❖ What is Wave ?

➢ A wave is a disturbance of a continuous medium that propagates with a fixed shape at

constant velocity.
➢ A Wave is a propagating dynamic disturbance (change from equilibrium) of one or more
quantities, sometimes as described by a wave equation. In physical waves at least two
field quantities in the wave medium are involved.
➢ Waves can be periodic; in which case those quantities oscillate repeatedly about an
equilibrium (resting) value at same frequency.
➢ When the entire waveform moves in one direction, it’s said to be a travelling wave; by
contrast, a pair of superimposed periodic waves traveling in opposite directions makes
a standing wave.
➢ A physical wave is almost always confined to some finite region of space, called its
domain.

❑ Huygens's Principle: -
(The wave theory of light was first put forward by the great Dutch Physicist Christian Huygens
in 1678.)
➢ Why is it essential to study the Huygen’s Principle?
➢ This is because light has got some wave nature, that spreads in the room in all the
directions. To understand this behavior in a better way. Let us study the Huygen’s
Principle.
➢ Huygen’s principle state that each point on a wavefront may be considered as a source
of secondary waves or secondary wavelets (small waves) which spread out in all
direction with speed of wave. (Depends on source of wave).
➢ So, if we consider a point source, it will emit its wavefront and nature of the wavefront
will be spherical one.
 ❑ Types of Wavefronts:
( The explanation of any phenomenon of light by wave theory is based on geometrical
construction (in terms of wavefront ) known as Huygen’s principles.
A wavefront is an imaginary surface representing corresponding points of a wave that vibrate
in unison.
A wavefront is the set of all locations in a medium where the wave is at the same phase. This
could be where all the crests are, where all the troughs are, or any phase in between. Wavefronts
are useful for showing how waves move in 2 dimensions. The length between two lines on a
wavefront is exactly one wavelength.
To summarize, we can say that a wavefront is the set or locus of all the points in the same
phase. There are three types of wavefronts as plane wavefront, spherical wavefront, and
cylindrical wavefront. In the next few sections, we will understand in brief each of these types
of wavefronts.
Wavefront Physics
In this section, we will be discussing some important characteristics of wavefronts:
• Wavefronts proceed with time
• Wavefronts are single points for waves travelling in a one-dimensional medium;
curves in a two-dimensional medium, and surfaces in a three-dimensional medium.
• If the propagation speed differs at various points of a wavefront, the orientation and
shape of the wavefronts may differ by refraction. Particularly, lenses can alter the
wavefront optical shape from spherical to planar, or vice versa.
Wavefront Types
The path followed by the particles emanating from a source determines the different types of
wavefronts. Let us understand these different types in detail:
Spherical Wavefront
When the point source is an isotropic medium, sending out waves in three dimensions, the
wavefronts are spheres centred on the source, as shown in the figure. Such a wavefront is
called a spherical wavefront.
When the point source is an isotropic medium, sending out waves in three dimensions, the
wavefronts are spheres centred on the source, as shown in the figure. Such a wavefront is
called a spherical wavefront.

Examples of Spherical Wavefronts

• Electromagnetic waves in a vacuum form a spherical wavefront.
• The concentric circles’ formation when the stone is dropped in a water
• An army man patrolling the opposition on the radar through the camera positions the
invader with the spherical wavefront symbol.
Cylindrical Wavefront
When the light source is linear, we obtain a cylindrical wavefront. In a cylindrical wavefront,
all the points equidistant from the linear source lie on the surface of a cylinder, as shown in
the figure.
The cylindrical wavefront appears like a cylinder. However, if we draw the wavefront from
one plane, we obtain a concentric circle like a spherical wavefront.
Example of Cylindrical Wavefront
When rays of light coming out of a lens fall on another lens, they converge at a given point.
As they bend and converge at a point, it takes the form of a cylinder.
Plane Wavefront
The wavefront will appear as a plane when viewed from a considerable distance from a
source of any kind. Such a wavefront is called a plane wavefront.

Moreover, the plane wavefront is obtained when the small part of the spherical or cylindrical
wavefront originates from a distant source, like infinity.
Plane Wavefront Example
Plane wavefronts are generated from a very distant source. A common example of the plane
wavefront is the rays coming out of the sun.

