Physics Lab Manual

Engineering Physics Laboratory Manual
By
Department of Sciences & Humanities
HYDERABAD INSTITUTEOF
TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT
Common to All…….
Engineering Physics Lab manual S & H DEPT
CONTENTS
Instructions for Laboratory
……….3
Bibliography
……….4
Experiment 1: Determination of Rigidity modulus of a material – Torsional
pendulum ……..5
Experiment 2: Melde’s Experiment – Transverse and Longitudinal Modes
……..7
Experiment 3: Dispersive Power of the material of a Prism – Spectrometer
………10
Experiment 4: Newton’s Rings ………
14
Experiment 5: Diffraction Grating
………18
Experiment 6: Single Slit & Double Slit Diffraction using Lasers
……….22
Experiment 7: Time Constant of RC Circuit
……….26
Experiment 8: Resonance in LCR circuit
……….29
Experiment 9: Magnetic field along the axis of a coil (Stewart & Gees
method) ………32
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HYDERABAD INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT Page 45
Experiment 10: Study of Characteristics of LED and LASER sources
………35
Experiment 11: Evaluation of Numerical Aperture of a given fiber
……….39
Experiment 12: Losses in Optical fiber
………41
Experiment 13: Energy gap of a material of p-n junction
………44
Instructions for Laboratory
• The objective of the laboratory is learning. The experiments are designed to

illustrate phenomena in different areas of Physics and to expose you to
measuring instruments. Conduct the experiments with interest and an
attitude of learning.
• You need to come well prepared for the experiment
• Work quietly and carefully (the whole purpose of experimentation is to make

reliable measurements!) and equally share the work with your partners.
• Be honest in recording and representing your data. Never make up readings

or doctor them to get a better fit for a graph. If a particular reading appears
wrong repeat the measurement carefully. In any event all the data recorded
in the tables have to be faithfully displayed on the graph.
• All presentations of data, tables and graphs calculations should be neatly and
carefully done.
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• Bring necessary graph papers for each of experiment. Learn to optimize on
usage of graph papers.
• Graphs should be neatly drawn with pencil. Always label graphs and the axes
and display units.
• If you finish early, spend the remaining time to complete the calculations and
drawing graphs. Come equipped with calculator, scales, pencils etc.
• Do not fiddle idly with apparatus. Handle instruments with care. Report any
breakage to the Instructor. Return all the equipment you have signed out for
the purpose of your experiment.
Bibliography
Here is a short list of references to books which may be useful for further reading in
Physics or instrumentation relevant to the experiments. Also included are some
references to books of general interest with regard to science and experimentation.
1. "Fundamentals of Physics", 6th Ed., D. Halliday, R. Resnick and J. Walker, John

Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 2001.
2. "Physics", M. Alonso and E.J. Finn, Addison Wesley, .1992.
3. "The Feynman Lectures in Physics (Vols. 1, 11 and 111)", R.P. Feynman, R.B.
Leighton and M.Sands, Addison Wesley, 1963.
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4. "Fundamentals of Optics", 4th Ed., F.A. Jenkins and H.E. White, McGraw-Hill
BookCo., 1981.
5. "Optics", A Ghatak, Tata-McGraw Hill, New Delhi, 1992
6. "Vibration and Waves", A.P. French, Arnold-Heinemann, New Delhi, 1972.
7. "Students Reference Manual for Electronic Instrumentation Laboratories", S.E.
Wolf and R.F.M. Smith, PHI, 1990.
8. "Basic Electronic Instrument Handbook", C.F. Coombs, McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
1972.
9. "Laboratory Experiments in College Physics", C.H. Bernard and C.D. Epp, John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1995.
10. "Practical Physics", G.L. Squires, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
1985.
11. "Great Experiments in Physics", M.H. Shamos, Holt, Rinehart and Winston
Inc., 1959.
12. "Experiments in Modern Physics", A.C. Melissinos, Academic Press, N.Y.,
1966.
13. "Reliable Knowledge", J.Ziman, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
1978.
14. "Introductory Readings in the Philosophy of Science", Edited by E.D.
Klenke, R. Hollinger, A.D. Kline, Prometheous Books, Buffalo, New York, 1988.
EXPERIMENT 1
TORSIONAL PEDULUM RIGIDITY MODULUS
Aim: To determine the rigidity Modulus of the given wire by dynamical method.
Apparatus: Torsional pendulum, stop watch, screw gauge, vernier calipers, scale.
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Theory: A heavy cylindrical disc suspended from one end of a fine wire whose upper end is fixed
constitutes a Torsional pendulum. The disc is turned in its old plane to twist the wire, so
that on being released, it executes torsional vibrations about the wire as axis.
Let θ be the angle through which the wire is twisted.
Then the restoring couple set up in it is equal to
( π .n.a .θ ) = cθ
4
2l
(π .a 4 .n) 1
Where = c -------- is the twisting couple
2l 1
Per unit (radian) twist of the wire.
This produces an angular acceleration (dw/dt) in the disc
Therefore if “I” is the moment of inertia of the disc about the
wire we have
dw dw c
I. = −c.θ = −  θ
dt dt I
dw
i.e the angular acceleration ( ) of the angular displacement(θ ) and therefore its motion
dt
is simple harmonic hence time period is given by
1 I 2 2
T= 2π -----------------------
c
8π I l
From & n= ×
a4 T 2
2 2
In case of a circular disc whose geometric axes coincide with the axis of rotation. The
moment of inertia “I” is given by
I=
( MR ) 2
where M is the mass of disc and “R” is the radius of the disc.
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Plot a curve for l Vs T2 and calculate the slope.
8π
n= ×
( MR ) 2
× l/T2 dynes/cm2
a4 2
Length of Time for 20 oscillation Time Period

l
Sl. Wire 2
T=(t/20) sec T T2
No Trial1 Trail2 Mean
l ( cm) sec2 cm/sec2
(t) sec
1 40
2 60
3 80
4 100
5 120
Precautions:
1. while using vernier calipers see that the readings must be taken without any parallax error
2. Measure the thickness of wire using screw gauge
3. Note the disc should be rotated along with its own axis.
Result: The rigidity modulus of the given wire using dynamical method is n = dynes/cm
EXPERIMENT 2
Melde’s Experiment
Aim:
To determine the frequency of AC mains by Melde’s experiment.
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Apparatus:
• Electrically maintained tuning fork, A stand with clamp and pulley, A light weight pan, A weight box,
Analytical Balance, A battery with eliminator and connecting wires etc.
Theory:
STANDING WAVES IN STRINGS AND NORMAL MODES OF VIBRATION:
When a string under tension is set into vibrations, transverse harmonic waves propagate along its
length. When the length of string is fixed, reflected waves will also exist. The incident and reflected
waves will superimpose to produce transverse stationary waves in the string.
The string will vibrate in such a way that the clamped points of the string are nodes and the point
of plucking is the antinode.
Figure 2. The Envelope of a standing waves
A string can be set into vibrations by means of an electrically maintained tuning fork, thereby
producing stationary waves due to reflection of waves at the pulley. The loops are formed from the end of
the pulley where it touches the pulley to the position where it is fixed to the prong of tuning fork.
(i) For the transverse arrangement, the frequency is given by
1 T
n=
2L m
where ‘L’ is the length of thread in fundamental modes of vibrations, ‘ T ’ is the tension applied to the
thread and ‘m’ is the mass per unit length of thread. If ‘p’ loops are formed in the length ‘L’ of the thread,
then
P T
n=
2L m
(ii) For the longitudinal arrangement, when ‘p’ loops are formed, the frequency is given by
P T
n=
L m
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Procedure:
• Find the weight of pan P and arrange the apparatus as shown in figure.
• Place a load of 4 To 5 gm in the pan attached to the end of the string
• Passing over the pulley. Excite the tuning fork by switching on the power supply.
• Adjust the position of the pulley so that the string is set into resonant
• Vibrations and well defined loops are obtained. If necessary, adjust
• The tensions by adding weights in the pan slowly and gradually. For finer adjustment, add
milligram weight so that nodes are reduced to points.
• Measure the length of say 4 loops formed in the middle part of the string. If ‘L’ is the distance in
which 4 loops are formed, then distance between two consecutive nodes is L/4.
• Note down the weight placed in the pan and calculate the tension T.
• Tension, T= (wt. in the pan + wt. of pan) g
• Repeat the experiment twine by changing the weight in the pan in steps of one gram and altering
the position of the pulley each time to get well defined loops.
• Measure one meter length of the thread and find its mass to find the value of m, the mass
produced per unit length.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS::::

