Module-I:

SENSORS AND SIGNAL CONDITIONING

EEE 4021
LECTURE 1:
INTRODUCTION TO
MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Course Instructor:-
Dr. K.V.L.Narayana,
Associate Professor Sr.
SELECT, VIT, Vellore.
 Expected Course Outcome:
• On the completion of this course the student will be able to:
1. Promote the concepts of transducers, standards and calibration.
2. Analyse various types of resistive sensors.
3. Apply reactive variation sensors in real time industrial
environments.
4. Interpret the concepts of signal conditioning circuits for resistive
sensors.
5. Illustrate the working principle of signal conditioning for
reactance variation sensors
6. Describe the Self-generating Sensors and its signal conditioning
circuits
7. Discuss various types of Electromagnetic ,Optical and Digital
Sensors
8. Design and Conduct experiments, as well as analyze and interpret
data Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
 Sensors and Signal Conditioning
Module-1
Pre Req.: Engineering Physics , PHY1001/PHY1701

Introduction:
General concepts and terminology of measurement
systems, Transducers classification, General input-
output configuration, Static and dynamic
characteristics of a measurement system,
Calibration and standards. Errors and statistical
analysis in measurement systems, least square fit
of experimental data in measurement systems.
Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
 Module-2:
Resistive Sensors:
Strain gauges: Introduction - Beam, column and
Ring type force, torque measurement, Piezo
resistive effect, RTDs, Thermistor- models-types
and applications-linearization, Magneto resistors,
Light dependent resistors.

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 Module-3:
Reactance Variation Sensors:
Capacitive sensors-variable-differential, Inductive
sensors- variable reluctance-eddy current-LVDT-
Synchros-resolvers- inductosyn- magnetoelastic-
magnetostrictive.

Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
 Module-4:
Signal conditioning for resistive sensors:
Voltage dividers - amplifiers for voltage dividers,
Wheatstone bridge- balance measurements-
deflection measurements- sensitivity, linearity,
analog linearization of resistive sensor bridges,
Differential and Instrumentation amplifiers.
Grounding and Isolation.

Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
 Module-5:
Signal conditioning for reactance variation
sensors:
AC bridges, Operation Amplifier based
inductance and capacitance measuring circuits,
carrier amplifiers and coherent detection, signal
conditioners for capacitive sensors

Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
 Module-6:
Self-generating Sensors and its signal
conditioning:
Thermocouple, piezoelectric sensors-effect-
materials-applications, pyroelectric sensors-
effect-materials-applications, and electrochemical
sensors. Signal conditioning circuits: Chopper and
low drift amplifiers, electrometer and trans
impedance amplifiers, charge amplifiers, noise in
amplifiers.
Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
 Module-7:
• Electromagnetic ,Optical and Digital Sensors:
Electromagnetic sensors- sensors based on Faraday’s
law-Hall effect sensor, Ultrasonic based sensors, Optical
transducer, Photo emissive cells, Photoconductive cells,
Photo diodes, Photo transistors, Photovoltaic cells –
Measurement of physical quantities.
• Position encoders-absolute position encoder-
incremental position encoder, Resonant sensors-
sensors based on quartz resonators- digital quartz
thermometer- quartz micro balance-quartz resonators
for force and pressure sensing- quartz angular rate
sensor, SAW sensors.
Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
Assessment Configuration

Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
 Outline of Lecture-1
 Introduction to Measurement Systems

 General concepts and terminology of measurement systems

 Transducer Classification

 Elements of Measurement System

 General input-output configuration of measurement system

 Applications of Measurement System

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Sensors

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Window Control System

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Introduction to Measurement Systems
Definitions
• Measurement
– It is basically an act or result of comparison between the
quantity (whose quantity is unknown) and a predefined
standard.
(or)
– The process of converting physical parameters to
meaningful numbers.
• Instrumentation
– The technology of using instruments to measure and
control the physical and chemical properties of the
materials.
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 Introduction to Measurement Systems
• There are two basic requirements in order to have meaningful
results of measurand.
a) The standard used for comparison purpose must be accurately
defined and should be universally accepted.
b) The apparatus used and the method adopted must be provable.

There are different standard bodies like

• International Standards Organization (ISO)
• International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)
• American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
• Standards Council of Canada ( SCC)
• British Standards (BS)
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 Significance of Measurement
• The advancement of science and technology highly
depends on the progress of measurement techniques.
As it moves ahead, the new phenomena and new
discoveries requires the new measurement
techniques.

• In the case of process industries and industrial

manufacturing the significance of measurement is
– To improve the quality of the product
– To improve the efficiency of production
– To maintain the proper operation.

