Coherent and Incoherent Addition of

Waves

You must have seen light coming out from the laser. Let us carry out a
small activity. Take two needles and touch the needles on the surface
of the water. Here if both the needles move with the same speed then
they are said to be coherent. Let us learn more about coherent waves.

Coherent and Incoherent Addition of waves

Suppose there is a surface of the water and you take a needle and
touch the surface of the water. What will happen? Yes, ripples are
formed. Now if you take two needles and you touch the surface of the
water with the needles. What do you think will happen?

You will see a pattern. That pattern is the interference pattern. When
you touch both the needles at the surface of the water at the same time,
both the needles are in the same phase. Needle 1 will produce a wave.
Also, needle 2 will produce its own ripples and they will intersect with
waves of the first needle.
Now, if both the needles are moving with the same velocity, the wave
formed here are coherent. If the velocity of a 1st needle and 2nd
needle are not steady they won’t intersect. This is because one is at a
steady speed and other is at variable speed.

Coherent Waves

If the potential difference between two waves is zero or is constant

w.r.t time, then the two ways are said to be coherent.

Non-coherent Waves

The waves are non-coherent if the potential difference between the

two ways keeps on changing. Lightbulb, study lamp are the examples
of the coherent waves. They emit waves at random potential
difference.

Video on Wave Optics

Explanation

Now let us consider there are two needles say S​1 ​and​ ​S​2 ​moving up
and down on the surface of the water and are pointing at point P. So
the path difference here is given as S​1​P​ ​– S​2​P. Now the displacement
by two needles and S​1 ​S​2 ​are:

y​1 ​= A cos wt ……………… (1)

y​2​ = A cos wt …………….. (2)

So the resultant displacement at point P is, y = y​1 + ​y​2​. When we

substitute the value of y​1 a​ nd​ ​y​2​ we write,

y = A cos wt + A cos wt

y = 2A cos wt……………….. (3)

Now, we know the intensity is proportional to the square of the

amplitude waves.
I​0

A²

Where I​0 i​ s the initial intensity and A² is the amplitude of the wave.
From equation 3, we say that A = 2A. So,

I​0

(2A)² or I​0

4 A²

I = 4 I​0

Now, if two needles that are S​1 ​are S​2​ are in the same phase, the
potential difference is,
 S​1​P ​ ​– S​2​P = nλ

Where n = 0, 1, 2,3 ……… and λ = the wavelength of the wave. If the

two needles S1 and S2 are vibrating at its destructive interference
then, the potential difference is

S​1​P​ ​– S​2​P = (n + 1/2) λ

Now if the potential difference of the waves is Φ then,

y​1 ​ = α cos wt

​y​2 ​= α cos wt

The individual intensity of each wave is I​0 ​, we get,

y = y​1 + ​y​2

= α cos wt + α cos (wt +Φ)

y = 2 α cos(Φ/2) cos (wt + Φ/2)

Since, the intensity is I​0

∝

A²

I​0

4α² cos² (Φ/2)

I = 4 I​0 ​ cos² (Φ/2)

Well, the time-averaged value of cos²(Φ​t​/2) is 1/2. So, the resultant

intensity will be I = 2 I​0​ at all the points.

Solved Questions For You

Q. Two coherent sources of light can be obtained by

A. Two different lamps

B. Different lamps having the same power
C. Two different lamps of the same power and having the same
color
D. None of the above
Answer: D. The coherent source cannot be obtained from two
different light

Diffraction

Suppose there is a dark room, a completely dark room and through the
window, there is a small hole. When light enters through that tiny
hole, what happens? We see that through the small hole light enters
but instead of just bright light, we see a region of light and dark bands.
This is nothing but the diffraction of light. Let us study diffraction in
detail.

Diffraction

Every one of us knows what diffraction is. It is the bending of light

around the corner of an obstacle. Reflected light produces fridges of
light, dark or colored bands. At times diffraction of sunlight in clouds
produces a multitude of colors. Example of diffraction in nature is
diamond rays in the solar eclipse.
Types of Diffraction

There are two types of diffractions

● Fresnel Diffraction
● Fraunhofer Diffraction
From the above figure, we observe that the source is located at a finite
distance from the slit, and the screen is also at a finite distance from
the slit. The source and the screen are not very far from each other. So
this is a Fresnel diffraction. Here, if suppose the ray of light comes
exactly at the edge of the obstacles, the path of the light is changed. So
the light bends a little and meets the screen.

A beam of width α travels a distance of α2/λ , called the Fresnel

distance before it starts to spread out due to diffraction. But when the
source and the screen are far away from each other, and when the
source is located at the infinite position, then the ray of light coming
from that infinite source are parallel rays of light. So this is Fraunhofer
diffraction.