For longitudinal arrangement
Mass of the pan, w =……… gm
Mass per meter of thread, m =……… gm/cm
P T
Frequency n =
L m
S.No. Weight No. of Length of Length of Tension (T) Frequency (n)

(W) gms loops thread (L) each loop (W+w) gms Hzs
(p) cms (L/P) cms
1
2
3
4
5
6
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Mean frequency= ---------------- Hzs
For transverse arrangement
Mass of the pan, w =……… gm
Mass per meter of thread, m =……… gm/cm

P T
Frequency n=
2L m
S.No. Weight No. of Length of Length of Tension (T) Frequency (n)
(W) gms loops thread (L) each loop (W+w) gms Hzs
(p) cms (L/P) cms
1
2
3
4
5
6
Mean frequency= ---------------- Hzs
PRECAUTIONS:
• The thread should be uniform and inextensible.
• Well defined loops should be obtained by adjusting the tension with milligram weights.
• Frictions in the pulley should be least possible.
EXPERIMENT 3
Dispersive Power of a Prism
Aim: To determine the dispersive power of a material of prism using Spectrometer
Apparatus: Spectrometer, Prism, Mercury Vapor Lamp etc.
Theory: A spectrometer is used to measure the necessary angles. The spectrometer consists of three
units: (1) collimator, (2) telescope, and (3) prism table. The prism table, its base and telescope can be
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independently moved around their common vertical axis. A circular angular scale enables one to read
angular displacements (together with two verniers located diametrically opposite to each other).
In the experiment, we need to produce a parallel beam of rays to be incident on the prism. This is done
with the help of a collimator. The collimator has an adjustable rectangular slit at one end and a convex
lens at the other end. When the illuminated slit is located at the focus of the lens (See Fig. 1), a parallel
beam of rays emerges from the collimator. We can test this point, with the help of a telescope adjusted to
receive parallel rays. We first prepare the telescope towards this purpose as follows:
Setting the eyepiece: Focus the eyepiece of the telescope on its cross wires (for viewing the cross
wires against a white background such as a wall) such that a distinct image of the crosswire is seen by
you. In this context, remember that the human eye has an average “least distance of distinct vision” of
about 25 cm. When you have completed the above eyepiece adjustment, you have apparently got the
image of the crosswire located at a distance comfortable for your eyes. Henceforth do not disturb the
eyepiece.
Setting the Telescope: Focus the telescope onto a distant (infinity!) object. Focusing is done by
changing the separation between the objective and the eyepiece of the telescope. Test for the absence of a
parallax between the image of the distant object and the vertical crosswire. Parallax effect (i.e.
separation of two things when you move your head across horizontally) exits, if the cross-wire and the
image of the distant object are not at the same distance from your eyes. Now the telescope is adjusted
for receiving parallel rays. Henceforth do not disturb the telescope focusing adjustment.
Setting the Collimator: Use the telescope for viewing the illuminated slit through the collimator and
adjust the collimator (changing the separation between its lens and slit) till the image of the slit is brought
to the plane of cross wires as judged by the absence of parallax between the image of the slit and cross
wires.
Optical leveling of the Prism:
The prism table would have been nearly leveled before use have started the experiment. However, for
your experiment, you need to do a bit of leveling using reflected rays. For this purpose, place the table
with one apex at the center and facing the collimator, with the ground (non-transparent) face
perpendicular to the collimator axis and away from collimator. Slightly adjust the prism so that the beam
of light from the collimator falls on the two reflecting faces symmetrically (Fig. 2) When you have
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achieved this lock the prism table in this position. Turn the telescope to one side so as to receive the
reflected image of the slit centrally into the field of view. This may be achieved by using one of the
leveling screws. The image must be central whichever face is used as the reflecting face. Similarly, repeat
this procedure for the other side.
Finding the angle of the prism (A): With the slit width narrowed down sufficiently and prism
table leveled, lock the prism table and note the angular position of the telescope when one of the reflected
images coincides with the cross wires. Repeat this for the reflected image on the otherside (without
disturbing the prism and prism table). The difference in these two angular positions gives 2a.
Finding angle of minimum deviation (Dm)
Unlock the prism table for the measurement of the angle of minimum deviation ( Dm). Locate the image
of the slit after refraction through the prism as shown in Fig. 3. Keeping the image always in the field of
view, rotate the prism table till the position where the deviation of the image of the slit is smallest. At
this position, the image will go backward, even when you keep rotating the prism table in the same
direction. Lock both the telescope and the prism table and to use the fine adjustment screw for finer
settings. Note the angular position of the prism. In this position the prism is set for minimum deviation.
Without disturbing the prism table, remove the prism and turn the telescope (now unlock it) towards the
direct rays from the collimator. Note the scale reading of this position. The angle of the minimum
angular deviation, viz, Dm is the difference between the readings for these last two settings.
Principle: Refractive Index (µ): It is defined as
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velocity of light in vaccum
µ=
velocity of light in air
 A + Dm 
sin  
sin i  2 
And µ = =
sin r A
sin
2
Where A
Angle of Prism=600
Dm  Angle of minimum deviation
Observation tables:
Colour Direct Reading Telescope Reading Dm1= Dm2= Dm= Refractive

V1~V1’ V2~V2’ (Dm1+Dm2)/2 Index
V1 V2 V1’ V2’
µ
Dispersive power ( w ):- Angular rotation for a given wavelength is called dispersive power of the
material of a prism
 A + DB   A + Dg 
sin   sin  
∴ µb =  2   2 
, µG =
 A  A
sin   sin  
2 2
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µb − µ g µb + µ g
∴ w= Where µ av =
µav − 1 2
Speed of light in Prism: Speed of light in prism is given by
 sin( A / 2) 
v=c 
 sin( A + Dm ) / 2 
Precautions:
1. Take the readings without any parallax errors
2. The focus should be at the edge of green and blue rays
Results: - Determined the dispersive power of a material of prism using spectrometer