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Paper making machines

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Significance of Measurement Conti..
• The measurement is essential in all the
disciplines for the following major functions
1. Design of equipment and processes.
2. Proper operation and maintenance of equipment and processes.
• Significance of Instrumentation is
1. To acquire data or information (hence data acquisition)
about parameters, in terms of:
– putting the numerical values to the physical quantities
– making measurements otherwise inaccessible.
– producing data agreeable to analysis (mostly in electrical form)

2. Data Acquisition Software (DAS) – data is acquired by

the instrumentation system.
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General Terminology used in Measurement systems
• Physical quantity: It is a variable such as pressure,
temperature, level, flow rate, mass, length, etc.
• Parameter: Physical quantity within defined (numeric) limits.
• Data: Information obtained from the instrumentation /
measurement system as a result of the measurements made of
the physical quantities
• Information: Data that has a calibrated numeric relationship to
the physical quantity.
• Measurand: Physical quantity being measured.

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General Terminology used in Measurement systems
• Transducer: A device that converts one form of energy to
another.
• Electronic transducer: It has an input or output that is electrical
in nature (e.g., voltage, current or resistance).
• Sensor: Electronic transducer that converts physical quantity
into an electrical signal.
• Actuator: Electronic transducer that converts electrical energy
into mechanical energy.
• Calibration: Implies that there is a numeric relationship
throughout the whole instrumentation system and that it is
directly related to an approved national or international
standard.

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 Types of measurements
• Direct method
– Easy to do but less accurate
• Example: to measure a steel bar
• Indirect Method
– Calibrated system consists of several devices to
convert, process (amplification or filtering) and display
the output
• Example: to measure force from strain gauges located in a
structure

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Elements of generalised measuring system
Basic components in a measurement system are shown
below:

Amplification and Conditioning

It is also important to mention that a power supply

is an important element for the entire system.
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 Function of Elements
1. Primary Sensing Element:
The primary sensing element receives signal of the physical
quantity to be measured as input. It converts the signal to a suitable
form (electrical, mechanical or other form), so that it becomes
easier for other elements of the measurement system, to either
convert or manipulate it.
2. Variable Conversion Element:
Variable conversion element converts the output of the primary
sensing element to a more suitable form. It is used only if
necessary.
3. Variable Manipulation Element:
Variable manipulation element manipulates and amplifies the
output of the variable conversion element. It also removes noise (if
present) in the signal.
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 Function of Elements

4. Data Processing Element:

Data processing element is an important element used in many measurement
systems. It processes the data signal received from the variable manipulation
element and produces suitable output.
Data processing element may also be used to compare the measured value
with a standard value to produce required output.
5. Data Transmission System:
Data Transmission System is simply used for transmitting data from one
element to another. It acts as a communication link between different
elements of the measurement system. Some of the data transmission elements
used are cables, wireless antennae, transducers, telemetry systems etc.
6. Data Presentation Element:
It is used to present the measured physical quantity in a human readable form
to the observer. It receives processed signal from data processing element and
presents the data in a human readable form. LED displays are most
commonly used as data presentation elements in many measurement systems.
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1. Analog Displays: Pointer–scale indicators
 Pointer–scale indicators
• Simplified diagram for a moving coil indicator connected to a
Thevenin signal source ETh, RTh is shown in figure.
• The coil is situated in a radial magnetic field of flux density B, so
that a current i through the coil produces a deflecting torque. This
deflecting torque is opposed by the restoring torque of control
springs attached to the movable coil.
• When the torques are balanced the moving coil will stopped.
According to the fundamental law of electromagnetic force, the
coil will rotate in the magnetic field when it carries an electric
current by electromagnetic (EM) torque effect.
• A pointer which is attached to the movable coil will deflect
according to the amount of current to be measured which applied
to the coil. Its angular deflection represents the amount of
electrical current to be measured. If the permanent magnet field is
uniform and the spring is linear, then the pointer deflection is also
linear.
 2. Digital Displays: Data Presentation Elements
• There are four types of digital display technology in wide
current use: light emitting diodes (LED), cathode ray tubes
(CRT), liquid crystal displays (LCD) and electroluminescent
displays (EL).
• LEDs have high power consumption, which makes them only
suitable for small-scale character displays; they are not used
in graphic displays.
• CRTs are used for character and graphics displays,
monochrome and colour, but have the disadvantage of high
operating voltages and are high-volume bulky devices.
• LCDs are used for both character and graphics displays. LCD
character displays, usually monochrome, have much lower
power consumption than equivalent LED displays.
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 Data Presentation Elements
• Electroluminescent displays are also flat screen and are used for
both character and graphics monochrome displays. They have higher
operating voltages and power consumption than equivalent LCD
devices but greater contrast ratio and viewing angle.
• Chart recorders give a record, on paper, of the time variation of a
measured variable; these can be analogue or digital and the record
can be either a continuous line or a series of dots. They can record
up to six variables but have limited speed of response; they also
require regular replacement of paper and pens.
• Paperless recorders use LCD displays and digital archive memory;
these typically can record four measured variables and have less
maintenance requirements than chart recorders. They also have a
fast speed of response.
• Laser printers can print large amounts of data, in character or
graphics form, on paper. A laser printer is used where large tables of
numerical data need to be printed out for checking and calculation.
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Example 1: Bourdon Pressure Gauge

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Example: Bourdon Pressure Gauge

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Example 2: Pressure Transmitter with voltage output

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Various components of elements

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Generalized input-output configuration of
measurement system
• The generalized input-output configuration of
measurement system gives input-output relationship
present in them.
• The input quantities are classified into three
categories: Desired, Interfering and Modifying Inputs
• Desired inputs are the input quantities for which the
measurement system respond where as the
measurement system should be insensitive to the
interfering and modifying inputs.

