapons
Batter Slope in the wall
Bodhisattva In Buddhism, Bodhisattva refers to the previous births of Gautam
Buddha
Bosses Circular embossed decorations, usually in stone of contrasting
colours located on either side of an arch and within the spandrels
Buddhism A religion originated in the sixteenth century BCE with the
preachings of Buddha
Burin A pointed tool of flint or stone with a transverse edge made by the
removal of one or more flakes. Used for working bone, antler and
ivory, and, perhaps, for engraving
CE Common Era, replacing AD or Anno Domini (Era of the Lord)
Calligraphy The art of producing decorative handwriting
Caturasra Square
Chhatra Umbrella-like structure on top of the stupa
Chhatri Cupola resting on four pillars with a dome or pyramid-shaped roof
Chahar Bagh A square, walled garden divided into four by intersecting water
channels
Chaitya Arch Semi-circular arch with pointed tip in the centre towards the top
Chaitya Place of congregation and worship
Chakra a symbol used for Buddha’s first sermon at Sarnath
Chamfer To cut off the edge or corner, thereby, increasing the number of sides
Chert A flint-like material, usually black or dark brown in colour. Although
it has a conchoidal fracture like flint it is not so fine-textured
Chevron Patterning V-shaped patterns
Corbel The stone or wooden bracket laid horizontally to support a cornice or
an arch
Cornice A moulded roof-line
Crystal A high quality, clear, colourless glass or an object, especially a vessel
or ornament, made of such glass
Dado panel Lower part of the interior wall when it is finished differently from the
rest of the wall. Some excellent examples are Hoysala temples of

Halebid, Jamali Kamali tomb in Mehrauli and Turkish Sultan’s

palace in Fatehpur Sikri, Agra
Dargah Shrine of a Sufi saint, where the saints grave called mazar is located
Dhammachakrapravartan First sermon by Buddha at Sarnath near Varanasi
Dravid Normally used for people, culture, language and architectural style of
South India
Dressed stone Stone which is cut to size and polished
Encaustic tile work Inlay in ceramics
Faience Blue-coloured artificial glass-like material. Faience was used in a
variety of ornaments and pieces of jewellery
Gahapati Big land-owner or big farmer involved in farming and trade.
Garbhgriha Sanctum sanctorum
Gopuram Main gateway; the storeyed structure over the entrance or entrances
through the enclosing walls to the premises of a temple
Harmika Small square fencing atop the anda or semi-circular dome of stupa
Imam The person who leads a Muslim congregation in prayers. Over a
passage of time, this position became hereditary
Intaglio The process of cutting a design into the surface of a small hard stone
or gem
Jagmohan Rectangular or square hall in front of a sanctuary or main temple —
a term used for temple architecture of Odisha
Jainism One of the most ancient religions, it is a path of victory (jina) over
life’s stream of rebirths through ethical and spiritual practices
Jali Ornamental, perforated lattice screens with arabesques, star motifs
and other geometric designs such as pentagons, hexagons, octagons
and circles
Jasper A variety of quartz that may be red, yellow or brown; long used for
jewellery and ornamentation
Jataka Stories of the previous births of Buddha
Jati Caste
Kalash Wide-mouthed pot; ornamental pot-design decorating the shikhara of
a temple
Keystone A central stone at the summit of an arch
Kos minar Distance marker or milestone in the shape and size of a tower
Kuta A shrine of square plan

Lapis Lazuli A rich blue semi-precious stone. The main source in the ancient
world was the mountains of Badakshan, northern Afghanistan, from
where it was traded widely. Lapis lazuli was used as inlay in
ornaments, jewellery, seals, etc.
Linga Phallus, the form in which Lord Shiva is being worshipped
Mahamandapa Big hall in the temple
Mahaparinibban Death of Lord Buddha — liberating him from the cycle of life and
death
Mandap Hall
Maqbara Mausoleum or tomb
Medallion Circular discs in the spandrels of arches decorated with motifs or
calligraphy
Mihrab Prayer niche indicating the direction of Mecca
Mimbar Stepped pulpit in the Jama Masjid or Friday mosque from where the
Khutba was read
Mukhlinga Phallus with face Multiple foliations Many curves in an arch
Mural Paintings made on the walls of caves, buildings or temples in Fresco
or any other style
Nagara North Indian style temple architecture
Naqqar khana Drum house from where ceremonial music was played which was
usually situated over the gate. It was a popular feature in Mughal
palace complexes
Natyamandapa or Dancing hall in front part of the temple
Rangmandapa
Panchayatana Main temple surrounded by four sub-shrines in each corner
Pendentive A triangular bracket in the angle of two walls, connecting the base of
the dome to its supporting arches
Phamsana A buildings/ temple which tends to be broader and shorter than
Latina type
Pietra-dura Pictorial mosaic work using semi-precious stones. Found on walls,
cenotaphs and marble jalis in the Taj Mahal
Polychrome An object or a work composed of or decorated in many colours
Pradakshina Circumambulation
Qibla Liwan The wall of the mosque in the direction of Mecca