w =
Speed of light in prism v =
Experiment 4
Newton’s Rings
Aim:
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To observe Newton rings formed by the interface of produced by a thin air film and to determine
the radius of curvature of a plano-convex lens.
Apparatus:
Traveling microscope, sodium vapour lamp, plano-convex lens, plane glass plate, magnifyinglens.
I. Introduction:
I.1 The phenomenon of Newton’ s rings is an illustration of the interference of light waves reflected from
the opposite surfaces of a thin film of variable thickness. The two interfering beams, derived from a
monochromatic source satisfy the coherence condition for interference. Ring shaped fringes are produced
by the air film existing between a convex surface of a long focus plano-convex lens and a plane of glass
plate.
I.2. Basic Theory:
When a plano-convex lens (L) of long focal length is placed on a plane glass plate (G) , a thin film of air I
enclosed between the lower surface of the lens and upper surface of the glass plate.(see fig 1). The
thickness of the air film is very small at the point of contact and gradually increases from the center
outwards. The fringes produced are concentric circles. With monochromatic light, bright and dark
circular fringes are produced in the air film. When viewed with the white light, the fringes are coloured.
A horizontal beam of light falls on the glass plate B at an angle of 450. The plate B reflects a part of
incident light towards the air film enclosed by the lens L and plate G. The reflected beam (see fig 1) from
the air film is viewed with a microscope. Interference takes place
and dark and bright circular fringes are produced. This is due to
the interference between the light reflected at the lower surface
of the lens and the upper surface of the plate G.
For the normal incidence the optical path difference
Between\ the two waves is nearly 2µt, where µ is the refractive
index of the film and t is the thickness of the air film. Here an
extra phase difference π occurs for the ray which got reflected from upper surface of the plate G because
the incident beam in this reflection goes from a rarer medium to a denser medium. Thus the conditions
for constructive and destructive interference are (using µ = 1 for air)
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2t=nλ for minima; n = 0,1,2,3… … … … (1)
 1
and 2t =  n +  λ for maxima; ; m = 0,1,2,3… … …(2)
 2
Then the air film enclosed between the spherical surface
of R and a plane surface glass plate, gives circular rings
such that (see fig 2)
rn2 = (2R-t)t
where rn is the radius of the nth order dark ring . Fig.2
(Note: The dark ring is the nth dark ring excluding the central dark spot).
Now R is the order of 100 cm and t is at most 1 cm. Therefore R>>t. Hence
(neglecting the t2 term ), giving
rn2
2t ≈
R
rn2
Putting the value of “ 2 t” in eq(1) gives 2λ ≈
R
With the help of a traveling microscope we can measure the diameter of the nth ring order dark ring = Dn
Dm
Then rn = and hence,
2
Dn2 1
R=
n 4λ
Dn2 2
The value of is calculated from the slope of the graph drawn in between n Vs Dn
n
Slope
∴ R=
4λ
So if we know the wavelength λ , we can calculate R(radius of curvature of the lens).
II. Setup and Procedure:
1. Clean the plate G and lens L thoroughly and put the lens over the plate with the curved surface
below B making angle with G(see fig 1).
2. Switch in the monochromatic light source. This sends a parallel beam of light. This beam of light
gets reflected by plate B falls on lens L.
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3. Look down vertically from above the lens and see whether the center is well illuminated. On
looking through the microscope, a spot with rings around it can be seen on properly focusing the
microscope.
4. Once good rings are in focus, rotate the eyepiece such that out of the two perpendicular cross
wires, one has its length parallel to the direction of travel of the microscope. Let this cross wire
also passes through the center of the ring system.
5. Now move the microscope to focus on a ring (say, the 20th order dark ring). On one side of the
center. Set the crosswire tangential to one ring as shown in fig 3. Note down the microscope
reading .
fig 3 _
(Make sure that you correctly read the least count of the vernier in mm units)
6. Move the microscope to make the crosswire tangential to the next ring nearer to the center and
note the reading. Continue with this purpose till you pass through the center. Take readings for an
equal number of rings on the both sides of the center.
Observations and results:
1. Least count of vernier of traveling microscope = ___________________mm
2. Wave length of light = _______________________ m
Table 1: Measurement of diameter of the ring
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S.No Order of Microscope reading Diameter
the ring Left side Right side
MS VS Net(cm MS VS Net(cm D(cm D2
(n)
1 20 ) ) ) (cm2)
2 18
3 16
4 14
5 12
6 10
7 8
8 6
9 4
10 2
Calculations:
Plot the graph of D2 Vs n and draw the straight line of best fit.
Give the calculation of the best fit analysis below. Attach extra sheets if necessary.
From the slope of the graph, calculate the radius of curvature R of the plano convex
lens as
Slope
R= = ____________________________ cm.
4λ
Results: … … … … … … … … … .
(One graph paper required).
Precautions:
Notice that as you go away from the central dark spot the fringe width decreases. In order to minimize the
errors in measurement of the diameter of the rings the following precautions should be taken:
i) The microscope should be parallel to the edge of the glass plate.
ii) If you place the cross wire tangential to the outer side of a perpendicular ring on one side of the
central spot then the cross wire should be placed tangential to the inner side of the same ring on
the other side of the central spot.(See fig 3)
iii) The traveling microscope should move only in one direction.
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Experiment 5
Diffraction Grating - Minimum deviation Method

Aim: To determine the wavelength of a given light using a plane diffraction grating in minimum
deviation position.
Apparatus: Spectrometer, Sodium Vapour Lamp, Grating (15000<PI), Grating holder
Principle: When a light passes through a small aperture whose dimensions are comparable with the λ
of light then light deviates from its rectilinear path and bends round the corner of the placed
aperture of its geometrical shadow, this phenomenon is called diffraction. Because the source and
the screen are placed effectively at infinite distance from the diffracting element it forms a class of
fraunhoffer diffraction
An arrangement consisting of a large member of parallel slits equal opaque space is called
diffraction grating. The distance between the centers of two successive slits is called the grating
element. If “a” is width of the slit and “b” is the distance between the two slits. Then (a+b) is
called the grating element or grating construction.
When a wave from is incident on a grating surface light is transmitted through the slits and
abstracted by the opaque portions such a grating is called a transmission grating. In a transmission
grating the grooves scatter light and so are opaque while the unruled surfaces transmit and act like slits.
Typically a high quality grating (used for studying spectra in the visible range) has about 15000 grooves
per inch, which gives a slit spacing of the order of a micron.
The condition for maximum intensity is
θ 
2 (a+b) sin   = nλ if a+b = d
2
dDistance between lines on grating =1/N
N Number of lines on the grating = 15000 lines per inch
θ 
2sin  
2 =λ
N .n
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2sin θ / 2 o
λ= A
N .n
n the Order of the Spectrum
θ  the angle of diffraction
Procedure:
1. Adjust telescope for parallel rays i.e. focus telescope on the object at infinity. Here we can
adjust telescope on an object which is at very large distance. Level the spectrometer and prism
table on which grating is mounted using a spirit level. Fig. 5 schematically shows the arrangement
of the grating and the spectrometer.
2. Switch on the power supply for spectral lamp.

3. Place the grating on the prism table such that the surface of the grating is approximately perpendicular to
the collimator of the spectrometer (i.e. perpendicular to the incident slit falling on the grating). Fix the
prism table in this position. With the Hg source observe first order spectrum on left hand side and right
hand side. Measure the angle of diffraction of each line by rotating telescope so that cross-wire coincides
with particular spectral line. Note down each measurement on the observation table I. The diffraction angle
is equal to difference between LHS and RHS observation divided by two for a particular spectral line. (See
Fig. 5)
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4. In first order spectrum of sodium measure the angular position θ L of yellow 1 (D1) on the left
side. Use the micrometer screw to turn the telescope to align the crosswire at the second yellow
line (D2) and read its angular position θ L
5. Likewise measure θ R on the RHS for D1 and D2.