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 Generalized input-output configuration of
measurement system-Examples
• The U-tube manometer which is used for measurement of
differential pressure can be considered as a Measurement
system having 3 types of input and one output.
• The difference in mercury column-Desired output,
Differential Pressure-Desired input
• Acceleration in the case of manometer placed in accelerated
vehicle and Angle of tilt in the case of misalignment of
manometer can be considered as Interfering inputs.
• The ambient temperature and gravitational force changes
the functional relationship between desired input and
output, are considered as Modifying inputs

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Examples: Thermometer

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 Methods of correction for Interfering and
Modifying inputs
• 1. Method of inherent insensitivity
• 2. Method of high gain feedback
• 3.Method of calculated output corrections
• 4. Method of signal filtering
• 5. Method of opposing inputs

Reference: A Course in Electrical and Electronics

Measurements and Instrumentation By
A.K.Sawhney

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The method of calculated output corrections

• Requires to measure or estimate the

magnitudes of the interfering and/or modifying
inputs and to know quantitatively how they
affect the output:
 In the manometer the effects of temperature
on both the calibrated scale's length and the
density of mercury may be quite accurately
computed.
 The local gravitational acceleration is
known for a given elevation and latitude, so
that this effect may be corrected.
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 Method of Opposing Inputs
Intentionally introducing into the instrument interfering and/or
modifying inputs that tend to cancel the bad effects of the
unavoidable spurious inputs.

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 Transducer Classification
• Transducer is a sensing device that converts physical
phenomena and chemical composition in to electric,
pneumatic or hydraulic output signal.
• Transducers may be classified
1. According to the measurand
Example: Pressure Transducer, Temperature Transducer,
Level Transducer and flow Transducer etc.
2. Based on method of energy conversion
Example: Input / Output Transducers
3. Based on nature of signal output
Example: Analog/Digital Transducer
4. Based on need of external energy source
Example: Active/Passive Transducers
5.Primary/Secondary Transducers Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
 Transducer Classification: 1) Input / Output
Transducers
• Based on conversion of non-electric quantity to electric quantity
or vice-versa
• Input transducers convert non-electrical quantity
into an electrical signal where as output
transducers convert electrical signal into a non-
electrical quantity.
• Example: Piezo-electric transducer, LVDT,
Thermocouple, strain gauge etc are input
transducers.
• Movement of pointer over a scale (analog
voltmeter/ammeter), motors are the output
transducers. Dr.K.V.L.Narayana
• Input transducer is also called electrical
transducer as it senses the non-electrical
quantity and converts it into electrical
quantity.
• Output transducer is also called mechanical
transducer as it senses the electrical quantity
and converts it into non-electrical quantity.

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 Transducer Classification: 2) Analog /Digital
Transducers
• Analog transducer senses physical quantities whose
amplitude is continuous w.r.t time and converts into
continuous signals.
• Examples: Deflection-type of pressure gauge ,
Resistive, Capacitive and Inductive Transducers.

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 Digital Transducer/Sensor
• A digital transducer is one which can sense a physical
quantity whose magnitude is discrete w.r.t time or
continuous w.r.t time and generates a proportional coded
voltage or current.
• Examples: Digital Multimeter, revolution counters, Shaft
position encoder (rotary displacement)

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 Transducer Classification: 3) Active/Passive
Transducers
• Passive Transducers require an external source of
power which supplies a major part of output while the
input signal supplies only an insignificant portion.
• Passive Transducer works on energy controlling
principle.
Example: All Resistive, Capacitive and Inductive
Transducers

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 Active Transducer
• Active Transducer is also known as self-generating
transducer which works on the principle of energy
conversion.
• Doesn’t require an external power and they produce
an analog voltage or current when stimulated in some
physical form of energy.
• The major part of the output is supplied by the input
signal and the insignificant part is from external
power source.
• Example: Piezo-electric, Photo-voltaic, Photo-
electric, Pyro-electic, Electro-chemical
Electromagnetic and Thermo electric Transducers.
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 Next Lecture-2

Performance Characteristics
Static Characteristics and
Dynamic Characteristics of an Instruments

End of Lecture 1

Dr.K.V.L.Narayana