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Strength of Materials : A Fundamental Approach

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Rudiments of strength of materials

Chapter-2
Simple Stress and Strain

2.1 Introduction
When designing a structure or a machine, the engineer must estimate all the forces acting on the
structure or the machine and its component parts. The effects of the forces are then considered in
relation to the stability of the structure as a whole, and the component parts are made strong
enough to fulfil their particular functions. The forces to be considered depend on the type and
purpose of the structure. In buildings, for example, the forces will be due to the weight of the
structure, its occupants and contents as well as the pressure exerted by the wind and earthquakes.
These forces may act in variety of ways on the structural components. That is, some parts may be
subjected to axial loads and some parts may sustain lateral loading. In this chapter we will study
the behaviour of individual member subjected to a force(s) [or load(s)].

2.2 Stress
When a body is acted upon by an external load, it undergoes deformation. A resistance opposing
this deformation is built up in the body due to inherent capability of the material. This resistance
to deformation is called stress. In simple terms, stress is defined as resistance to external forces.
It is a fundamental concept in strength of materials that is used to express the intensity of internal
resistive force. We know fully well that, size of a body matter a lot when it comes to sustaining
heavier loads. That is a large sized body can sustain heavier load than small sized bodies of the
same material. Therefore, when defining strength of a material load alone is not the criterion, the
area, which is resisting the load, is also an important criterion. Thus stress is expressed as load per
unit area and is known as intensity of stress. In figure 2.1 we can see the internal resistance built-
up in the component for external tensile load.

The stress is purely internal problem of a body. Thus, to visualize the stress we need to take a
section. The plane that cuts the body [not a physical dissection!] for the purpose of
investigation of stress is called stress plane. This plane discloses the built-up resistance.

In the figure 2.1, the load P acting on the body generates resistance over the area of cross section
that is uniformly distributed. The average intensity of stress can be expressed mathematically as
 =P/ A
Where  is stress, P is load applied and A is resisting area of cross section. If the stress is not
uniform, the intensity of stress is expressed in differential form as a ratio of infinitesimal load dP
over infinitesimal area dA [over which dP is applied] i.e.,

 = dP / dA

In practice, the term stress is often defined in two contexts: (1) force per unit area, or intensity of
stress, generally called unit stress and (2) total internal force with in a single member, generally
called total stress [we have discussed this in chapter 1, section 1.4].
Rudiments of strength of materials

In a lighter vein !!!

Stress may be viewed as an internal ‘displeasure’ shown by the body for external
loading. This displeasure comes out as resistance pervading the entire cross sectional
area!

2.2.1 Units of Stress

The basic unit of stress is Pascal, that is N/ m2, as this becomes a meek quantity [just about 98.1
gm on an area measuring 1m x 1m!], following bigger units are most common.

1. Mega Pascal [ MPa] = Pascal x 10 6

 N 
 6 2 
x10 6 = N/ mm2
10 mm 

2. Giga Pascal [ GPa] = Pascal x 109

 N 
=  6 2 
x10 9 = [ N/ mm2 ] x 103 = MPa x 103

10 mm 

2.2.2 Stress and Pressure

Though the units of expression for stress and pressure are same, there exist important differences
between stress and pressure.
 Pressure is purely extrinsic while stress is intrinsic to a body.
 At a point, intensity of pressure is constant in all the directions, while stress will not be
constant in all the directions at a point.
 An external pressure can always generate stress in a body. But, the converse can not be
realized.

2.3 The Basic Stresses

Only two basic stresses exist. They are;

Normal stresses: Always acts normal to [perpendicular to] cross section under consideration.
Tensile stress and compressive stress are examples for normal stresses
Shearing stresses: Always acts parallel to the cross sectional area.
When external forces acting on a member are parallel to its major axis and the member is of
constant cross section [a member of constant cross section throughout its length is called
prismatic] the resulting internal stresses are likewise parallel to that axis. Such stresses are also
called axial stresses. This concept is explained through figure 2.2. These stresses are explained in
succeeding paragraphs.

2.3.1 Tensile stress

Rudiments of strength of materials

When a pair of axial forces exert pull on a member, and thus tend to stretch or elongate it, they
are said to be tensile forces and they produce tensile stresses internally in the member on a plane
lying perpendicular or normal to its axis. Figure 2.3 is drawn to illustrate this.

2.3.2 Compressive stress

When a pair of axial forces pushes on a member and shorten or compress it, they are called
compressive forces and they produce axial compressive stresses internally in the member on a
plane perpendicular, or normal to its axis. This condition is illustrated in figure 2.4.

Compressive stresses exerted on an external surface [or at the interface of two surfaces] of a body
is referred to as bearing stresses. Sketch 2.5 depicts such a stress. In this figure, a steel column
bears on steel plate, steel plate bears on concrete footing, and concrete footing bears on earth.
At all the three interfaces, i.e., between steel & steel, steel & concrete and concrete & earth
bearing stresses would prevail.

2.3.4 Shearing Stresses

This type of stress differ significantly from tensile and compressive stresses in that the stressed
plane (the shear plane) lies parallel with the direction of the stress rather than perpendicular to it,
as in the case of tensile and compressive stresses. Figure 2.6 illustrates the development of shear
stress in a component part. A vertical load P is applied on the projected portion. In the event of a
failure the block will shear-off from its holding component. However, such an action is resisted
by the portion ABCD [the resistance is shown by small arrows] and this resistance is the shear
stress. Shear stress may be defined as the resistance per unit area developed tangential to
resisting area. Shear stress is denoted by . It is represented mathematically as ;

 = [ Shear Force] / [ Resisting area of cross section]

=P/A

There are two types of shear stresses. Their explanation follows;

Single shear: Shear stress builds up on the single plane through the member coinciding with the
plane of the other contacting surfaces. In lap joint shown in figure 2.7 (a), failure will occur on
the single plane through the rivet coinciding with the contacting surfaces. In this case the shear
stress in rivet is given by;

=P/A

Double shear: Shear stress builds up on two planes through the member coinciding with two
surfaces of other contacting surfaces. Total area is naturally twice the cross sectional area of the
member. In butt joint shown in figure 2.7 (b), failure will occur on the double planes through the
rivet coinciding with the contacting surfaces. Shear stress in the rivets is given by;

 = P / 2A

2.4 Stress Levels

Rudiments of strength of materials

Materials reach various stress levels when they are loaded with gradually increasing load. In the
following paragraphs we will discuss them briefly.