Method to make light fall normal to the grating surface:
a) First mount grating approximately normal to the collimator. See the slit through telescope and
take reading from one side of vernier window. Note down the reading.
b) Add or subtract (whichever is convenient) 900 from reading taken in step (a) and put telescope
to this position. In this position telescope is approximately perpendicular to the collimator.
c) Now rotate prism table until the slit is visible on the cross-wire of the telescope. At this position
the incident light from the collimator falls at an angle 450 with the plane of the grating. Note down
this reading.
d) Next add or subtract 450 to step (c) reading and rotate the prism table so as to obtain this
reading on the same window. In this situation, light incident in the grating surface is
perpendicular.
Observations and Results:
Position of Telescope
S.No Spectral Wavelength θL − θR
Left Side θ L(degree Right side θ R(degree θ= Sinθ
. Line in A0
2
Main minutes)
Vernier Total Main minutes)
Vernie Total
1 D1 r
2 D2
Precautions:
1. The experiment should be performed in a dark room.
2. Micrometer screw should be used for fine adjustment of the telescope. For fine adjustment the
telescope should be first licked by means of the head screw.
3. The directions of rotation of the micrometer screw should be maintained otherwise the play in
the micrometer spindle might lead to errors.
4. The spectral lams (mercury source) attain their full illuminating power after being warmed up
for about 5 minutes, observation should be taken after 5 minutes.
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5. One of the essential precautions for the success of this experiment is to set the grating normal
to the incident rays (see below). Small variation on the angle of incident causes correspondingly
large error in the angle of diffraction. If the exact normally is not observed, one find that the angle
of diffraction measured on the left and on the right are not exactly equal. Read both the verniers to
eliminate any errors due to non coincidence of the center of the circular sale with the axis of
rotation of the telescope or table.
Result: Determined the λ of a given light using a plane diffraction grating in minimum
deviation position.
D1= deviation position λ = 5.89 × 10-5 cm
D2= deviation position λ = 5.896× 10-5 cm
Experiment 6
Diffraction at a Single and Double slit (LASER)
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Aim: To determine slit width of single and double slit by using He-Ne Laser.
Apparatus: He-Ne laser, Single Slit, Double Slit, Screen, Scale, tape etc.
Theory: If the waves have the same sign (are in phase), then the two waves constructively interfere,
the net amplitude is large and the light intensity is strong at that point. If they have opposite
signs, however, they are out of phase and the two waves destructively interfere: the net
amplitude is small and the light intensity is weak. It is these areas of strong and weak intensity,
which make up the interference patterns we will observe in this experiment. Interference can be
seen when light from a single source arrives at a point on a viewing screen by more than one
path. Because the number of oscillations of the electric field (wavelengths) differs for paths of
different lengths, the electromagnetic waves can arrive at the viewing screen with a phase
difference between their electromagnetic fields. If the Electric fields have the same sign then
they add constructively and increase the intensity of light, if the Electric fields have opposite
signs they add destructively and the light intensity decreases.
Diffraction at single slit can be observed when light travels through a hole (in the lab it is
usually a vertical slit) whose width, a, is small. Light from different points across the width of
the slit will take paths of different lengths to arrive at a viewing screen (Figure 1). When the
light interferes destructively, intensity minima appear on the screen. Figure 1 shows such a
diffraction pattern, where the intensity of light
is shown as a graph placed along the screen.
For a rectangular slit it can be shown that the
minima in the intensity pattern fit the formula
asinθ = mλ
where m is an integer (±1, ±2, ±3….. ), a is the
width of the slit, λ is the wavelength of the
light and θ is the angle to the position on the
screen. The mth spot on the screen is called
the mth order minimum. Diffraction patterns for other shapes of holes are more complex but also
result from the same principles of interference.
Two-slit Diffraction: When laser light shines through two closely spaced parallel slits (Figure
2) each slit produces a diffraction pattern. When these patterns overlap, they also interfere with
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each other. We can predict whether the interference will be constructive (a bright spot) or
destructive (a dark spot) by determining the path difference in traveling from each slit to a given
spot on the screen.
Intensity maxima occur when the light arrives
in phase with an integer number of wavelength
differences for the two paths: dsinθ = mλ
where m = ±0, ±1, ±2,… …and the interference
will be destructive if the path difference is a
half-integer number of wavelengths so that the
waves from each slit arrive out of phase with
opposite signs for the electric field.
 1
d sin θ =  m +  λ where m = ±0, ±1, ±2,… …
 2
Small Angle Approximation: The formulae given above are derived using the small angle
approximation. For small angles θ (given in radians) it is a good approximation to say that θ
≈ sinθ ≈ tanθ (for θ in radians). For the figures shown above this means that θ ≈ sinθ ≈
y
tanθ =
L
Procedure:
Part A: Diffraction at single slit
The diffraction plate has slits etched on it of different widths and separations. For this part use the
area where there is only a single slit.
For two sizes of slits, examine the patterns formed by single slits. Set up the slit in front of the
laser. Record the distance from the slit to the screen, L. For each of the slits, measure and record a
value for y on the viewing screen corresponding to the center of a dark region. Record as many
distances, y, for different values of m as you can. Use the largest two or three values for m which
you are able to observe to find a value for a. The He-Ne laser has a wavelength of 633 nm.
Part B: Two-slit Diffraction
Using the two-slit templates, observe the patterns projected on the viewing screen. Observe how
the pattern changes with changing slit width and/or spacing.
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For each set of slits, determine the spacing between the slits by measuring the distances between
minima on the screen. (The smaller spacings give are from the two slits patterns interfering, if
they get too small to measure accurately, just make your best estimate.) You will need to record
distances on the screen y and the distance from the slits to the screen, L.
Precautions: Look through the slit (holding it very close to your eye). See if you can see the
effects of diffraction. Set the laser on the table and aim it at the viewing screen. DO NOT
LOOK DIRECTLY INTO THE LASER OR AIM IT AT ANYONE! DO NOT LET
REFLECTIONS BOUNCE AROUND THE ROOM.
Pull a hair from your head. Mount it vertically in front of the laser using a piece of tape. Place
the hair in front of the laser and observe the diffraction around the hair. Use the formula above to
estimate the thickness of the hair, a. (The hair is not a slit but light diffracts around its edges in a
similar fashion.) Repeat with observations of your lab partners' hair.
Observations:
Table 1: Single slit
L = …….
λ = ………..
Result : Slit width = …….

Table 2: Double slit
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L = …….
λ = ………..
Result : Slit width = …….
Experiment 7
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Time Constant of RC Circuit
AIM: To determine the time constant ‘ τ ’ of the circuit by charging and discharging
APPARATUS: D.C.Voltage source, resistors, a capacitor, digital micro ammeter,