Here we have to make use of the lens. But why do we use the lens?
Because in Fraunhofer diffraction, the source is at infinity so the rays
of light which pass through the slit are parallel rays of light.

So in order to make these rays parallel to focus on the screen, we,

make use of the converging lens. The zone which we get in front of
the slit is the central maxima. On either side of central maxima, there
is bright zone i.e 1st maxima.

Fresnel Diffraction Fraunhofer Diffraction

Here the wavefront used is

Here the wavefront used is plane.
spherical.

An image is formed at a finite An image is formed at an infinite

distance. distance.

A lens is not required. A lens is required.

Questions For You

Q1. In a single slit diffraction λ= 500mmwith and a lens of diameter

0.01mm, width of central maxima, obtain on screen at a distance of 1
m will be

A. 5mm
B. 1mm
C. 10mm
D. 2.5mm
Answer: C. The angle subtended by two minima in the slit = α = 2λ/w,
where w is the slit width. Here the lens diameter would act as slit
width. The width of central maxima is the distance between the two
minima = dα, where d is the distance between slit and screen = 1m.
Thus the width of central maxima = 10mm

Q2. Yellow light is used in single slit experiment with slit width 0.6
mm. If the yellow light is replaced by X-rays, then the pattern will
reveal

A. no pattern
B. that the central maxima narrower
C. less number of fringes
D. more number of fringes

Answer: D. A wavelength of X rays ranges from 0.1 to 10mm and

yellow light is the range 570 to 590mm. Fringes are formed at nλD/d.
Hence the fringes of x-rays are formed close to each other.

Huygen’s Principle
When you open your window in a room, the light enters through the
window and spreads throughout the room. Do you why does this
happen? This is because light has got some wave nature, that spreads
in the room in all the directions. To understand this in a better way let
us study the Huygen’s Principle.

Huygen’s Principle

It states that each point of the wavefront is the source of the secondary
wavelets which spread out in all direction with the speed of a wave.
So if we consider a point source, it will emit its wavefront and nature
of the wavefront will be spherical one.

As per the Huygen’s principle, all the points on the wavefront are
going to become a secondary source. So the wavefronts will in the
forward direction. All the secondary sources emit wavelets. Tangent
drawn to all the wavelets is the new position of the waveform.

This means that, suppose you are standing on the mountain and you
throw a stone in the water from a height. What do you observe? You
see that the stone strikes the surface of the water and waves are seen
surrounding that point. Every point on the surface of water starts
oscillating.

The waves spread in all the direction. Earlier the water was at rest. But
the moment we throw the stone in the water, within a few fractions of
seconds the disturbance spreads in all directions. There are ripples
formed in the water. The ripples form the concentric circle around the
disturbance and spread out.

These ripples are nothing but the wavefront. The wavefronts gradually
spread in all the directions. So at every point, we have a wave coming
out. The primary wavefront is formed and again from the primary
wavefront, a secondary waveform is formed and so on. The
disturbance does not last for a long time. It fades gradually because
more and more waveforms are formed.
Solved Questions For You

Q1. Ray optics is valid when characteristic dimensions are:

A. of the same order as the wavelength of light.

B. much smaller than the wavelength of light.
C. much larger than the wavelength of light.
D. of the order 1mm

Answer: C. Ray optics is valid when characteristic dimensions are

much larger than the wavelength of light so that the rectilinear
property of light can be used.

Q2. According to Huygen’s Principle, the ether medium pervading

entire universe is:

A. Less elastic and denser

B. Highly elastic and less dense
C. Not elastic
D. Much heavier

Ans: B. Huygen considered light needs a medium to propagate called

either as highly elastic and less dense.
Q3. Huygens’s concept of secondary wave

A. allow us to find the focal length of the thick lens

B. it is a geometrical method to find the wavelength
C. used to determine a velocity of light
D. it is used to explain polarisation

Ans: B. Huygens’s concept of secondary wave is a geometrical

method to find the wavelength.

Huygen’s principle states that every point on the wavefront may be

considered a source of secondary spherical wavelets which spread out
in the forward direction at the speed of light. The new wavefront is the
tangential surface to all these secondary wavelets. Thus, it is a
geometrical method to find the wavelength.

Interference of Light Waves and Young’s

Experiment

Suppose you are busy studying in your room and one of your friends
calls you out for cricket. So what happens here is that he has interfered
you with what you were doing. So that was kind of disturbance for
you. Let us now study about something called as an interference of
light waves.

Constructive and Destructive Interference of Light

Waves

We know that there are two kinds of interference of light waves,

which are:

● Constructive Interference: Suppose if the crest of one wave

falls on the crest of another wave, then the amplitude is
maximum. This is constructive interference. Here both the
waves have the same displacement and the waves are in phase.
 ● Destructive interference: Suppose if the crest of one wave falls
on the trough of another wave, then the amplitude here is
minimum. This is destructive interference. Here the waves do
not have the same displacement and the waves are out of phase.