Working stress: It is the stress level at which the material can work safely. It is the portion of the
ultimate stress that can be safely used in the design of a component. We often use allowable
stress, permissible stress or safe working stress to designate working stress.

Yield stress: This is the constant stress at which the material flows like a plastic material [yields].
There will be substantial deformation at this level of stress. However brittle materials do not show
any yield and the failure of brittle materials is sudden.

Ultimate Stress [Ultimate strength] is defined as the greatest unit stress a material can
withstand without failure [rupture]. This stress will not be used in the design of component for
the reason of safety. Working stress is the fraction of ultimate stress, obtained by dividing
ultimate stress by a number, the number being called factor of safety.

2.4.1 Factor of safety

As mentioned in earlier paragraph, factor of safety may be defined as the ratio of ultimate stress
to allowable stress. For ductile materials, it is normally defined as the ratio of yield stress to
working stress. The determination of factor of safety for the design of a particular structure is a
matter of expertise and experience of the engineer. However, the value of factor of safety depends
on following:

 The degree of safety required. If in the event of a failure of the structure, brings about loss of
human life and property, large value of safety factor is used.
 The degree of economy needed.
 Dependability of material, for example, ductile materials give ample symptoms of failure
while brittle materials fails without any warrant.
 The nature of structure, that is temporary or permanent.
 Type of loads the structure will be subjected to, that is, static load or dynamic load [shock
loads].
 The ease with which the structures could be accessed for repair and periodical maintenance.

The range of factor of safety used while designing structures vary between 2 to 5.

The types of stresses we discussed are also called as direct stresses in order to differentiate
them from bending, torsional and other indirect stresses [we shall discuss indirect stresses
later]. Direct stresses are the result of direct loading. For example axial tensile load generates
direct tensile stress.
Further, if the stress distribution is uniform or constant then it is called simple stress. Stress
distribution can be uniform if and only if the resultant of all the applied loads passes through
center of gravity of the body. For example, a bar loaded with an axial tensile (compressive)
load will always develop a stress that is uniformly distributed over the section.
Rudiments of strength of materials

2.5 Strain
All materials which are subjected to external forces, will be deformed [elongation, shortening,
twisting are some examples of deformation]. The deformation of a bar subjected to tensile force is
shown in figure 2.8.If the total deformation produced is dl, and if the length [original]of the
member is L, then the deformation per unit length is given by;

Unit deformation [strain] = [total deformation] / Length

Or
Unit deformation = [change in dimension] / [Original dimension]
Strain can be defined as change in dimension to corresponding original dimension. Strain is
represented by , if L is the original length of a component and if dl is change in length due to
straining, then,
dl
=
L
The quantity dl and L are generally in millimeters. Consequently,  will be mm per mm.
Obviously, then, the quantity strain carries no unit. The strain that we defined above is also called
longitudinal strain. The change in lateral dimensions [diameter, thickness, and breadth i.e., cross
sectional dimensions of a component] can always be accommodated in lateral strain. Thus,
lateral strain can be expressed as;

dd db dt
lat = , lat = , lat = so on…
d b t
Where, d is original diameter, b is original breadth of cross section, t is original thickness of cross
section. Strain is always a very small quantity. But the stress needed to produce such a strain is
always enormous.

In a lighter Vein!!!
Most of the times, the word ‘strain’ is used as a misnomer. For example, often one exclaim, ‘I am
strained terrifically!’. As the quantity of strain happens to be very very small, strain is too small a
quantity to be called terrific. Thus it is rather logical if one says ‘I am stressed terrifically!’. In the
same breath, it is wrong to say that ‘the component is subjected to terrific strain’. Strain can
never be used to connote a force.

2.6 The Basic Strains

Like basic stresses, two types of strains exist. Namely, the normal strain and shear strain. We
shall discuss these two types at length in different sections.

2.6.1 Normal strain [axial strain]

The deformation that happens axially [along the loading axis] is called normal strain. Normal
strain is always parallel to the line of action of axial force. The term normal should be taken to
mean that the strain is always directed perpendicular to area of cross section. The examples are
tensile strain [figure 2.8] and compressive strain.

Mathematically,
Rudiments of strength of materials

dl
=
L
2.6.1 Shear strain

A shearing force always causes a shearing deformation just as axial force causes axial or normal
strain. In figure 2.9, a shearing force F dislocates points A to A1 and point B to B1. The
deformation AA1 happens over a height of h. To accommodate this deformation, we have to
consider tangent of the angle  subtended at the point C [or D]. Thus,

AA1 ds
tan  = 
h h
As ds is very small, tangent of the angle is practically equal to angle  expressed in radians.
Therefore shear strain is given by;

ds
=
h
Thus shear strain may be defined as total shear deformation by original height [or length].

It is important to recognize that, shear strain is always angular. While the normal
[axial] strain is always linear. Shear strain brings about shape change. With axial
strain the general shape configuration is not lost .We shall prove later that the shear
strain is always twice that of axial strain.

2.7 Hooke’s Law

Most of the structural materials behave elastically during the initial loading stages. Their elastic
properties wane away when the load increases beyond certain limit. English Scientist Robert
Hooke [1635-1703] investigated on the behaviour of several materials subjected to gradually
increasing loads. Hooke’s law states that with in the limits of elasticity of a material, the stress is
proportional to the strain. Hooke’s law is applicable to wide ranging materials like metals,
glass, timber and concrete. The law can be mathematically expressed as;

   or  = E 

Where E is called Modulus [meaning a measure] of elasticity. Another English scientist Thomas
Young [1773-1829] found that this proportionality constant has a unique value for a material with
in elastic limit. Thus E is also called Young’s modulus. Young’s modulus is given by;

E=/

Young’s modulus has same units as that of stress [MPa , GPa ].Young’s modulus has very large
values for materials that are very stiff [ structural steel has elastic modulus of 200 GPa ]. Soft
materials such as clay, carbon possesses low values of young’s modulus. Diamond enjoys highest
Rudiments of strength of materials

value of young’s modulus [around 1200 GPa]. Materials with high modulus of elasticity are least
deformable under stress.