Charge and discharge key.
PROCEDURE:
I.1 The basic circuit for charging and discharging a
capacitor is shown in fig 1. If switch S1 is closed
keeping S2 open, then the battery charges the
capacitor and current flows through the resistor
R until the capacitor is fully charged. If the
charge on the capacitor at time t is q(t) , then
the voltage across the capacitor C is q/C
and the current through R1 is i = dq/dt . By
applying Kirchhoff’s second law.
iR1 + (q/C) = ε  R1(dq/dt) + (q/C) = ε …………..(1)
which has the solution
q (t ) = Cε (1 − e − t / R1C ) = q0 (1 − e− t / R1C )
…………………..(2)
Where q0 = Cε
The quantity τ = R1C is the charging time constant which characterizes the rate at which charge is
deposited on the capacitor .As t ∞, eq (2) shows that q  Cε = q0. In Practice the Capacitor charges to
its maximum value q0 after a time interval equal to a few time constants. Once the capacitor is fully
charged then the current i through the resistor become zero.
I.2 At this point if the switch S1 is opened and S2 is closed the charge in the capacitor discharges through the
resistor R2
By Kirchoff’s second law

dq q
R2 ( ) + ( )=0
dt c
with solution (taking q = q0 at t = 0)
q (t ) = q0 e − t / R2C
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Thus the charge on the capacitor decays exponentially with time. In fact after a time t=R2C (equal
to the discharging time constant) the charge drops from it’s initial value q0 by a factor of e-1.
Part A: Measurement of time constant for discharging of a capacitor
R = ________________________
C = ________________________
S.No. Dicharging Current (I) µA
time (t) Secs
1 0
2 10
3 20
4 30
5 40
6 50
7 60
8 70
9 80
10 90
GRAPH:
Plot a graph time in seconds on the x-axis and current in µ A on y-axis and find the time for a fall
to 0.37 × I max. Let this be = τ
Results:
The value of time constant measured τ = __________________ sec
The value of time constant calculated τ = R2C = ___________________ sec
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Part B: Measurement of time constant for charging of a capacitor
R1 = ________________________
C = ________________________
S.No. charging Current (I) µA

time (t) Secs
1 0
2 10
3 20
4 30
5 40
6 50
7 60
8 70
9 80
10 90
GRAPH:
Plot a graph time in seconds on the x-axis and current in µ A on y-axis and find the time for a rise
to 0.63 × I max. Let this be = τ
Results:
The value of time constant measured τ = __________________ sec
The value of time constant calculated τ = R1C = ___________________ sec
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Experiment 8
Resonance in LCR circuit
Aim: To study resonance effect in series and parallel LCR circuit and quality factor. This experiments
also enables study of forced damped oscillation.
Apparatus: A signal generator, inductor, capacitor, ammeter, resistors, AC milli voltmeter.
Basic methodology:
In the series LCR circuit, an inductor (L), capacitor (C) and resistance(R) are connected in series with a
variable frequency sinusoidal emf source and the voltage across the resistance is measured. As the frequency is
varied, the current in the circuit (and hence the voltage across R) becomes maximum at the resonance frequency
1
fr = . In the parallel LCR circuit there is a minimum of the current at the resonance frequency.
2π LC
Power Resonance:
The power dissipated at the resistor is P = I V = I2R = V2R
I 02 R
The average power dissipated over one cycle is p =
2
Fig 4 shows graph of p as a function of the driving frequency f r .
The maximum power value Pm occurs at the resonating frequency
1
fr =
2π LC
It can be shown that to a good approximation, which the power falls to half of the maximum value, Pm /2
γ
at f = f r ± . Here γ is related to damping in the electrical circuit and is given by γ = R/L. The width or
2
range of f over which the value of p falls to half the maximum at the resonance is called the Full
Width Half Maximum (FWHM). The FHWM is a characteristic of the power resonance curve and is
related to the amount of damping in the system. Clearly FWHM = γ = R/L. One also defines the quality
fr 1 L
factor Q as Q = = which is also measure damping. Large Q (small R) implies small damping
γ R C
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while small Q (large R) implies large damping. Clearly we have FWHM = γ = R/L. Thus, the quality
factor Q can be determined from the FWHM of the power resonance graph.
Procedure:
1. The series and parallel LCR circuits are to be connected as shown in fig 1 & fig 2.
2. Set the inductance of the variable inductance value and the capacitances the variable capacitor to low
1
values ( L ~ 0.01H , C ~ 0.1 µ F ) so that the resonant frequency f r = is of order of a few kHz .
2π LC
3. Choose the scale of the AC milli voltmeter so that the expected resonance occurs at approximately the
middle of the scale.
4. Vary the frequency of the oscillator and record the voltage across the resistor.
5. Repeat (for both series and parallel LCR circuits) fir three values of the resistor (say R = 100, 200 &
300 Ω ).
I.1. Series LCR circuit : Circuit Diagram; I.2. Parallel LCR circuit: Circuit Diagram;
Part A: Series LCR Circuit.

L = _______________________ mH
C = _______________________ µF.
S.No. Frequency R1 = ----------------- Ω R2 = ----------------- Ω R3 = ----------------- Ω
V V2 V V2 V V2
(υ ) kHz p= p= p=
R R R
1
2
3
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4
5
6
Part B: Parallel LCR Circuit.

L = _______________________ mH
C = _______________________ µF.
S.No. Frequency R1 = ----------------- Ω R2 = ----------------- Ω R3 = ----------------- Ω

(υ ) kHz V V2 V V2 V V2
p= p= p=
R R R
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Calculations and Results:

1. Plot the graph of frequency (υ ) vs p (average power) for series and parallel cases.
1
2. Read off the resonant frequency f r = by locating the maxima / minima in the graphs
2π LC
i). Resonance frequency for series LCR circuit =________________kHz
ii) Resonance frequency for parallel LCR circuit =________________kHz
iii). Calculate the value of resonance frequency =________________kHz
Results :
Estimated value of Q for series resonance from graph : (1) (2) (3)
fr 1 L
Calculated value of Q = = (1) (2) (3)
γ R C
% errors in Q (1) (2) (3)
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Experiment 9
Magnetic field along the axis of a coil (Stewart & Gees method)
Apparatus: Circular coil, Power supply, Switching keys, Magnetic needle, Sliding compass box etc.
Objective: To measure the magnetic field along the axis of a circular coil and verify Biot-Savart law.
Theory: For a circular coil of a turns, carrying a current I, the magnetic field at a distance x from the
coil and along the axis of the coil is given by
µ0 nIR 2 1
B( x) =
2 ( R2 + x2 )3/2
Where R is the radius of the coil.
In this experiment, the coil is oriented such that plane of the coil is vertical and parallel to the north-south
direction. The axis of the coil is parallel to the east-west direction. The net field at any point x along the
axis, is the vector sum of the fields due to the coil B(x) and earth’s magnetic field BE (Fig 1)
B ( x)
∴ tan θ =
BE
Procedure:
The apparatus consists of a coil mounted perpendicular to the base. A sliding compus box is mounted on
aluminum rails so that the compus is always on the axis of the coil.
1. Orient the apparatus such that the coil is in the north-south plane
2. Adjust the leveling screws to make the base horizontal. Make sure that the compus is moving
freely.
3. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure.
4. Keep the compus at the center of the coil and adjust so that the pointers indicate 0-0
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5. close the keys K and KR ( make sure that you are not shorting the power supply) and adjust the
current with rheostat, RH so that the deflection is between 50 to 60 degrees. The current will be
kept fixed at this value for the rest of the experiment
6. Note down the readings θ1andθ 2 . Reverse the current and note down θ3 andθ 4
7. Repeat the experiment at intervals of 1 cm along the axis until the value of the fields drops to 10%
of its value at the center of the coil. Repeat on both sides of the coil.
8. Draw following graphs:
.B(x) as a function of x.
. log( B ( x)) as a function of log ( R + X )

2 2
Find slope and y-intercept from the graph and results with the expression for B(x).
Observations/Calculations:
Parameters and constants
Least count for x measurement=
Least count for θ measurement=
No of turns of the coil, n=
Radius of the coil, R= 10 cm
Current in the coil, I= …
Permeability of air, µ0 = 4π ×10 N / A

−7 2
−4
Earth’s magnetic field, BE = .39 ×10 T
Table I
xcm θ1 θ2 θ3 θ4 θ (average Tanθ log(tanθ ) log( R 2 + X 2 ) B( x) = LogB (x)