Qila-i Kuhna Masjid Built by Humayun or Sher Shah between 1530 and 1545, it is
located inside Purana Qila in Delhi
Quartz A variety of stone found in many parts of the world and variously
used for toolmaking and in ceremonial contexts. Varieties of quartz
include agate, chalcedony, chert, flint, opal and rock crystal
Rekhaprasad or Latina This type of temple has square shikhar at the base and its walls
curve slowly inward towards the top
Rupkar/Shilpi Artisan
Sabha Mandapa Assembly hall
Saracenic A style of architecture popular with Muslims in West Asia
particularly from the eleventh to the fourteenth century
Sarai Dharamshala or a traveller’s lodge
Shala ayatasara Elliptical
Shikhar Superstructure above the garbhagriha in the north Indian style of
temple
Shilpa texts Ancient Indian texts/manuals describing the elements and principles
of art and architecture to be practised by artists
Shraman A Buddhist or Jain sect, whose followers used to wander from place
to place
Sovereignty The authority of a ruler/state to govern himself/ itself absolutely
independently
Spandrels The almost triangular space between two sides of the outer curves of
an arch and a rectangular enclosure
Squinch An arch spanning the corners of a square chamber and acting as
support for a dome
Steatite A greyish or greenish stone, which is generally soft and can easily be
worked to make figurines, vessels, seals and other objects
Stellate Arch nets arranged in a radiating pattern like that of a star
Sthapati Architect
Stupa A mound-like structure containing relics of Buddha or Buddhist
monks worshipped by Buddhists
Stucco A fine plaster used for coating wall surfaces
Suzerainty A sovereign/state having some control over another ruler/state
who/that is internally autonomous

Tablet A regularly shaped, separate panel, or a representation thereof, often

bearing an inscription or image
Terracotta Literally, ‘baked earth’ mainly used to refer to fairly coarse, porous
clay that, when fired, assumes a colour ranging from dull ochre to
red
Tessellation Decoration on walls and floors with mosaic
Torans Carved, serpentine-shaped ceremonial gateways
Trefoil Three curves in an arch
Turquoise A semi-precious stone, sky blue to pale green in colour, highly prized
for its use in jewellery by many ancient cultures
Valabhi Sub-type of nagara temple
Vanga Ancient name of the Bengal region
Varna Four-fold division of the society based on profession i.e. Brahmana,
Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra during ancient India
Vesara Term used for the independent style of the temple during the time of
the Chalukyas of Karnataka. It consists of a combination of the
northern (nagara) and southern (dravida) styles
Vihara Place of residence of Buddhist monk
Vijanain Temples having a rectangular building with a roof that rises into a
vaulted chamber
Viman Superstructure over the garbhagriha of shrine in the south Indian
temples
Volute A scroll or spiral ornament on a pillar
Voussoir A wedge-shaped or tapered stone used to construct an arch
Vritta Circular
Yakshas/Yakshanis Demi-gods and demi-goddesses — protectors of nature and resources
*****


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RRP 2021 – Art and Culture

Sl. No. Topic Page No.

1. Art and Architecture of Indus Valley

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• A plain-woven fillet is passed round the head.

• The technique is called LOST WAX technique.

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• Massiveness of the bull and the fury of the charge are

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• Mostly made of steatite, and occasionally of agate, chert, copper, faience

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BEADS AND ORNAMENTS

• Both men and women wore ornaments.

Appendix – Important IVC Sites and their findings

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2. Architecture of Indus Valley

Fig: Drainage of Indus Valley

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2. Arts of the Mauryan Period

• 6th century BCE marks the beginning of new religious and

• Abacuses are decorated with stylised lotuses.

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Examples of Pillar inscriptions

Lion Capital, Saranath

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 Lomus Rishi Caves

Yaksha and Yakshini

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 Mudras of Buddha or Hand Gestures of Buddha

DHARMACHAKRA MUDRA: called as the gesture of 'Teaching of the

DHYAN MUDRA: known as Samadhi or Yoga mudra. Two hands are

BHUMISPARSHA MUDRA: known as “touching the Earth”

KARANA MUDRA: gesture signifies the warding off evil which is

VAJRA MUDRA: gesture denotes the fiery thunderbolt that

VITARKA MUDRA: signifies the discussion and transmission of the

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ABHAYA MUDRA: It is a gesture of fearlessness or blessing that

3. Post Mauryan Trends in Indian

 Rock cut caves

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Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves

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Fig: Queen Mayadevi’s Fig: Jataka Panel at

GANDHARA MATHURA AMARAVATI

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Buddha Head, Taxila

Seated Buddha, Katra Mound, Mathura Seated Buddha, Sarnath

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• Seated on a Lion Throne. with different motifs of flowers and creepers

• The halo around the head of the Buddha

Fig: Amaravati drum slab Fig: Panel at Nagarjunkonda

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i. apsidal vault-roof chaitya halls (found at Ajanta, Pitalkhora, Bhaja);

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Features of Ajanta Paintings

Fig: Apsara in Fig: Painting in cave Fig: Dying Princess

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Lomus Rishi Caves

Mudras of Buddha or Hand Gestures of Buddha

Rock cut caves

Cave Tradition in Eastern India

Some Other Caves in India

Important Feature = Pillars (Vyali Sthambha)

Sena School of Architecture

Mughal Rulers and their Architectural Contributions