Condition of a Steady Interference Pattern

i. A​1 = ​A​2 . ​The amplitude of two waves must be equal.
ii. λ​1 = ​λ​2. ​The two waves interfering must have same color i.e
they must be of the same wavelength.
iii.Sources must be narrow.
iv.The distance between source should be less.
v. Source and screen should be at large distance.
vi.We should get coherent sources.

Path difference for constructive and destructive interference

Suppose there are two coherent sources S​1 ​and S​2​. There is also a
point source P. The point source P is located at the same distance from
the sources S​1 ​and S​2​. When both the sources are in the same phase,
the constructive path difference will be 0, λ, 2λ……. The destructive
path difference will be λ/2, 3λ/2, 5λ/2……
Young’s experiment

Young’s performed an experiment to prove the wave nature of light by

explaining the phenomenon of interference. He used two coherent
sources to perform in this experiment. He used a light bulb and two
small slits, S​1 ​and S​2 ​and source S.

Here in the above figure, we can see that the slits are placed very close
to each other and are separated by the distance ‘ d ‘. There is a screen
placed in front of this setup. He observed that alternate dark and light
bands were formed on the screen. Why did this kind of pattern come
on the screen?

The source S illuminate the source S​1 ​and S​2 .​Therefore the light from
S​1 ​and S​2 ​becomes coherent. Why did they become coherent? This is
because both S​1 ​and S​2 ​receive their light from the same source S. So
if there is any change in the phase, the change will reflect in both S​1
and S​2​. When both the slits are open fringes are formed.

Suppose you have two taps in your house and water that comes in both
the taps is coming from both the source. So if you put some mud at the
source of the water, the moment you open the taps, you will see that
water from both the taps will be muddy. Whatever changes you make
in the source, the same changes are seen in the taps too.

∴ we can say that S​1 ​and S​2 w

​ ill always remain in phase.

In the double-slit experiment consecutive bright as well as dark

fringes are seen on the screen as a consequence of the type of
interference of light waves.

● The interference fringe maxima occur for path difference = n λ

 ● The interference fringe minima occur for path difference =
(2n+1) λ

Solved Question For You

Q. A YDSE uses a monochromatic source. The shape of the fringe

formed on the screen is

A. Hyperbola
B. Circle
C. Straight line
D. Parabola

Answer: C. If the light consisted of ordinary particles, and these

particles were fired in the straight line through the slit and allowed to
strike a screen, we would expect to see a pattern of the size and shape
of the slit. Here the shape of the fringe forms on the screen is the
straight line.

Polarisation
Suppose on a hot sunny day you step out of your house, you
definitely use sunglasses. Also, everyone must have watched 3D
movies. Here, polarisation plays a very important role. Let us see what
polarisation is and study them in detail.

Polarisation

Polarisation is nothing but transforming unpolarised light into

polarised light. Unpolarised light is the light in which particles vibrate
in all different planes.

( ​Source: Wikipedia )

Ways of Polarising the Light

Polarisation by Polaroids
 ( ​Source: s-cool )

In the above figure, we see that there is plane of vibration parrel to the
plane and there is a plane of vibration perpendicular to the plane. The
first image is of unpolarised one. The second image is polarised which
is either perpendicular or parallel. So let us start understanding
polarisation by polaroids. Polaroids are the polarising materials
consisting molecules aligned in particular direction.
Every Polaroid has a pass axis. It will allow light to pass only through
the pass axis. A polaroid can have horizontal pass axis as well as
vertical pass axis. These determine how the light will pass through it.
So when an unpolarized light passes through a polaroid, it gets
polarised.

Polarisation by Scattering

Suppose we are having a molecule or an atom when the light gets

incident on this particle light energy will be absorbed by the particles
and will be re-emitted by it in different directions. This is scattering by
polarisation. The emitted light travels in different directions.

Suppose if we have an unpolarized light and that light is incident on a

particle or element or molecule, we will get the scattered light. The
scattered light will be present everywhere in all the directions. So
when the unpolarized light passes through the molecule, it is observed
that the light is polarised in the direction perpendicular to the incident
ray, along these directions we get polarised light.

This is how we get polarisation by scattering of light. The scattered

light in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the incident ray is
completely polarised whereas light passing through molecules is
partially polarised.

Polarisation by Reflection and Refraction

( ​Source: Wikipedia )

In the above figure, we can see the incident ray, reflected ray and the
refracted ray. On the incident, we see the unpolarized light. The
unpolarized light is denoted as shown in the above figure, where dot
represents perpendicular directions and lines indicate the parallel
direction.
 It is observed that most of the light in the reflected ray is polarised
parallel to the plane with a very few unpolarised ones. Whereas in the
refracted ray, most of the light is unpolarised with one or two
polarised components. Thus we see that both the reflected and the
refracted ray are partially polarised.