) BE tan θ
(T )(10−4 )
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1
2
3
4
5
…
….
Table II
For other side of the scale…………
xcm θ1 θ2 θ3 θ4 θ (average Tanθ log(tanθ ) log( R 2 + X 2 ) B( x) = LogB (x)

) BE tan θ
(T )(10−4 )
1
2
3
4
5
….
….
.
Calculation:
From the graph of B(x) vs. log (R2+X2), find the slope and intercept from regression analysis. Slope
should be -1.5 according to Biot-Savart law, and intercept value should match with the value calculated
using µo , n, I, and R.
Results:
Experimental value of exponent (slope) =
Theoretical value of slope= -1.5
Experimental value of intercept=
Theoretical value of intercept=…..
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Experiment 10
Study of Characteristics of LED and LASER sources
CHRACTERISATION OF 660 & 850 NM LEDS:

AIM: The aim of the experiment is to study the relationship between the LED dc forward current
and the LED optical power output and determine the linearity of the device at 660nm as well as 850nm.
The conversion efficiencies of the two LEDs will also be compared.
EQUIPMENT: 1.Fiber optic analog transmission Kit TNS 20EA-TX 2.Fiber optic analog
transmission Kit TNS 20EA-RX 3.One meter PMMA fiber patch card 4.Inline SMA adaptors
THOERY: LEDs and laser diodes are the commonly used sources in optical communication systems,
whether the system transmits digital or analogue signals. In the case of analogue transmission, direct
intensity modulation of the optical source is possible, provided the optical output from the source can be
varied linearly as a function of the modulating electrical signal amplitude. LEDs have a linear optical
output with relation to the forward current over a certain region of operation. It may be mentioned that in
many low-cost, short-haul and small bandwidth applications, LEDs at 660 nm, 850 nm and 1300nm are
popular. While direct intensity modulation is simple to realize, higher performance is achieved by fm
modulating the base-band signal prior to intensity modulation.
The relationship between an LED optical output Po and the LED forward current I F is given by Po = K.IF
(over a limited range), where K is a constant.
BLOCK DIAGRAM:
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PROCEDURE:
The schematic diagram for characterization of the LED is shown below and is self explanatory.
The step by step procedure is given here:
Step1: Connect one end of Cable 1 to the 660nm LED port of TNS20EA TX and the other end to the
FO PIN (power meter) port of TNS20EA-RX.
Step2: Set DMM 1 to the 2000mV range and connect it to the terminals Po (Po1 & Po2) on the RX unit.
The power meter is ready for use. Po = (Reading)/10 dBm
Step3: Set DMM2 to the 200.0 mV range and connect it between the Vo1 and Gnd terminals in the TX
unit. If1 = Vo1 (mv)/100 in ma.
Step4: Adjust the SET Po knob on the TX unit to the extreme anticlockwise Position to reduce If1 to 0.
The reading on the power meter should be out of range.
Step 5: Slowly turn the SET Po knob clockwise to increase If1. The power meter should read -30.0dB
approximately. From here change If1 in suitable steps and note the power meter readings, Po.
Record up to the extreme clock-wise position.
Step 6: Repeat the complete experiment for 850nm LED and tabulate the Readings for Vo2 (between
terminals Vo2 and Gnd) & Po. If2=Vo2(mv)/100 in ma. Apply the correction of 2.2 dB
discussed in Experiment1 for the 850nm LED.
OBSERVATIONS FOR 660nm
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Sl No V01 (mV) If1=Vo1/100(ma) Po(dBm)
1
2
3
4
5
6
OBSERVATIONS FOR 850 nm
If2=Vo2/100( Po(dBm)
Sl No Vo2(mV) Po(dBm)
ma) Corrected
1
2
3
4
5
6
RESULT:
Studied the relationship between the LED dc forward current and the
LED optical power output and determined the linearity of the device at 660nm and 850nm. The conversion
efficiencies of the two LEDs are compared.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF LASER DIODES
AIM: The aim of the experiment is to study the Optical Power (Po) of a Laser Diode vs Laser Diode
Forward Current (IF)
EQUIPMENT: 1. Laser Diode Design Module TNS 20EL-TX 2.Laser Diode Design Module TNS
20EA-RX 3.Two meter PMMA fiber patch card 4.Inline SMA adaptors
THOERY: Laser Diodes (LDs) are used in telecom, data communication and video communication
applications involving high speeds and long hauls. Most single mode optical fiber communication
systems use lasers in the 1300nm and 1550 nm windows. Lasers with very small line-widths also
facilitate realization of wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) for high density communication over a
singe fiber. The inherent properties of LDs that make them suitable for such applications are, high
coupled optical power into the fiber (greater than 1 mw), high stability of optical intensity, small line-
widths (less than 0.05 nm in special devices), high speed (several GHz) and high linearity (over a
specified region suitable for analogue transmission). Special lasers also provide for
regeneration/amplification of optical signals within an optical fiber. These fibers are known as erbium
doped fiber amplifiers. LDs for communication applications are commonly available in the wavelength
regions 650nm, 780nm, 850nm, 980nm, 1300nm and 1550nm. BLOCK DIAGRAM
PROCEDURE:
The schematic diagram for study of the LD Po as a function of
LD forward current IF is shown below and is self explanatory.
Step1: Connect the 2-metre PMMA FO cable (Cab1) to TX Unit
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of TNS20EL and couple the laser beam to the power meter on
the RX Unit as shown. Select ACC Mode of operation.
Step2: Set DMM 1 to the 200 mV range and connect it to the Vo/Gnd terminals. This will monitor if in
ma, given by Vo (mV)/100. Set DMM2 to 2000 mV range and connect it to the Po1/Po2 terminals. This
will provide Po in dBm when divided by 10.
Step3: Adjust the SET Po knob to extreme counterclockwise position to reduce IF to 0 ma. The power
meter reading will normally be below – 50 dBm or outside the measuring limits of the power meter.
Step4: Slowly turn the SET Po Knob clockwise to increase IF and thus Po. Note IF and Po readings.
Take closer readings prior to and above the laser threshold. Current, Po will rapidly increase with small
increase in IF.
OBSERVATIONS (ACC Mode/PMMA Cable)