2.7.1 Shear Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity

The relation between shear stress and shear strain will also fall under the ambit of Hooke’ law.
That is, with in elastic limits, shear stress is proportional to shear strain. The constant of
proportionality is called rigidity modulus [or shear modulus]. Rigidity modulus is denoted by C
or G and has the same units as that of young’s modulus. Mathematically,

   or  = G  or G =  / 

2.8 Poisson’s ratio

When a prismatic bar [that has same cross-section along the length] is loaded under tension, the
axial elongation is accoMPanied by lateral contraction. On the otherhand, if the member is
subjected to axial compression, the side effect is bulging. This behaviour of the bar is pictured in
figures 2.9[a] and 2.9 [b]. Such an effect is called Poisson’s effect. This effect is palpable in
stretched rubber band [or similar flexible materials], but in metals, the change in lateral
dimensions can not be easily detected. However, it can be detected with measuring devices. The
lateral strain is proportional to axial or longitudinal strain that accoMPanies it. This is true if
and only if the material is isotropic and homogeneous. The ratio of strain in lateral direction to
the strain along longitudinal direction is called Poisson’s ratio and denoted by  or 1/m.
Poison’s ratio is positive for almost all materials. The theoretical maximum value of Poisson’s
ratio is 0.5. Rubber has maximum value of Poisson’s ratio. Table 1.1 gives Poisson’s ratio of
some materials.

Table 2.1
Material Poisson’s ratio
Steel Around 0.3
Aluminium 0.22
Paraffin & rubber 0.5
Concrete 0.15
Cork 0.0
Rubber/Paraffin / Clay 0.5

It is pertinent to note the following facts;

 Poisson’s ratio is assumed to be same for both tension and compression.
 Human ligaments possess negative Poisson’s ratio. That is, when a ligament is
under tension it elongates in longitudinal direction and also in lateral direction.
The typical value being 0.47.

2.9 Elongation of a prismatic bar under tension

 Rudiments of strength of materials

Consider a prismatic bar loaded axially as shown in figure 2.10. Let A be the cross section of the
bar, L is its length. The stress in the bar is uniform and with in elastic limits.

The longitudinal strain is;

  = dl / L ……… [1]

As per Hooke’s law;

 = E  or  =  / E ……[2]

From equations 1 and 2;

dl = [ L ] / E
PL P
dl  [   ]
AE A

2.9 Stress-Strain Diagram for Structural steel

Certain important properties of materials used for engineering applications can be determined by
conducting laboratory tests on small specimens of the material. One such common test is tension
test. Tension test involves application of gradually increasing axial tensile load on a standard
specimen [the test is performed using Universal Testing Machine aptly called UTM ].After
performing tension or compression test and determining stress and strain at various magnitudes of
load, we can obtain a diagram by plotting stress along Y-axis and strain along X-axis. The stress-
strain diagram is of immense help in conveying information about mechanical properties and
behaviour of the material. We shall restrict ourselves to behaviour of structural steel only. Our
interest on structural steel stems out from the fact that, it is one of the most widely used metals,
being used in buildings, bridges, towers, antennas and many more structures. Structural steel is
also called as low carbon steel or mild steel.

A typical stress strain diagram for mild steel is as shown in figure 2.11. The initial behaviour is
portrayed by straight line OA. In this region the stress is proportional to strain and thus the
behaviour is linear. Beyond point A, the linear relationship no longer exists, correspondingly, the
stress at A is called proportionality limit. However, the material remains elastic even beyond the
limit of proportionality. The stress up to which the material behaves elastic is called elastic limit,
which is shown by point B on the curve. If the load is further increased, the material reaches a
point where sudden and appreciable increase in strain occurs without appreciable increase in
stress. This behaviour is shown by point C on the curve. The stress corresponding to point C
[upper yield point]is called upper yield stress. An accurate testing of the specimen would reveal
that the curve drops at point D [lower yield point] and the corresponding stress is called lower
yield stress. In the region of upper and lower yield points, the material becomes perfectly
plastic, which indicates that it can deform without an increase in applied load.

It is found that, the elongation of mild steel in perfectly plastic region is typically 10 to
15 times the elongation that occurs between initial loading upto proportional limit.
Rudiments of strength of materials

After undergoing the large strains in the region of upper and lower yield points, the steel begins to
strain harden . Strain hardening is a process, where material undergoes changes in its atomic and
crystalline structure. This process brings in new lease of life for the material and it picks up
increased resistance to further loading [hence resistance to deformation]. Thus aditional
elongation requires an increase in tensile load , and stress-strain diagram mounts up with a
positive slope from D to E. Point E signifies the maximum stress the material can bear and this
point is called ultimate point and the corresponding stress is ultimate stress. Further stretching of
the bar is actually accoMPanied by drastic reduction in area and in load, and fracture finally
occurs as shown by point F on the diagram.

It is worthwhile to note that, for mild steel,the strain at yield point is around
1.4 x 10-3, and at ultimate point the strain is about 160 x 10-3 and at fracture
it is about 350 x 10-3.