➢ Spherical wavefront:
➢ Plane wavefront:
➢ Cylindrical wavefront:

▪ According HWT, each point in a source of light sends out waves in all directions in
hypothetical medium called ether.
▪ Ether was assumed to be continuous medium which pervades all space, due to
tremendous velocity of light, it was assumed that ether has very large elasticity and
extremely low density.
▪ The existence of ether had to be assumed because for the propagation of a wave motion,
medium is necessary. Huygens also assumed that these waves are mechanical in nature
and longitudinal in character.
▪ As such Huygens theory was able to explain reflection, refraction, simultaneous
reflection and refraction, total internal reflection, dispersion, double refraction etc.
However, it fails to explain the recti-linear propagation of light, diffraction and
polarization.
▪ As explained earlier, the waves are propagated in ether but the existence of ether with
contradictory properties has not so far been studied or established by any
 experimental evidence, hence this is also a drawback of this theory (Huygens Wave
Theory.)
➢ Applications of Huygen’s principle to study the Refraction and Reflection.
1) Refraction of plane wave at a plane interface
2) Total internal reflection
3) Reflection of a plane wave by plane surface.
4) Diffuse Reflection.
5) Reflection of light from a point source near a mirror.
6) Refraction of a spherical wave by a spherical surface.

❑ Superposition of waves
❑ The principle of superposition of waves states that when two or more propagating
waves of the same type are incident on the same point, the resultant amplitude at that
point is equal to the vector sum of the amplitudes of the individual waves.[1] If a crest
of a wave meets a crest of another wave of the same frequency at the same point, then
the amplitude is the sum of the individual amplitudes—this is constructive interference.
If a crest of one wave meets a trough of another wave, then the amplitude is equal to
the difference in the individual amplitudes—this is known as destructive interference.
❑ According to the principle of superposition, the instantaneous resultant displacement of
the particle due to two waves acting together is expressed by
❑ R1= y1+ y2
❑ If two displacement are in opposite directions the instantaneous resultant displacement
due to two waves acting together is expressed by
❑ R2= y1- y2
❑ When two light waves superimpose then the resultant amplitude (or intensity) in
the region of superposition is different than the amplitude (or intensity) of
individual waves.
❑ This modification in the distribution of intensity in the region of superposition is
called Interference. Or The phenomenon of redistribution of energy due to
superposition of light waves…
❑ When the resultant amplitude is the sum of the amplitudes due to two waves, which are
in phase, the interference is known on constructive interference. Bright fringes
❑ When the resultant amplitude is equal to the difference of two amplitudes and which
are out of phase by 1800, the interference is known as destructive interference. Dark
fringes
❑ A waves are mainly characterized by their amplitude, frequency and phase,
hence it is obvious that these three wave parameters have to fulfil certain conditions to
cause interference.

▪ The pattern consists of a series of bright and dark parallel bands called
fringes.

Types of Interference : (Based upon wavefront splitting (division) and amplitude

splitting (division):
The phenomenon of interference is divided into two classes namely;
a) Division of wavefront (Wavefront splitting)
b) Division of amplitude (Amplitude splitting)
Division of Wavefront:- The incident wavefront is divided into two parts by utilizing
the phenomena of reflection, refraction or diffraction by employing mirrors, biprisms
or lenses. This class of interference requires essentially a point source or a narrow slit
source. These two parts of the same wavefront travel unequal distances and reunite at
some angle to produce interference bands. Partial Diffraction also occurs at each
aperture.
Examples: The instruments used to obtain interference by division of
wavefront are the Fresnel biprism, Fresnel mirrors, Lloyd’s mirror and
Lasers etc.
Division of Amplitude :- The amplitude of incoming beam is divided into two parts
either by process of parallel (optically/partially divided) reflection or refraction. Thus
we have a coherent beams produced by amplitude splitting or division of amplitude.
These are divided parts reunite after traversing different paths and produce
interference. In this case it is not essential to employ a point or narrow slit
 source but broad slit (line) source may be employed to produce brighter
bands.
Examples: The instruments used to obtain interference by division of
amplitudes are the interference in thin films, Newton’s rings and
Michelson’s interferometer are examples of two beam interference and
Fabry-Perot’s interferometer is an example of multiple beam interference.