Sl No Vo(mV) IF=Vo/100(ma) Po (dBm)
1
2
3
4
RESULT: Studied the Optical Power (Po) of a Laser Diode vs Laser Diode Forward Current (IF)
Characteristics
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Experiment 11
Evaluation of Numerical Aperture of a given fiber
AIM: The aim of the experiment is to determine the numerical aperture of the optical fibers available
EQUIPMENT: 1.Laser Diode Design Module TNS 20EL-TX 2.Laser Diode Design Module TNS
20EA-RX 3.Two meter PMMA fiber patch card 4.Inline SMA adaptors 5.Numerical Aperture
Measurement Jig
THOERY: Numerical aperture of any optical system is a measure of how much light can be collected
by the optical system. It is the product of the refractive index of the incident medium and the sine of the
maximum ray angle.
NA = ni.sinөmax; ni for air is 1, hence NA = sinөmax
For a step-index fibre, as in the present case, the numerical aperture is given by N=(Ncore2 –ncladding2)1/2
For very small differences in refractive indices the equation reduces to
NA = ncore (2∆)1/2, where ∆ is the fractional difference in refractive indices. I and record the
manufacture’s NA, ncladding and ncore, and ө.
BLOCK DIAGRAM:
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PROCEDURE:
The schematic diagram of the numerical aperture measurement system is shown below and is self
explanatory.
Step1: Connect one end of the PMMA FO cable to Po of TNS20EL TX Unit and the other end to the NA
Jig, as shown.
Step2: Plug the AC mains. Light should appear at the end of the fiber on the NA Jig. Turn the Set Po
knob clockwise to set to maximum Po. The light intensity should increase.
Step 3: Hold the white scale-screen, provided in the kit vertically at a distance of 15 mm (L) from the
emitting fiber end and view the red spot on the screen. A dark room will facilitate good contrast. Position
the screen-cum-scale to measure the diameter (W) of the spot. Choose the largest diameter.
Step: 4 Compute NA from the formula NA = sinөmax = W/(4L2 +W2)1/2. Tabulate the reading and repeat
the experiment for 10mm, 20mm, and 25mm distance.
Step5: In case the fiber is under filled, the intensity within the spot may not be evenly distributed. To
ensure even distribution of light in the fiber, first remove twists on the fiber and then wind 5 turns of the
fiber on to the mandrel as shown. Use an adhesive tape to hold the windings in position. Now view the
spot. The intensity will be more evenly distributed within the core.
OBSERVATIONS:
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Sl. No L (mm) W(mm) NA ө (degrees)
1 10 10 0.447 26.5
2 15 14 0.423 25.0
3 20 20 0.447 26.5
4 25 24 0.432 25.64
5 30 - - -
RESULT: Numerical aperture of the available optical fibers is Determined
Experiment 12
Losses in Optical fibers
AIM: The aim of the experiment is to study various types of losses that occur in optical fibers and
measure losses in dB of two optical fiber patch cords at two wavelengths, namely, 660nm and 850nm.
The coefficients of attenuation per meter at these wavelengths are to be computed from the results.
EQUIPMENT: 1.Fiber optic analog transmission Kit TNS 20EA-TX 2.Fiber optic analog
transmission Kit TNS 20EA-RX 3.One meter& two meter PMMA fiber patch card 4.Inline SMA
Adaptors
THOERY: Attenuation in an optical fiber is a result of a number of effects. This aspect is well covered
in the books referred to in Appendix II. We will confine our study to measurement of attenuation in two
cables (Cable1 and Cable2) employing and SMA-SMA In-line-adaptor. We will also compute loss per
meter of fiber in dB. We will also study the spectral response of the fiber at 2 wavelengths, 660nm and
850 and compare with the plot in Appendix II.
The optical power at a distance, L, in an optical fiber is given by PL = Po 10 (-αL10) where Po is the
launched power and α is the attenuation coefficient in decibels per unit length. The typical attenuation
coefficient value for the fiber under consideration here is 0.3 dB per meter at a wavelength of 660nm.
Loss in fibers expressed in decibels is given by -10log (Po/PF) where, Po is the launched power and PF is
power at the far end of the fiber. Typical losses at connector junctions may very from 0.3 dB to 0.6 dB.
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Losses in fibers occur at fiber-fiber joints or splices due to axial displacement, angular displacement,
separation (air core), mismatch of cores diameters, mismatch of numerical apertures, improper cleaving
and cleaning at the ends. The loss equation for a simple fiber optic link is given as:
Pin(dBm)-Pout(dBm)= LJ1+LFIB1+LJ2+ LFIB1+LJ3(db): where, LJ1(db) is the loss at the LED-connector

junction, LFIB1 (dB) is the loss in cable1, LJ2 (dB) is the insertion loss at a splice or in-line adaptor, L FIB2
(dB) is the loss cable2 and LJ3 (dB) is the loss at the connector-detector junction.
PROCEDURE: The schematic diagram of the optical fiber loss measurement system is shown
below and is self explanatory. The step by step procedure is given here:
Step 1: Connect one and of Cable1 to the 660nm LED BLOCK DIAGRAM
port of the TNS20EA-TX and the other end to the FO PIN
port (power meter port) of TNS20EA-RX.
Step2: Set the DMM to the 2000 mV range. Connect the
terminals marked Po on TNS20EA-RX to the DMM the
power meter is now ready for use.
Step3: Connect the optical fiber patchcord, Cable1
securely, as shown, after relieving all twists and strains on
the fibre. While connecting the cable please note that minimum force should be applied. At the same
time ensure that the connector is not loosely coupled to the receptacle. After connecting the optical
fibre cable properly, adjust SET Po knob to set power of 660nm LED to a suitable value, say, - 15.0dBm
(the DMM will read 150 mV). Note this as P01
Step 4: Wind one turn of the fiber on the mandrel, and note the new reading of the power meter Po2. Now
the loss due to bending and strain on the plastic fiber is Po1-Po2dB. For more accurate readout set the
DMM to the 200.0mV range and take the measurement. Typically the loss due to the strain and bending
the fiber is 0.3 to 0.8 db.
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Step5: Next remove the mandrel and relieve Cable1 of all twists and strains. Note the reading P01.
Repeat the measurement with Cable2 (5 meters) and note the reading Po2. Use the in-line SMA adaptor
and connect the two cables in series as shown. Note the measurement Po3.
Loss in Cable1=Po3-Po2-Lila Loss in Cable2=Po3Po1-Lila
Assuming a loss of 06 to 1.0dB in the in-line adaptor (Lila=1.0dB), we obtain the loss in each cable.
The difference in the losses in the two cables will be equal to the loss in 4 meters of fiber (assuming that
the losses at connector junctions are the same for both the cables). The experiment may be repeated in the
higher sensitivity range of 200.0mV. The experiment also may be repeated for other Po settings such as
-20dBm, -25 dBm, -30dBm etc.
Sl No Po1 Po2 Po3 Loss in Loss in Loss in 4 Loss per