Being a ductile material, steel specimen sustains uniform strain over the entire length upto the
ultimate strength point. Figure 2.11 shows that the stress decreses beyond the ultimate strength of
the material and rupture does not occur untill a strain considerably in excess of the strain
corresponding to the ultimate stress has been reached. The strain that occurs during this phase
tends to be localised over a very short length of the test specimen, leading to necking
phenomenon [ also called waist formation ]depicted in figure 2.11 a. This necking is typical of a
metal which behave in a ductile manner. Figure 2.11[ b] shows type of failures for ductile and
brittle materials.
After conducting tension test on steel we can determine following items;
 Elastic Modulus
 Proportional limit
 Yield stress
 Ultimate stress
 Percentage increase in length: is a measure of ductility of the metal . It is given by;
percentage elongation = [ lf – lo ] / lo
where, lf = length of test specimen at fracture , lo = original length.
 Percentage reduction in cross sectional area : Ductility can also be measured by percentage
decrease in cross sectional area as given by;
percentage reduction in area = [ Ao – Af ] / Ao
where Ao is original area of cross section and Af is area of cross section at fracture.

2.9.1 True stress-strain diagram

In plotting stress strain diagram of figure 2.11, we make use of original area of cross section
while computing all stress values and original length while calculating corresponding strains.In
this context it is pertinent to define the following;
Nominal or Conventional or Engineering Stress : The ratio of load over original area of cross
section of a component is nominal stress.
True Stress : The ratio of load over instantaneous area of cross section is true stress. Thus
under tensile load , instantaneous area is less than original area and under compressive load ,
instantaneous area is more than original area.
Rudiments of strength of materials

Nominal or Engineering Strain : Strain values are calculated at various intervals of gradually
increasing load considering original gauge length of the specimen , such a strain is nominal or
engineering strain. Nominal strain is change in dimension to corresponding original dimension.
True Strain : As the load keeps on increasing, the gauge length will also keeps on varying
[Ex: gauge length increases under tensile loading ]. If actual length is used in calculaing the
strain, the strain obtained is true strain. Crisply, change in dimension to instantaneous dimension
is true strain.

In most of the engineering designs, the stresses considered will be well with in proportional limit
and as the strain involved upto this limit is very small, the change in area is not at all appreciable.
Therefore, original area of cross section is considered while defining the stress for all practical
purposes.

Coming back to true stress-strain diagram, as mentioned above, the lateral contraction of the
metal occurs when it is stretched under tensile load, this results in decreased cross sectional area.
However, this decrease is too small to show a noticeble effect on calculated value of stress up to
point D, but beyond the point D ,the reduction begins to alter the shape of the diagram. If the
actual area is used to calculate stress, the true stress strain curve will follow dashed line that is
superposed on the diagram.

2.9.2 Stress-Strain diagram for other materials

Every material has its own strength characteristics. Unlike steel, other materials do not show clear
points of yield stress. But initial linear behaiour is shown by almost all materials. Figure 2.12
presents the stress-strain behaviour of some important materials. Table 2.2 presents elastic
properties of certain metals.

2.9.3 Proof Stress

Most of the metals except steel, do not show well defined yield point and yet undergoes large
strains after the proportinal limit is exceeded. An arbitrary yield stress called proof stress for
these metals can be found out by offset method. On the stress strain diagram of the metal under
consideration, a line is drawn parallel to initial linear part of the curve [ figure 2.12 ] this line is
drawn at a standard offset of strain value ,such as 0.002 [ 0.2% ]. The intersection of the offset
line and the stress stain curve [ point A in the figure] defines the yield point for the metal and
hence yield stress. Proof stress is not an inherent property of the metal. Proof stress is also called
as offset yield stress.
Table 2.2 : Elastic properties of some metals.
Metal Proportionality Ultimate Elastic Poisson’s Percentage
limit [ MPa] strength Modulus ratio elongation
[MPa] GPa
Mild Steel 240.0 410.0 200.0 0.30 35
High Strength 420.0 550.0 200.0 0.30 18.0
Steel
Cast Iron 40.0 140.0 100.0 0.25 3.0
Aluminium 27.0 220.0 390.0 0.22 25.0
Brass 170.0 380.0 100.0 0.25 30.0
Bronze 140.0 230.0 80.0 0.14 10.0
Copper 260.0 380.0 120.0 0.48 4.0

2.9 Illustrative problems

Rudiments of strength of materials

We shall go through various problems to reinforce our understanding of the concepts discussed
up to this point.

[2.1] A bar having two different cross sectional areas is loaded by axial force as shown in
figure 2.13. Both partsof the bar have circular cross section. The diameter of parts AB and BC
are 40 mm and 25 mm respectively. Calculate normal stresses in portion AB and BC of the bar.

As it is clear from the figure that,the portions AB and BC of the bar are in tension and tensile
stresses will prevail in them.

P 100 x10 3
Normal stress in portion AB =  AB =   203.71 N/mm2
A  .25 / 4
2

P 100 x10 3
Normal stress in portion BC =  BC =   79.57 N/mm2
A  .40 2 / 4

[2.2] A hollow pipe of inside diameter 40 mm and outside diameter 50 mm is compressed by an

axial force of 55 kN. Calculate compressive stress in the material of the pipe.

This problem is also straightforward like previous one.


The resisting area is [ annular portion] =
4
50 2

 40 2  706.85mm 2

55 x10 3
The normal stress =  =  77.80 N/mm2.
706.85

[2.3] A horizontal bar CBD having length of 2.4 m is supported and loaded as shown in figure
2.14. The vertical member AB has cross-sectional area of 550 mm2 . determine the magnitude of
load P so that it produces a normal stress equal to 40 MPa in member AB.

The system shown in figure 2.14 is in equlibrium . The nature of internal force developed in AB
is essentially tensile. Taking moment of forces about the hinge C and equating to zero;

That is,  Mc = 0
P x 2.4 = FAB x 1.5
FAB x1.5 40 x550 x1.5
P=   13750 N  13.75kN
2.4 2.4

[2.4 ] Obtain an expression for change in length of a freely hanging wire of diameter d and
length Unit weight of the material of the wire is w.

We know that the change in length of a prismatic component [ here, wire is also prismatic as it
has same cross sectional area over entire length] is given by ;
Rudiments of strength of materials

Pl
dl 
AE
d 2
P = volume of wire x Unit weight = lw
4
d 2
A = Area of cross section =
4

l 2w
Therefore , change in length = dl =
E

[2.5] A strut and cable assembly ABC supports a vertical load as shown in figure 2.15. The cable
has an effective area of cross section 120 mm2, and the strut has an area of 250 mm2 . Calculate
the normal stresses in cable and strut and indicate the nature of stresses. If the cable elongates
1.3 mm, what is the strain?. If the strut shortens 0.62mm , what is the strain ?