Newton’s Rings and Experimental Arrangement :-

Fig (a)

Fig. (b)

When a plano-convex lens with its convex surface is placed on a plane glass plate, an
air film of gradually increasing thickness is formed between the two.
The thickness of the film at the point of contact is zero. If monochromatic light is
allowed to fall normally and the film is viewed in reflected light…..
The alternate dark and bright rings concentric around the point of contact between the
lens and glass plate are seen.

A fringes of equal thickness ( or equal space) of circular fringes are called Newton’s
rings.
Light from an extend monochromatic source such as sodium lamp falls on a glass plate
G held at an angle 45o with the vertical. Incident light is reflected by the curved surface
of the lens L and a part is transmitted which is reflected back from the plane surface of
the plate.

These two reflected rays interfere and give rise to an interference pattern in the form of
circular rings. These rings are localized in the air films, and can be seen with a
microscope focused on the films.
Newton’s rings are formed due to interference between the waves reflected from the
top and bottom surfaces of air film formed between the plates. The formation of
Newton’s rings can be explained with the help of Figure a and b.

Determination of Wavelength of sodium light using Newtons’s rings:

Dn2+ p − Dn2
=
4 pR Using this formula λ can be determined.

DIFFRACTION :-

The bending of waves around the edges of an obstacle (or opening) is called diffraction.
The amount of bending, however depends upon the size of the obstacle and the
wavelength of wave.

Two types of diffraction :

Diffraction phenomenon can be divided into following two general classes:
1.Fresnel’s diffraction: F < 1

2. Fraunhofer’s diffraction : F << 1

The Rayleigh criteria for limit of resolution and its application to vision

Rayleigh criterion specifies the limiting condition of resolution.

According to it,
Two images formed by a lens are just distinguishable, if the central maximum of Airy
pattern for one image falls on the first minimum of the other image”

The limit on the resolving power is set by the phenomenon of diffraction.

 The Rayleigh criteria for limit of resolution and its application to vision:-

Applications:

1. Hubble space telescope : - (NASA)

2. Resolution of human eye and useful magnification:-

3. Resolution of microscope : (the λ limit) R.P. = λ/2.

➢ Diffraction gratings and their resolving power.

When there is a need to separate light of different wavelengths with high resolution, then a
diffraction grating is most often the tool of choices.
D. G. consists of a large number (N) of equally spaced, identical and narrow slits or lines.
( First grating was made by Joseph Fraunhofer (1787-1826) using fine wires.)
Transmission grating has slits, while reflection grating has lines that reflect light.
The thin film carries the impressions of rulings in the form of ridges. The thin film is the
mounted between glass plates and sealed. D.G. is characterized by the total number of slits N
and the distance d between the centres of the adjacent slits which is known as the grating period.
The condition for maximum intensity is the same as that for the double slit or multiple slits;
but with a large number of slits of the intensity maximum is very sharp and narrow providing
the high resolution for spectroscopic applications.
The peak intensities are also much higher for the grating than for the double slits

Thus a diffraction grating is the tool of choice for separating the colours in incidents light.
Resolving power of grating or any optical devices can be defined as
 
R.P. =

where, λ is mean value of the two spectral lines, differing in the wavelength by Δλ, and Δλ
being the minimum difference at which the lines are perceived separately.

The resolvability of such a grating depends upon how many slits are actually covered by the
incident light source; i.e. if more slits are covered, a higher resolution in the projected spectrum
is obtained.

Practice Questions:
Q.1. State Huygen’s principle and explain the concept of Huygen’s wave theory and its applications.
Q.2. Define wavefront and describe the different types of wavefronts with the help of neat diagrams.
Q.3. State and explain the concept of superpositions of waves in terms of interference
and define wave and how wave can be characterized.
Q.4. Define interference and explain the concept of interference of light in detail and discuss the
interference of light by wavefront splitting and amplitude splitting. Give any three examples
of each.
Q.5. Describe the experimental arrangement for the Newton’s ring’s experiment and write its formula
for determination of wavelength of Sodium (monocromatic) source. Or determination of radius of
curvature for plano convex lens.
Q.6. Explain the concept of Rayleigh criteria for limit of resolution and write it’s any three
applications.
Q.7. Define diffraction and describe the concept of diffraction grating and their resolving power.
 th
Q.8. In a Newton’s rings experiments, the diameter of the 6 ring was 0.341 cm and the
th
diameter of the 11 ring was 0.595 cm. Find the radius of curvature of the plano-convex
lens, if the wavelength of light used is 6330 Å.f

All the best…