(dBm) (dBm) (dBm) Cable 1 Cable2 metres fibre metre (dB)
(dB) (dB) (dB) at 660nm
1 -15.0
2 -20.0
3 -25.0
Step6: Repeat the entire experiment with LED2 at 850nm and tabulate in 1.4.2
NOTE:
The power meter has been calibrated internally to read power in dBm at 660nm. However the
calibration has to be redone manually for measurements at 850nm. The PIN has a 66% higher sensitivity
at850nm as compared to 660nm for the same input optical power. This corresponds to a sensitivity that
is higher by 2.2dB. To calibrate the power meter at 850nm, deduct 2.2dB from the measured reading. In
computing losses in cables and fibers this gets eliminated while solving the equations.
Sl No Po1 Po2 Po3 Loss in Loss in Loss in 4 Loss per
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(dBm) (dBm) (dBm) Cable 1 Cable2 metres fibre metre (dB)
(dB) (dB) (dB) at 850nm
1 -15.0
2 -20.0
3 -25.0
RESULT: Studied the various types of losses that occur in optical fibers and measured the losses in dB
of two optical fiber patch cords at two wavelengths, namely, 660nm and 850nm. The coefficients of
attenuation per meter at these wavelengths are computed from the results.
Experiment 13
Energy gap of a material of p-n junction
Aim: The objective of this lab is to determine the forbidden energy gap of a germanium semiconductor.
This will be accomplished by measuring the resistance of an intrinsic semiconductor sample as a function
of temperature.
Theory: In an atom electrons occupy distinct energy levels. When atoms join to make a solid, the
allowed energy levels are grouped into bands. The bands are separated by regions of energy levels that
the electrons are forbidden to be in. These regions are called forbidden Energy gaps or bandgaps.
Energy bands and the forbidden energy gap is illustrated in figure 1. The electrons of the outermost shell
of an atom are the valence electrons. These occupy the valence band. Any electrons in the conduction
band are not attached to any single atom, but are free to move through the material when driven by an
external electric field.
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In a metal such as copper, the valence and conduction bands overlap as illustrated in figure 2a. There is
no forbidden energy gap and electrons in the topmost levels are free to absorb energy and move to higher
energy levels within the conduction band. Thus the electrons are free to move under the influence of an
electric field and conduction is possible. These materials are referred to as conductors.
In an insulator such as silicon dioxide (SiO2), the conduction band is separated from the valence
band by a large energy gap of 9.0 eV. All energy levels in the valance band are occupied and all the
energy levels in the conduction band are empty. It would take 9.0 eV to move an electron from the
valence band to the conduction band and small electric fields would not be sufficient to provide the
energy, so SiO2 does not conduct electrons and is called an insulator. Notice the large energy gap shown
infigure(2b).
Semiconductors are similiar to the insulators insofar as they do have an energy gap only the energy gap
for a semiconductor is much smaller ex. Silicon's energy gap is 1.1 eV and Germanium's energy gap is
0.7 eV at 300 °K. These are pure intrinsic semiconductors. Observe the energy gap in figure 2 c.
HITAM
For finite temperatures, a probability exists that electrons from the top of the valence band in an
intrinsic semiconductor will be thermally excited across the energy gap into the conduction band. The
vacant spaces left by the electrons which have left the valence band are called holes which also contribute
to the conduction because electrons can easily move into the vacancies. If an electric field is applied, the
electrons flow in one direction and the holes move in the opposite direction. The holes act as a positive
charge (deficiency of negative charge) so the direction of current (effective positive charge) is in the same
direction. For pure silicon at 300 °K, the number of electrons residing in the conduction band as a result
of thermal excitement from the valence band is 1.4 x 1010 /cm3.
Semiconductors have a conduction band and a valance band separated by a forbidden region
called the energy gap. If the lowest energy in the conduction band is designated, Ec , and the highest
energy level of the valance band is called, Ev, then the energy gap between them would be: Eg = Ec - Ev
. The conductivity of a material is directly proportional to the concentration of election in the conduction
band, hence the resistivity, , of a material would be inversely proportional to the concentration of
electrons in the conduction band. The concentration of electrons increases with temperature. The
resistivity decreases with temperature according to the following equation:
resistivity = Co T-3/2 exp(Eg/ 2kT) where Co is a constant and T is temperature in degrees Kelvin, Eg is
the energy gap, and k is the Boltzman's constant. Since Eg is small for a semiconductor on the order of 1
eV = 1.6 x 10-19 joules , k = 1.38 x 10-23 J/mole °K and T is about 350 °K, the resistivity,r , varies almost
linearly with (1/k T). So the resistivity can be described for small temperature range as:
r = C1(T) exp(Eg/ 2kT) where C1 is a slowly varying function of temperature.
The resistance of a sample of material would thus be:
R(T) = C2(T) exp(Eg/ 2kT) at temperature, T.
At an initial temperature, To, it would be:
R(To) = C2(To) exp(Eg/ 2kTo) where C2(T) = C2(To).
Dividing the two equations and taking the natural logarithm of both sides yields:
ln (RT/Ro) = (Eg/2) (1/kT) - (Eg/2) (1/kTo) where Eg/2 is the slope of the linear equation
and (Eg/2) (1/k To) is the y-intercept.
HITAM
By plotting ln (RT/Ro) vs. (1/k T) , the value of Eg can be found from the slope.
Procedure: The sample of germanium should be connected in the circuit as shown in the diagram. Initial
measurements of the room temperature, and the thermocouple's voltage should be made before the power supply
has been turned on. The voltage across the sample and the current through the sample should be read and recorded
for every 0.2 mv increase in the thermocouple's voltage.
The values should be recorded in Table 1. The thermocouple's voltage can be converted to temperature by:
T = V/0.04 + To . The Resistance of the sample is given by Voltage/Current in the sample. All calculated
values should be recorded in table 1 using Excel. A graph of the data should be made using MS Excel, use the
trendline feature to obtain the slope. Compare with the actual value of 0.67 eV.
Result & Calculations:
Initial measurements:
temperature: _____
HITAM
Thermocouple voltage _______ (mv)
Table I:
S.No. Current Voltage Resistance Thermocouple Temperatur 1/kT RT/R0 ln

e (RT/R0)
(mA) (mV) (ohms) (mV)
By plotting ln (RT/Ro) vs. (1/k T) , the value of Eg can be found from the slope.
HITAM

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Engineering Physics Laboratory Manual

Instructions for Laboratory

Experiment 1: Determination of Rigidity modulus of a material – Torsional

Experiment 2: Melde’s Experiment – Transverse and Longitudinal Modes

Experiment 3: Dispersive Power of the material of a Prism – Spectrometer

Experiment 4: Newton’s Rings ………

Experiment 5: Diffraction Grating

Experiment 6: Single Slit & Double Slit Diffraction using Lasers

Experiment 7: Time Constant of RC Circuit

Experiment 8: Resonance in LCR circuit

Experiment 11: Evaluation of Numerical Aperture of a given fiber

Experiment 12: Losses in Optical fiber

Experiment 13: Energy gap of a material of p-n junction

Instructions for Laboratory

• The objective of the laboratory is learning. The experiments are designed to

• You need to come well prepared for the experiment

• Work quietly and carefully (the whole purpose of experimentation is to make

• Be honest in recording and representing your data. Never make up readings

1. "Fundamentals of Physics", 6th Ed., D. Halliday, R. Resnick and J. Walker, John

Let θ be the angle through which the wire is twisted.

Then the restoring couple set up in it is equal to

Per unit (radian) twist of the wire.

This produces an angular acceleration (dw/dt) in the disc

Therefore if “I” is the moment of inertia of the disc about the

Length of Time for 20 oscillation Time Period

Figure 2. The Envelope of a standing waves

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS::::

Mass per meter of thread, m =……… gm/cm

S.No. Weight No. of Length of Length of Tension (T) Frequency (n)

Mean frequency= ---------------- Hzs

For transverse arrangement

Mass of the pan, w =……… gm

Mass per meter of thread, m =……… gm/cm

Mean frequency= ---------------- Hzs

Apparatus: Spectrometer, Prism, Mercury Vapor Lamp etc.

Principle: Refractive Index (µ): It is defined as

Dm  Angle of minimum deviation

Colour Direct Reading Telescope Reading Dm1= Dm2= Dm= Refractive

Speed of light in Prism: Speed of light in prism is given by

Results: - Determined the dispersive power of a material of prism using spectrometer

Speed of light in prism v =

1. Least count of vernier of traveling microscope = ___________________mm

2. Wave length of light = _______________________ m

Table 1: Measurement of diameter of the ring

Diffraction Grating - Minimum deviation Method

Apparatus: Spectrometer, Sodium Vapour Lamp, Grating (15000<PI), Grating holder

The condition for maximum intensity is

dDistance between lines on grating =1/N

N Number of lines on the grating = 15000 lines per inch

n the Order of the Spectrum

θ  the angle of diffraction

2. Switch on the power supply for spectral lamp.

5. Likewise measure θ R on the RHS for D1 and D2.

D1= deviation position λ = 5.89 × 10-5 cm

D2= deviation position λ = 5.896× 10-5 cm

Result : Slit width = …….

Result : Slit width = …….

APPARATUS: D.C.Voltage source, resistors, a capacitor, digital micro ammeter,

By Kirchoff’s second law

The value of time constant calculated τ = R2C = ___________________ sec