The assembly is in equilibrium. The free-body diagram of strut is shown in figure 2.15 a, fig 2.15
b shows freebody diagram of joint B. First we shall find force in the cable [ cable can take only
tension].

From figure 2.17

1.5 
tan    
 2 
1.5 
  tan 1    36.87 0
 2 

 2 
Also,   tan 1    53.13 0
1.5 
Taking moments about C and applying  Mc = 0

P x 2.0 - TBA sin 73.730 x 2  1.5 = 0

2 2

TBA = [ 15 x 1000 x 2.0 ] / [0.96 x 2.5]= 12500 N = 12.5 kN.

Now, we shall consider joint B [ the nature of the force in the strut is compressive ]
Resolving all the forces arallel to the strut and equating to zero;

-FBC + 12.5 cos 73.73 + 15 cos 53.13 = 0

FBC = 12.5 kN

Stresses : Tensile stress in cable =  t = [12.5 x1000] / 120 = 104.16 MPa

Compressive stress in Strut =  c = [12.5 x 1000]/ 250 = 50 MPa.

The corresponding strains can be calculated using the known values of change in lengths.
Length of cable = length of strut = 1.5  2.0 = 2.5 m.
2 2

Strain in cable = AB = dl / l = 1.3 / = 1.3 / [2.5 x1000] = 5.2 x 10-4

Rudiments of strength of materials

Strain in strut = BC = dl / l = 0.62 / 2500 = 2.48 x 10-4

2.10 Two Principles

Though there are umpteen principles available in strength of materials, we shall go through two
important principles.

2.10.1 Principle of Superposition

The principle of superposition for deformations of axially loaded components states that the net
deformation caused due to sevaral applied loads acting simultaneously is equal to algebraic
sum of deformations due to each external load acting separately.
The prerequisites for applicability of this principle are;

 Axial loads and the displacements they produce must be linearly related [figure 2.28].
 Stresses do not exceed the proportional limit for the material[figure 2.29].

The principle is of great help while ;

 Estimating net deformation in case of a component with different cross sections over
fractional lengths of the component subjected to loads in between.
 Estimating deformation of uniformly tapering rods subjected to axial load.

2.10.2 Saint Venant’s Principle

In all the problems we solved , the streses we referred are average stresses. The stresses at
sections farther off from loding points tend to be unform [ this distance is estimated to be equal to
the width of the member]. In the immediate neighbourhood of the load, the stresses are
concentrated [ localized] . This observation was made by French elastician Saint Venant [1855
]. The priniple states that the stresses always tend to concentrate in the immediate vicinity of
the load and becomes uniform at sections farther off from the load. The distribution of normal
stress in a plate subjected to axial tensile load is shown in figure 2.30 .

This principle is of great help in estimating stress concentration around openings in a structure [
like openeing in a plate, a slab etc.. ] . Elaboration of the methods of such estimation is beyond
the scope of this book.

We shall go through various problems to get the grasp of the concepts discussed.
Rudiments of strength of materials

2.10 Illustrative Problems

2.11 Composite Sections under axial loading

The componet fabricated from two or more materials is called a composite component [ ex.
Composite bar, composite beam etc..]. The resulting section of such a component is composite
section. The advantage of such a combination is to use large quantities of low-modulus material
in the regions of low stress [ or to sustain low stress], and small quantities of high-modulus
material in the region of higher stress [ or to sustain high stress]. Considerable economy can be
achieved by such a combination besides utilization of appropriate materials to sustain appropriate
stress [ ex: steel is best for tensile stress , concrete is best for sustaining compressive stress] . We
shall deal with composite members subjected to axial load only. Few examples are;

 Reinforced concrete Column subjected to axial load.

 A steel rod encased in a copper tube firmly built at ends subjected to axial tensile load.

We will take an example to see as to how composite sections can be treated. Consider a
component having two materials as shown in figure 2.39 , subjected to a compressive load P. The
material-1 has modulus of elasticity E1 and material–2 has modulus of elasticity E2 . The areas of
cross section of the two materials resisting the load are A1 and A2 respectively.

Total applied load = Load borne by material-1 + Load borne by material-2

= P1 + P2
P = 1 A1 +  2 A2

Where 1 are 2 stresses generated in material-1 and material-2 respectively.

The component as a whole should be so designed that , the strain in both the materials are same.
This would avoid relative movement between them.

Thus strain in material-1 = strain in material –2

1 / E1 = 2 / E2

 E1 
1 =   2
 E2 

The ratio E1 / E2 is called modular ratio. Therefore, it can be said that in case of a composite
section under axial loading , the stress in one material is modular ratio times the stress in the
other.

We shall now deal with realated problems to get the clear idea about the concepts discussed .

2.12 Illustrative Problems

Rudiments of strength of materials

2.13 Temperature Stresses

Changes in temperature always brings about changes in objects.That is, they expand when
temperature is increased and contract when they are cooled. When block [ as shown in figure 2.48
] of homogeneous and isotropic material is uniformly heated , and allowed to expand freely in all
directions, the side lengths will increase. The increase is shown in dotted lines. The material is
said to undergo uniform thermal strain . This uniform thermal starin is given by;

t = t

Where  is the coefficient of thermal expansion and t is the increase or decrease in

temperature.The coefficient is the property of the material and has units milimeters per milimeter
per degree raise in temperature and often expressed as reciprocal of teMParautre change. Thus in
SI units,  has units 1/0C . Thermal strain , is a unitless quantity being positive when expansion
occurs and negative when it is contarction. Thermal strains are reversible, that is, the components
regain their original dimensions when the temperature returns to its original value.