Brewster’s law

The law states that at a particular angle of incidence, the reflected ray
is completely polarised and the angle between the reflected ray and
refracted ray is 90°. At i = i​B​, when the angle of incidence is equal to
Brewster’s angle then, total angle = 90°

By Snell’s law, we say that

Sini

Sinr

=μ

∠i​B ​+ r = 90°

r = 90°- i​B
⇒ \( \frac{Sin i​B​}{cos i​B​} \) = μ

⇒ tan i​B ​= μ

Solved Questions For You

Q1. A ray of light is incident on the surface of the plate of glass of

refractive index 1.5 at the polarising angle. The angle of refraction of
the ray will be.

A. 33.7°
B. 43.7°
C. 23.7°
D. 53.7°

Answer: A. If i​P ​be the polarising angle, then, tan i​P ​= μ = 1.5 or i​P ​=
56.3°

Angle of refraction, r = 90° – i​P ​= 90° – 56.3° = 33. 7°

Q2. In case of linearly polarised light, the magnitude of the electric

field vector.

A. Varies periodically with time

 B. Does not change with time
C. Increases or decreases with linearly with time
D. Is parallel to the direction of propagation

Answer: A. In any type of light whether polarised or unpolarized, the

magnitude of electric field vector always varies periodically with time.

Refraction and Reflection of Waves

Using Huygen’s Principle

As we know that when light falls on an object, it bends and move

through the material, this is what refraction is. Also when the light
bounces off the medium it is called a reflection. Let us know study
reflection and refraction of waves by ​Huygen’s principle​.

Reflection using Huygens Principle

We can see a ray of light is incident on this surface and another ray
which is parallel to this ray is also incident on this surface. Plane AB
is incident at an angle ‘ i ‘ on the reflecting surface MN. As these rays
are incident from the surface, so we call it incident ray. If we draw a
perpendicular from point ‘A’ to this ray of light, Point A, and point B
will have a line joining them and this is called as wavefront and this
wavefront is incident on the surface.

These incident wavefront is carrying two points, point A and point B,

so we can say that from point B to point C light is travelling a
distance. If ‘ v ‘ represents the speed of the wave in the medium and if
‘ r ‘ represents the time taken by the wavefront from the point B to C
then the distance

BC = vr

In order the construct the reflected wavefront we draw a sphere of

radius vr from the point A. Let CE represent the tangent plane drawn
from the point C to this sphere. So,
 AE = BC = vr

If we now consider the triangles EAC and BAC we will find that they
are congruent and therefore, the angles ‘ i ‘ and ‘r ‘ would be equal.
This is the law of ​reflection

Refraction using Huygen’s principle

We know that when a light travels from one transparent medium to

another transparent medium its path changes. So the laws of refraction
state that the angle of incidence is the angle between the incident ray
and the normal and the angle of refraction is the angle between the
refracted ray and the normal.

The incident ray, reflected ray and the normal, to the interface of any
two given mediums all lie in the same plane. We also know that the
ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence and sine of the angle of
refraction is constant.
We can see a ray of light is incident on this surface and another ray
which is parallel to this ray is also incident on this surface. As these
rays are incident from the surface, so we call it incident ray.

Let PP’ represent the medium 1 and medium 2. The speed of the light
in this medium is represented by v​1 ​and v​2. ​If we draw a perpendicular
from point ‘A’ to this ray of light, Point A, and point B will have a
line joining them and this is called as wavefront and this wavefront is
incident on the surface.
 If ‘ r ‘ represents the time taken by the wavefront from the point B to
C then the distance,

BC = v​1 ​r

So to determine the shape of the refracted wavefront, we draw a

sphere of radius v​2​r from the point A in the second medium. Let CE
represent a tangent plane drawn from the point C on to the sphere.
Then, AE = v​2​r, and CE would represent the refracted wavefront. If
we now consider the triangles ABC and AEC, we readily obtain

sin i =

BC

AC

AC
 sin r =

AE

AC

AC

where’ ​i​ ‘ and ‘ r ‘ are the angles of incidence and refraction,

respectively. Substituting the values of v​1​ and v​2​ in terms of we get
the Snell’s Law,

n​1 ​sin i = n​2 ​sin r

Solved Question for you on Reflection and

Refraction of light using Huygens Principle

Q. The phase change in reflected wave, when lightwave suffers

reflection at the interface from air to glass is
 A. 0
B. π/2
C. π
D. 2π

Answer: C. When a light is reflected from denser to rarer medium,

there is no phase change in the light but when a light is reflected from
rarer to denser medium, there is a phase change of π. So, here the air is
rarer than glass and there is a phase change of π.