For certain materials [like concrete] ,the strains are non linearly related to
temperature changes. Another unusual material is water, which expands when
heated at temperature above 40C but also expands when cooled below 40C. Hence
water posses maximum density at 40C. But, we will deal with materials which show
linear relation ship between thermal strain and temperature.

The change in dimension can be calculated by multiplying the original dimensions by thermal
strain. If, for example, the length of the component is L, then, upon heating, the dimension will
increase [ change in length ] by;

dl =  [t]L

Where dl is elongation of length L due to increase in temperature by t.

If the free expansion or contraction of materials are prevented, stresses will be generated in the
materials. This is particularly so in case of members that have fixed ends that will not yield for
any movement [an indeterminate structure is constructed by assemblage of such members]. Such
stresses may also occur when a member is heated non uniformly. Thus thermal stress may be
defined as the stress that is required to cause the prevented elongation or contarction. If a body
is not permitted to expand when temperature is increased, the force [Pt] that it would exert on
whatever is constraining will be equal to the force necessary to deform the body the amount that
it would otherwise have expanded. Therefore;

Change in length that Pt would have brought to the component is;

Pt L
dl 
AE

However, this change in length is being brought about by temperature, thus;

Rudiments of strength of materials

Pt L
tL 
AE
P 
 t  t = t
AE E
Therefore, the thermal stress is;

 t  t E

Here, in the above expression, t is thermal stress. It is seen that, the thermal stress do not depend
on the length of the component.

It is important to note that, if the expansion of the component is prevented by the

restraints[supports] the member will experience thermal compressive stress and if
free contraction is prevented by unyielding supports, the member will have to
sustain thermal tensile stress. Usually temperature stresses are prevalent in
indeterminate structures.

In case a stress exists before the temperature change takes place , the stress due to temperature
change may be added algebraically to the original stresses by the principle of superposition
provided the combined stress due to mechanical and thermal effect is with in proportional limit. it
is also possible that the combined effect may result in zero stress in the component .
We shall work out few illustrative problems to get a clear idea about temperature stress.

In a lighter vein !!!

If one wants to grow taller but finds a ceiling obstructing the growth then, one feels
compressed. On the otherhand if one gets in to a fix, in the process of coming out of the
fix, one gets tensed. This is what actually happens to a component if adequate measures
are not taken to allow for free expansion and contraction due to temperature variations.

2.14Illustrative Problems

2.15Effect of Temperature on Compound Section

To understand the behaviour of a compound section under temperature variations, consider a

compound bar made up of two bars of different materials Mt1 and Mt2 having different
coefficients of thermal expansion 1 and 2. Their young’s modulii being E1 and E2. Let 1 be
greater than 2. Consider a situation when temperature is increased by t0C. Also consider unit
length of the bar. If expansion were to be free, the bar of material Mt1 would have elongated by ;
1t per unit length, but its ends are rigidly connected to the ends of the bar of material Mt 2 which
expands less than that of Mt1. Let the strain undergone by the assemly of these two bars of
different materials be . Referring figure 2.53.
Rudiments of strength of materials

Expansion prevented for the bar1 of material Mt1 : 1 = 1t- ………..[1]

The bar undergoes compression because its actual expansion is prevented.The bar2 of material
Mt2 would have elongated 2t , but, due to the pulling force iMParted by fast expanding bar1, the
bar2 will have to sustain thermal tensile stress. Thus the thermal tensile strain in bar2 is;
2 = -2t …………..[2]
Adding equations 1 and 2,
1 + 2 = t (1-2) ……[3]
If 1 and 2 are the thermal stresses produced in bar1 and bar2, we have;
1 = 1 / E and 2 = 1 / E , so that , equation 3 turns into;

1 2
  1   2 t ………[4]
E1 E2

Further, For the equlibrium of the section, the tensile force exerted by the bar1 must be equal to
compressive force iMParted on bar2. That is;
1 A1 = 2 A2 ………[5]
Using equations 4 and 5, we can estimate stresses in bars. Using these stress values 1 and 2 of
bars can be calculated. Actual expansion per unit length of the compound bar can be calculated
so that the total elongation would be L , where L is the original length of the assembly.

Poisson’s effect and thermal effect have one thing in common. In poissons effect, the
lateral contraction of bar in tension or lateral bulging of bar in compression is an
illustration of strain without corresponding stress. Another common instance of
strain without stress is thermal strain, which is produced by a change in temperature.

2.16 Illustrative Problems

2.17 Volume Change
We have seen that the dimensions of a component under a tensile or compressive force change
and, therefore, we expect that the volume of the component may also change. The volumetic
strain [ also called as dilatation ] is defined as change in volume devided by original volume.
With in elastic loading, there will be increase in volume under a tensile load. For plastic
deformation of metals, the volume change is almost zero. Mathematically , Volumetric strain is
given by ;

v = dv
V

2.17.1 An Expression for Volumetric Strain

Consider a cube shown in figure 2.58 subjected to stresses x , y and z along X , Y and Z
directions respectively. Upon stressing, let the changed dimensions of the cube be (x+dx), (y+dy)
and (z+dz) along X , Y and Z directions.

The changed volume is ; V + dV = (x+dx) (y+dy) (z+dz)

Rudiments of strength of materials

= (x+dx) (yz+zdy+ydz) [ neglecting multiples of small terms ]

= (xyz + xz dy + xy dz + yz dx ) [ again neglecting small terms ]
xyz + dV = (xyz + xz dy + xy dz + yz dx )
dV = xz dy + yz dx + xy dz
dV xzdy yzdx xydz
  
V xyz xyz xyz

dy dx dz
 v     y x z
y x z

Therefore volumetric strain is ; v = x + y +z

Thus , it is seen that, the volumetric strain is sum of linear strains along X, Y and Z directions. If
these linear strains are equal, then volumetric strain is simply three times the linear strain.
Further, we can express the strains along X, Y and Z directions can be expressed as functions of
stresses.

x y z
The net strain along X dirction is =  
E mE mE

y x z
The net strain along Y direction =  
E mE mE

z y x
The net strain along Z direction =  
E mE mE

The above equations are the expressions of generalised Hooke’s law. It may be noted that, while
calculating net strains in a particular direction , the lateral stresses will contribute for the increase
or decrease in the value of strain along the direction considered.

The net strains along X,Y and Z directions are added up to obtain volumetric strain. The
volumetric strain is;

v =
1
 x   y   z   2  x   y   z 
E mE

v 
1
 x   y   z 1  2 
E  mE 
If all the normal stresses are equal a special state of stress called spherical stress exists over the
cube. Then, the volumetric strain will be;

3 v  2 
v = 1 
 mE 
E
Rudiments of strength of materials

Where, x, =y= z = v.

Within elastic limits, the spherical stress is proportional to volumetric strain . The constant of
proportionality is called volume modulus of elasticity or bulk modulus of elasticity. That is,

v
K=
v
Pressure can be best example for spherical stress. If the spherical stress is pressure , as in the
case of an embedded object deep in soil or in a fluid, the state of stress is called hydrostatic
stress.

2.18 Relationship among Elastic Constants

Thus far, we have seen the three elastic constants that are measures ( modulii) of different
strength properties of materials. They are modulus of elasticity E [ a measure of linear or axial
stiffness ] , modulus of rigidity G[ a measure transverse stiffness ] and bulk modulus K[ a
measure of overall stiffness]. We can establish relation among them . Before we do this, it is
essential that we understand following concepts.

2.18.1 Complementary Shear Stress

Consider a component subjected to loading as shown in figure 2.59. In order to study the behavior
of the component againt shear , we consider an infinetisimal element as in fig 2.59(a) . To oppose
the external loading, shear stress will be developed on face AB and to keep this element in
translatory equilibrium, shear stress of same magnitude but, of opposite direction will be
developed on face CD. But, these two shear stresses form a couple making the element unstable .
To keep the element in rotational equilibrium, a set of shear stresses will be developed which will
generate balancing moment thus complimenting the first set of shear stresses. The set of shear
stresses developed to safe guard rotational equlibrium of an element called complementary shear
stress. The element is said to be in a state of simple shear .Owing to these two sets of shear
stresses , the element will be subjected to disfigurement. This disfigurement is cleary seen by
diagonal tension [ diagonal BC gets elongated] and diagonal compression [ diagonal AD gets
compressed ]. The effect is shown in figure 2.59(b).In the next article we will calculate diagonal
tensile stress and compressive stress.

2.18.2 Stresses along diagonals

Let ABCD be an element subjected to shear stresses of magnitude  on all the four faces as shown
in figure 2.60. Let the thickness of the square be unity . If the side length of the square is b , then;

Total force on face BC or DC =  b . 1 =  b

Resultant of the forces on DC or BC = b   b  =

2 2
2b

This resultant will act at right angles to BD [ along the direction AC of the diagonal AC]. To
balance this force, an equal and opposite force must necessarily act along CA of the diagonal AC.
Hence total force on BD = 2b
Rudiments of strength of materials

Length of the diagonal BD = BC sec DBC = b sec 450 = b 2

The area of face BD = b 2 x1=b 2

TotalForce 2b
Therefore normal stress on BD =  
Area b 2
It is clear from above expression that, due to shear stress of intensity  on all the four faces of
ABCD, there exists a tensile stress of same intensity [ that is  ] in the direction AC. In the same
token, it is possible to show that there will be compressive stress of intensity  in the direction
BD along the diagonal BD.

2.18.3 Relation between E , C and K

Now, we shall take up the task of establishing relation among E,C and K.Consider an element of
stressed body, subjected to a state of shear stress as shown in figure 2.61.
It is just now seen in the above paragraph that , this pure shear condition will culminate in
development of diagonal tensile stress and diagonal compression.

AA1
Sher strain = tan  =
AD
AA1
Since  is very small , tan    =
AD

Let a perpendicular be drawn from A to A1C at E. Since deformation AA1 is very very small, the
angle AA1E can still be taken as 450 . In the elementary triangle AA1 E ;

A1 E
Cos 450 =
AA1

A1 E
AA1 =
cos 45 0

A1 E
 
cos 45 AD

AD
In the triangle ADC , cos 45 =
AC
So that AD = AC cos 45
Furthermore,

A1 E 2 A1 E
  
cos 45. AC cos 45 AC
Since deformation is small , AC can be equated to EC, so that,
Rudiments of strength of materials

2 A1 E
   2 ------------[1]
AC
In the above expression A1E is change in length of the diagonal and AC is the original length of
the diagonal. The resulting ratio is longitudinal strain [  ]. From expression 1 it can be said that ,
the shear strain is twice the longitudinal strain.

As per the Hooke’s law,

 
 =C

=
C

Therefore equation 1 can be written as :  2 ………[2]
C

It has been just proved that in an element that is subjected to allround shear stress , one of the
diagonals will be under tensile stress while the other will be in compression.

 
Therefore net strain in diagonal AC   ………[3]
E mE

Combining equations 2 and 3;

   1
2 1 
C E  m

 1
Therefore E  2C 1   ……………[4]
 m

Equation 4 , relates E and C. We further continue,

Bulk Modulus is given by ; K =  v / v

3 v  2
But, we have prooved earlier that ,  v  1  m 
E
v
Therefore , K =
3 v  2
E 1  m 

 2
Thus, E = 3K 1   …………[5]
 m

Equation [5] relates E and K.

Rudiments of strength of materials

1 E  2C
From equation 4 , 
m 2C

Substituting value of 1/m in equation 5, we obtain;

 2C  2 E  4C   C  E  2C 
E  3K    3K  
 2C   C 

On further simplification,

9 KC
E
3K  C 

1.19 Illustrative Problems

2.20 Statically Inditerminate Members

It is well known to us that, in problems comprising combinations of axially loaded members

equations of statical equilibrium would suffice to solve for unknowns[internal stresses or forces].
But in certain combinations of axially loaded members the three fundamental equations will not
be sufficient to solve for unknowns. The situation would arise when number of unknowns [
internal forces] exceed the number of equilibrium equations [ as you know that these three
equations are Fx=0, Fy=0, M=0] . Such cases are called statically intermidiate. Solving such
cases would involve framing additional equations which contain relationship among deformations
in various members involved in the system. There are variety of cases of this nature but we shall
go through few simple problems to get a clear idea with regard to method of solving. Following
tips are of great help while dealing with such problems.

 As a first step, free body diagram of the entire structure or part of it should be drawn with all
the internal and external forces sketched there in.

 If there are unknowns more than three , additional equations should be framed making use
of geometrical relations between the elastic deformations produced by the loads. To define
these relations clearly, we will have to draw the sketch that exaggerates the magnitudes of the
elastic deformations.

2.21 Illustrative Problems

Rudiments of strength of materials

2.22 Assumptions made in Simple Stress & Strain Theory

Before we close down this chapter, we shall enlist the assumptions made in simple stress and
strain theory.

 The materials are isotropic and homogeneous.

 The stresses are well with in elastic limit and Hooke’s law is valid.
 The stress and strain is uniform over the section considered.
 The stresses are average and considered at sections not in the immediate neighbourhood of
the point of application of load.

In a Nutshell

 Stress is load per unit area and has units MPa , GPa.
 There are only two categories of stresses; the normal stress and the shear stress[ transverse
stress].
 Strain speaks of deformation a member has undergone in realtion with original dimension. It
is the ratio of change in dimension to corresponding original dimension.It is a unitless entity.
 There are only two categories of strains; the normal strain and the shear strain.
 Lateral strain should be seen as the side effect caused by a load . In magnitude, it is the
product of longitudinal strain and poisson’s ratio.
 Theoritical maximum value of poisson’s ratio is 0.5.
 Shear strain brings in thorough shape change while axial strain safegaurds the original shape
configuration.
 In case of composite sections , stress in one material is modular ratio times the other.
 The prevented thermal strain brings in thermal stress with in the body of the component. If
expansion is prevented, compressive stress builds up and if contraction is prevented ,tensile
stress builds up in the component.
 In case of a composite unit subjected to temperature variation, thecomponent with higher
value of thermal coefficient is subjected to compression while the component with lower
coefficient value will be under tensile stress. But the compressive force is equal to tensile
force.
 Volumetric strain is algebraic sum of strains along three mutually perpendicular directions.
 Shear strain is twice that of longitudinal strain.
 Three constants of elasticity are young’s modulus[E], rigidity modulus[C] and bulk
modulus[K].
Rudiments of strength of materials

Chapter Activity

1. A 50 mm diameter rod is 3 m long. When a tensile load of 188 kN is applied to the rod, it
elongates 9.6 mm, and the diameter decreses by 0.04 mm. Determine axial strain, lateral
strain,poisson’s ratio, young’s modulus and shear modulus.
[ 0.0032 , 0.0008, 0.25, 29.93 GPa , 11.97GPa]
[ RA = Pb/L and RB = Pa/L]
2. A bar uniformly tapering from diameter 60 mm at one end to a diameter 40 mm at the other
end is subjected to an axial tensile load of 100 kN. Length of the bar is 1.5 m . E = 200 GPa.
Work out from basics the extension of the bar.
[ 0.398 mm ]
3. A homogeneous rod of constant cross section is attached to unyielding supports. It carries an
axial load P applied as shown in figure 2.67. Determine the reactions RA and RB.
[ RA = Pb/L , RB= Pa/L ]
4. A hollow cast iron cylinder with wall thickness 30 mm is to carry a compressive load of 1500
kN. If the ultimate stress for the material is 840 MPa and factor of safety is 12, find the size
of the sylinder.
[ Internal Dia = 197.5 mm ].

5. A compound tube consists of steel tube 150 mm internal diameter and 10 mm wall thickness
and an outer brass tube of 170 mm internal diameter and 10 mm wall thickness. The two
tubes are of same length [ 150 mm]. The compound tube carries an axial load of 1000 kN.
Find the streeese in each tube and the amount they shorten.
[ b = 63.65 MPa , S = 127.3 MPa, dl = 0.09548 mm ]

6. A mild steel bar 20 mm in diameter and 50 mm long is placed inside a copper tube whose
external diameter is 40 mm and internal diameter is 30 mm and the ends are fixed together by
brazing. If the composite bar is heated through 600 C, find the stress induced in each
material.Given s = 12 x 10-6/0C, C = 16.5 x 10-6/0C , Es= 200 GPa, EC=100GPa.
[c = 8.86 MPa , S = 15.5 MPa ]
7. A rod is composed of three segments as shown in figure 2.68. The rod is held between rigid
supports. Find the stress developed in each material when the temperature of the system is
raised by 550. Use Es = 200 GPa , ECU = 100 GPa, EAL = 70 GPa, s = 1.2 x 10-5/0c , CU=
1.75 x 10-5/0c, AL = 2.2x 10-5/0c.
[s = 192.51 MPa, cu = 96.25 MPa, AL= 63.52 MPa]
8. A steel bar of 400 mm x 120 mm x 60 mm is subjected to tensile load of 30 kN another
tensile load of 20 kN and compressive load of 10 kN as shown in the figure 2.69. Find the
changes in the dimensions of the bar and also its volume change. E= 200 GPa, 1/m = 0.25.
[ dv = 34.5 mm3]
9. Two steel rods AB and BC each 6 meters long are connected at B in a manner as shown in
figure 2.70. If a load of 140 kN is acting at B, find the diameter of each rod and vertical
displacement of point B. E = 200 GPa.
[ Dia = 42.2 mm , vertical deflection of B = 6 mm]
10. A steel bar 250 mm long and 50 mm x 50 mm is subjected to stresses of 120 MPa
[tensile]along the length and 40 MPa[comp] on the sides. The increase in volume was
observed to be 50 mm3. Determine the values of poisson’s ratio, modulus of rigidity and bulk
modulus. Given E = 200 GPa.
[ 1/m = 0.3 , C = 76900MPa, K = 166700 MPa ]
 Rudiments of strength of materials

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